Introduction

Ilah, Rabb, Din, and worship—these four words hold fundamental importance in Qur’anic terminology. The Qur’an’s comprehensive message is that Allah alone is the sole Rabb and Ilah; there is no ilah or rabb besides Him. No one shares with Him in uluhiyyah or rububiyyah. Therefore, accept Him alone as your Ilah and Rabb; reject the uluhiyyah and rububiyyah of all others besides Him. Worship Him, and worship no one else besides Him. Devote the Din exclusively to Him, and reject all other ways of life.

——————-Surah An-Nisa: 25——————– We have sent no Messenger before you without revealing to him: “There is no ilah but Me. So worship Me alone.” — An-Nisa 25

———————Surah At-Tawbah: 31——————— They were commanded nothing except to worship this Ilah; there is no ilah besides Him. He is free of what they associate with Him. — At-Tawbah 31

——————–Surah Al-Anbiya: 92—————– Indeed, this community of yours—that is, all the prophets—is one community, and I am your Rabb. So worship Me. Al-Anbiya 92

———————Surah Al-An‘am: 164 ————– Say, “Shall I seek a rabb other than Allah, while He is the Rabb of everything?” Al-An‘am 164

——————–Surah Al-Kahf: 110 —————- So whoever hopes to meet his Rabb, let him do righteous deeds and associate no one in the worship of his Rabb. Al-Kahf 110

——————-Surah An-Nahl: 36 ——————- We sent a Messenger to every community, commanding: “Worship Allah and keep away from Taghut.” An-Nahl 36

——————Surah Aal ‘Imran: 83 —————— Do they seek a din other than Allah’s, while everything in the heavens and the earth submits to Him, willingly or unwillingly, and to Him they will all be returned? — Aal ‘Imran 83

———————-Surah Az-Zumar: 11 ————— Say, “I have been commanded to worship Allah and devote my din exclusively to Him.” — Az-Zumar 11

——————–Surah Aal ‘Imran: 51 —————– Indeed, Allah is my Rabb and your Rabb. So worship Him. This is the straight path. — Aal ‘Imran 51

These few verses have been presented as examples. Every person who studies the Qur’an will feel at first glance that the entire discussion of the Qur’an revolves around these four terms. The central idea of the Noble Qur’an is this:

Allah is the Rabb and the Ilah.

No one besides Allah possesses rububiyyah or uluhiyyah.

Therefore, only He must be worshipped.

The din must be devoted exclusively to Him.

The Importance of the Four Terms

It is clear that, in order to understand the teachings of the Qur’an, it is absolutely essential to understand correctly and fully the significance of these four terms. If a person does not know the meaning of the word ilah, the definition of worship, or what is meant by din, then the entire Qur’an becomes meaningless to him. He will not know tawhid, will not understand shirk, will not be able to devote worship exclusively to Allah, and will not be able to make the din exclusively for Allah. Similarly, if the significance of these terms remains unclear and incomplete in someone’s mind, the entire teaching of the Qur’an will remain unclear to him. Despite having faith in the Qur’an, both his creed and his practice—his belief and his actions—will remain incomplete. He will say with his tongue, “La ilaha illallah”—there is no ilah besides Allah—and yet he will make many others into ilahs. Although he may declare verbally, “There is no rabb besides Allah,” in practice many others will become his rabb. With the sincere intention that he worships no one besides Allah, he will nevertheless remain absorbed in worshipping many other objects of worship. He will emphatically say, “I follow Allah’s din”; if someone says that he follows another din, he will be ready to fight, yet the chains of many other ways of life will still hang around his neck. The words “ilah” and “rabb” will never leave his mouth for anyone besides Allah, but according to the meanings for which these words were formed, he will have many ilahs and rabbs. The poor man will not even know that in practice he has made many rabbs and ilahs besides Allah. If he is told, “You are worshipping others and committing shirk in the din,” he will rush forward to throw stones; yet, in terms of the significance of worship and din, he will in practice be worshipping others and following another din. He will not even realize that what he is doing is nothing other than worshipping others. A person who has fallen into such a condition can be described as following nothing other than the din of other than Allah.

The Root Cause of Misconceptions

When the Qur’an was presented in Arabia, everyone knew what ilah meant and whom the term rabb referred to, because these two words had long been current in their speech. They knew their meanings and significance. Thus, when they were told that Allah alone is the Rabb and Ilah, and that no one had any share whatsoever in uluhiyyah or rububiyyah, they understood this precisely. They clearly understood what was being prohibited for others and what was being designated exclusively for Allah. Those who opposed the message did so knowingly, understanding exactly where the denial of the uluhiyyah and rububiyyah of others besides Allah would strike. They accepted faith knowing what they would have to abandon and what they would have to accept by adopting this doctrine. Likewise, the words worship and din had long been current in their language. They knew what an abd was and what state was called ubudiyyah, what kind of conduct worship involved, and what din meant. Therefore, when they were told to abandon the worship of all others and worship Allah, to separate themselves from all other ways of life and enter Allah’s din, they did not misunderstand the Qur’an’s message. As soon as they heard it, they understood what kind of change this teaching demanded in their way of life.

However, the fundamental meanings these words had when the Qur’an was revealed gradually changed over the subsequent centuries. Eventually, each word lost its full breadth and became restricted to a very limited, or even unclear, meaning. One reason was a lack of proper interest in the Arabic language; a second was that the people who arose in Muslim society no longer retained the meanings of ilah, rabb, din, and worship that had been current in the non-Muslim society at the time the Qur’an was revealed. Consequently, in later dictionaries and books of tafsir, most Qur’anic words were explained not according to their lexical meanings, but according to meanings understood by Muslims of later times. For example:

The word ilah was made almost synonymous with idol and deity. Rabb was made synonymous with nurturer, sustainer, or Lord. Worship was understood as ritual adoration, while din was made synonymous with religion, sect, and Religion. Taghut was translated as idol or Satan.

The result was that it became difficult for people to understand the Qur’an’s fundamental objective. The Qur’an says, “Do not make anyone an ilah besides Allah.” People think, “We have abandoned idols and deities; therefore, we have fulfilled the Qur’an’s objective.” Yet they continue clinging to all the other things to which the meaning of ilah applies. They do not even realize that they are making others besides Allah into ilahs. The Qur’an says, “Acknowledge no one as rabb besides Allah.” People say, “We acknowledge no one besides Allah as our Lord; therefore, our tawhid is complete.” Yet, in the other senses in which the word rabb is used, most people have in fact acknowledged the rububiyyah of others instead of Allah’s. The Qur’an says, “Abandon the worship of Taghut and worship Allah alone.” People say, “We do not worship idols; we curse Satan; we prostrate only to Allah. Therefore, we have also fulfilled this demand of the Qur’an.” Yet they cling to other taghuts besides stone idols and devote every kind of worship other than ritual adoration to others besides Allah. The same is true of din. Devoting the din exclusively to Allah is taken to mean merely that a person accepts the ‘Islamic religion’ and does not remain Hindu, Jewish, or Christian. On this basis, everyone belonging to the ‘Islamic religion’ thinks, “I have devoted my din exclusively to Allah.” Yet, in view of the broader meaning of din, most of these people have a din that is not devoted exclusively to Allah.

The Consequences of Misconceptions

It is true that merely because the significance of these four fundamental terms has become obscured, more than three-quarters of the Qur’an’s teachings—indeed, its true spirit—has become hidden from view. This is one of the principal reasons for the errors observed in people’s creed, practice, beliefs, and actions despite their accepting Islam. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to explain the fundamental teachings of the Noble Qur’an in detail.

Previously, I tried to present the significance of these words in many articles. However, what I have discussed so far is, on the one hand, insufficient to remove all misconceptions, and on the other hand, it cannot fully satisfy people. Without citing dictionaries and Qur’anic verses, people regard all my explanations as merely my personal opinions. At least for those who disagree with me, my views cannot be a source of satisfaction. In the present book, I shall try to set out the complete meanings of these four terms with great clarity. I shall say nothing in this book for which there is no evidence in dictionaries and the Qur’an.

Ilah

Lexical Analysis

The root letters of the word are alif-lam-ha (——-). The words found in dictionaries derived from this root are as follows:

——– He became exhausted and worn out.

——– By taking refuge with him or establishing a relationship with him, I attained peace and satisfaction.

—————————— Having fallen into some distress and hardship, the man became frightened and terrified; then another person gave him refuge.

—————————— Out of intense interest, the man turned his attention toward the other person.

———————– The motherless camel’s calf, finding its mother, took refuge in her lap.

—————————– It became covered or concealed; it became elevated and rose above.

————- He worshipped.

————– By considering these root meanings, one can understand why the meanings of worship and ilah, meaning the object worshipped, came to be related in this way.

First: The initial impulse toward worship arises in the human heart out of need. Before a person conceives that someone can fulfill his needs and shelter him in times of danger, he cannot even imagine worshipping anyone.

Second: Unless a person regards someone as superior to himself, he cannot believe that this person can fulfill his needs. It is not enough to acknowledge his superiority in position and status; his superiority in strength and ability must also be acknowledged.

Third: It is also true that a person feels no impulse to worship or adore those things through which human needs are ordinarily fulfilled under the operation of cause and effect, when all the processes by which his needs are fulfilled remain before his eyes or within the sphere of his knowledge. For example, I need money to spend, so I go to someone and apply for a job or wages. That person accepts my application, gives me some work, and gives me payment in return for it. Since all these processes take place within the range of my five senses and knowledge, I know how he fulfilled my need. Therefore, no idea of his being worthy of worship arises in my heart. Only when a person’s personality, power and ability, or the process by which he fulfills needs and exerts influence, is shrouded in mystery can the idea of worshipping him arise in my heart. This is why a word was chosen for the object of worship that includes, along with prominence, the meanings of concealment and instability or restlessness.

Fourth: Regarding anyone whom a person believes can remove hardship in times of need, provide refuge in times of danger, and give peace in times of unrest, it is essential for him to turn his attention toward that person with interest.

From the discussion above, it is known that the ideas on the basis of which the word ilah was used for the object of worship are these: fulfilling needs; granting refuge; giving peace and comfort; possessing superior power; possessing influence and authority; possessing all such powers and rights on the basis of which it may be hoped that the object of worship can fulfill needs and grant refuge; having a personality shrouded in mystery or not present in the ordinary visible world; and attracting people’s interest.

The Concept of Ilah in the Age of Ignorance

After discussing this lexical analysis, we shall see what ideas the Arabs and ancient peoples held regarding uluhiyyah that the Qur’an seeks to refute.

—————————– They have taken other ilahs besides Allah, so that they may be a source of strength for them (or so that, by taking refuge with them, they may become safe). Surah Maryam: 81

First: ———————————— They have taken other ilahs besides Allah, hoping that they will be helped (that is, hoping that those ilahs will help them). Surah Ya-Sin: 84

These two verses show that the people of the age of ignorance believed that the one whom they called an ilah was their leader and guide, protected them in times of danger, and, through his help, kept them safe from fear and harm.

Second: —————————– When the decree of your Rabb came, those whom they called upon besides Allah could not benefit them in any way except by bringing about their destruction. — Surah Hud: 101

——————————————– Those whom they call upon instead of Allah have created nothing; rather, they themselves are created beings. They are dead, not alive, and they do not know when they will be resurrected. Your Ilah is only one Ilah. — An-Nahl: 20–22

———————— Do not call upon another ilah alongside Allah. There is no ilah besides Him.¹ — Surah Al-Qasas: 88

(1) (It should be remembered here that the word ilah is used in the Qur’an in two senses. First: an object of worship that is actually being worshipped, whether that object of worship is true or false. Second: the object of worship who is truly worthy of worship. In this verse, the word ilah is used in these two distinct senses in two places.)

———————— Those who call upon others as partners besides Allah follow nothing but conjecture. They follow only assumptions and pursue them. — Yunus: 66

These verses highlight several matters. First: The people of the age of ignorance called upon the one whom they regarded as an ilah to remove difficulties and fulfill their needs. In other words, they supplicated him.

Second: Their ilahs were not only jinn, angels, or deities; they also included dead people. This is clearly known from the following Qur’anic verse:

——————- They are dead, not alive. They do not know when they will be resurrected.

Third: They believed that the ilahs whom they thought heard their supplications were also capable of coming to their aid.

The significance of supplication, and the nature of the help expected from those beings, must also be kept in mind here. If I become thirsty and call a servant to bring water, or if I become ill and call a doctor for treatment, this cannot be called supplication. Nor does it mean that I have made the servant or doctor into an ilah, because all these matters operate within the system of cause and effect and do not transcend it. But if, while thirsty or ill, instead of calling a servant or doctor I call upon a saint, holy man, or deity, then that means making him an ilah and supplicating him. For a saint or holy man lying in a grave a thousand miles away from me, calling upon him means that I regard him as hearing and seeing. I believe regarding him that he exercises authority over the world of cause and effect, enabling him to bring water to me and arrange for my illness to be removed. Similarly, calling upon a deity in such circumstances means that the deity has authority over water or over health and illness, and can activate the chain of cause and effect supernaturally to fulfill my needs. Therefore, the conception on the basis of which supplication is made to an ilah necessarily involves supernatural authority, along with the belief that he possesses supernatural power.

Third: —————————————————- We destroyed the inhabitants of the towns whose remains you see around you. We repeatedly showed them Our signs so that they might return. Why did those whom they had taken as ilahs, believing that they would draw near to Allah through them, not help them? Far from helping them, they vanished and abandoned them. This was the nature of their false, fabricated conduct. — Surah Al-Ahqaf: 27–28

———————————————— Why should I not worship the One who created me, and to whom all of you will be returned? Should I take others as ilahs instead of Him—those whose condition is such that, if the Most Merciful intends any harm for me, their intercession will be of no use to me, nor will they be able to save me? — Surah Ya-Sin: 22–23

———————————————– Those who have taken others besides Allah as associates say, “We worship them only so that they may bring us nearer to Allah.” Allah will judge between them concerning that over which they differ. — Az-Zumar: 3

——————————————- They worship, besides Allah, powers that can neither benefit nor harm them, and they say, “These are our intercessors with Allah.” — Yunus: 18

These verses highlight several further matters. From them it is known that the people of the age of ignorance did not believe regarding their ilahs that all divinity had been divided among them and that there was no higher authority above them. They clearly believed in a higher authority. That is why the word Allah existed in their language. Their fundamental belief regarding the other ilahs was that these ilahs possessed some share and influence within the divinity of the higher authority. Their commands would be obeyed; through them our affairs could be accomplished; through their intercession we could benefit and be saved from harm. On the basis of these ideas, they regarded these beings as ilahs alongside Allah. Therefore, according to their terminology, to regard someone as an intercessor with Allah, seek help from him, show him honor and reverence, and offer vows and gifts to him meant making him an ilah.¹

Note: (1) (It should be understood here that intercession is of two kinds. First: intercession based on some kind of power or influence, by which the matter is ultimately made to conform, in whatever way, and is then released. Second: intercession that is merely like a request or appeal, behind which there is no power capable of forcing the matter to conform. According to the first meaning, to regard anyone as an intercessor, make him an ilah, and make him a partner in God’s divinity are all one and the same. The Qur’an rejects this kind of intercession. According to the second meaning, prophets and messengers, angels, pious people, believers, and all servants may intercede for other servants. Allah possesses complete authority to accept or reject anyone’s intercession. The Qur’an recognizes this kind of intercession.)

———————————————————————————- And Allah says: Do not take two gods. There is only one God. So fear Me alone. Surah An-Nahl: 51

——————————————————————————— (Ibrahim said,) “I do not fear at all those whom you associate with Allah. However, if my Rabb wills something, it may certainly happen.” — Al-An’am 80

———————————————————————- (The people of Hud said to him,) “We say that one of our gods has afflicted you with a curse.” Surah Hud: 54

These verses show that the people of the Age of Ignorance feared their gods, thinking that if they displeased them in any way or were deprived of their favorable regard, illness and grief, poverty and hardship, loss of life and property, and various other calamities would befall them.

Five: ——————————————————————————– They have taken their scholars and monks as their Rabb, instead of Allah. They have also taken the Messiah, son of Maryam, as their Rabb. Yet they had only been commanded to worship one God; there is no god except Him. Surah At-Tawbah: 31

———————————————————————————- What do you think of the one who has taken his own desires as his god? Can you take responsibility for him? Al-Furqan: 43

——————————————————————————– In this way, the partners they invented made the killing of their own children seem beautiful to many polytheists. — Al-An’am: 137

—————————————————————————- Do they have partners—meaning partners in uluhiyyah—who have prescribed for them a law that Allah has not permitted? Ash-Shura: 21

These verses convey another meaning of the word god. This meaning is completely different from the preceding meanings. Here, there is no concept of any supernatural being. The one taken as a god is either a person or a person’s desires. He was not made a god here in the sense that people prayed to him, regarded him as possessing authority over benefit and harm, or prayed in hope of him. Rather, he was made a god in the sense that his commands were accepted as law, his orders and prohibitions were obeyed, and his lawful and unlawful were acknowledged as lawful and unlawful. It was assumed that he had the authority to command or prohibit, and that there was no higher authority than him whose approval needed to be sought or to whom one might need to turn.

The first verse mentions making scholars and monks—called ahbar and ruhban in the language of the Qur’an—into gods. We find a clear explanation of this in the Hadith. When Hazrat Adi ibn Hatim (may Allah be pleased with him) asked the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) about this verse, he said: “You regarded as lawful whatever your scholars and monk-priests declared lawful, and you acknowledged as unlawful whatever they declared unlawful. You paid no heed to what Allah’s command was concerning this matter.”

The meaning of the second verse is extremely clear. Whoever follows his desires and gives their commands the highest place has, in reality, taken his desires as his god. This is easily understood from the verse under discussion.

In the following two verses, however, the word “partner” is used instead of god. In our translation of the verses, we have made clear that making someone a partner means making him a partner in uluhiyyah. These two verses clearly decide that those who regard any custom, rule, or regulation as valid law without proof of Allah’s command make its legislator a partner of Allah in uluhiyyah.

God versus Power

There is a logical relationship among all the meanings of god discussed above. A person who regards someone, in a supernatural sense, as a helper, supporter, remover of hardship, fulfiller of needs, hearer of prayers, or bringer of good or harm does so because he believes that this person possesses some kind of power in administering the universe. Similarly, if someone fears a person and thinks that his displeasure will harm him while his satisfaction will benefit him, the reason for this belief and conduct is likewise that he conceives of a certain power in that person. Conversely, if someone, despite acknowledging Allah, the Rabb of the worlds, turns in times of need to another, the sole reason for this conduct is that he regards the other as a partner of God in some respect. Likewise, whoever regards someone’s command as law and someone’s orders and prohibitions as obligatory to obey acknowledges him as possessing supreme power. Thus, the true spirit of uluhiyyah is power. Whether that authority over the administration of the universe is supernatural, or whether in worldly life people are subject to his commands and those commands are binding in their proper sphere, acknowledging that power in any of these senses is uluhiyyah.

The Qur’an’s Argument

On the basis of this concept of power, the Qur’an exerts every effort to deny all besides Allah and establish Allah’s uluhiyyah alone. The Qur’an’s argument is that one Being alone possesses all power and authority in the heavens and the earth. Creation, bestowing blessings, issuing commands, strength and capability—all are in His hand. Everything obeys Him willingly or unwillingly. No one besides Him possesses any power; no one has the right to issue commands; no one knows the secrets of creation, administration, and governance; and no one is even the slightest partner in His authority. Therefore, in reality, there is no god except Him. Since there is no other god, the acts you perform while regarding others as gods are fundamentally false and unjust. Whether those acts consist of praying and supplicating, appointing intercessors, or obeying and following commands, all the relationships you maintain with others should be reserved exclusively for Allah, because He alone possesses power.

Listen to the argument the Qur’an presents on this matter in the Qur’an’s own words:

————————————————————————————- He is the One who is God in the heaven and God on the earth, and He is Hakim and Alim—Most Wise, All-Knowing (that is, He possesses all the knowledge and skill required to rule the heavens and the earth). — Surah Az-Zukhruf: 84

—————————————————————————— Can the one who creates and the one who does not create ever be equal? —— Do you not understand even this simple matter? —– Those whom they invoke besides Allah cannot create anything; rather, they themselves are created by others. —– Your god is only one God. — An-Nahl: 17–22

—————————————————————— O mankind, remember Allah’s favor upon you. Is there any creator besides Allah who provides you sustenance from the heavens and the earth? There is no god except Him. Yet where are you turning away? — Surah Fatir: 3

———————————————————— Say: Have you considered that if Allah took away your hearing and sight and sealed your hearts—meaning that He took away your knowledge and understanding—then what god besides Allah could bring these things back to you? Al-An’am: 46

—————————————————————– He is Allah; there is no god except Him. To Him belongs all praise in this world and the Hereafter. He alone issues commands and possesses supreme power. To Him you will be returned. Say: Have you ever considered that if Allah were to make the night last for you until the Day of Resurrection, what god could bring you light? Will you not hear? Say: Have you considered that if Allah were to make the day last over you permanently, what god could bring you night in which you could find rest? Will you not see? — Al-Qasas: 70–72

———————————————————————— Say: Call upon those whom you believe in besides Allah. They do not possess even an atom’s weight in the heavens or the earth, nor do they have any share in their administration, nor does any of them assist Allah therein. No intercession benefits anyone with Allah except for one for whom He Himself grants permission to intercede. (Surah Saba: 22–23)

———————————– He created the heavens and the earth in truth. He causes the night to follow the day and the day to follow the night. He has subjected the sun and the moon; each runs toward an appointed term. … He began your creation from a single person—meaning the beginning of human life—and from him made his mate. He has also provided for you eight pairs of livestock. He creates you in your mothers’ wombs, passing you through successive stages of creation within three layers of darkness (the three layers mean the abdomen, the womb, and the uterus). This is Allah, your Rabb. Sovereignty belongs to Him. There is no god except Him. So where are you turning? (Surah Az-Zumar: 5–6)

————————————– Who created the heavens and the earth for you? Then He sent down water from the sky for you and produced beautiful gardens whose trees and plants you could not have produced. Is there another partner with Allah in these things? Yet they turn away from the truth. Who made the earth a place of settlement, placed mountains as anchors upon it, and made a barrier between two seas? Is there another god who is a partner with Allah in these things? Yet most polytheists have no knowledge or understanding. Who responds to the distressed when he calls upon Him and removes his distress? Who makes you successors on earth—meaning, grants you the right to use and enjoy it? Is there another god who shares with Allah in these things? You reflect very little. Who guides you through the darkness of land and sea, and sends winds bearing good news before His mercy—meaning, the rain? Is there another god who shares with Allah in these things? Allah is far above what they associate with Him. Who originates creation and then repeats it? Who provides you sustenance from the heavens and the earth? Is there another god who shares with Allah in these things? Say: If you are truthful in your claim of shirk, produce your proof. 1 Surah An-Naml: 60–64

(1) That is, if you acknowledge that all these acts belong to Allah and that He has no partner in them, then in what aspect of uluhiyyah do you associate others with Him? How have those who possess no power and no voluntary agency in the heavens and the earth set themselves up as gods? ) ——————————— He is the One who possesses the kingdom of the heavens and the earth. He has not taken a son, nor does He have any partner in authority. He created everything and determined its proper measure. People have taken, instead of Him, gods that can create nothing; rather, they themselves are created, possess no power to benefit or harm even themselves, and have no power over life, death, or resurrection. — Al-Furqan: 23

——————————— He is the Originator of the heavens and the earth from nonexistence. How could He have a son when He has no wife? He created all things, and He has knowledge of everything. This is Allah, your Rabb. There is no god except Him. He is the Creator of everything. So worship Him alone. He is sufficient for preserving and overseeing all things. Surah Al-An’am: 101–102

—————————————— There are people who set up others besides Allah as partners and helpers in divinity and love them as they love Allah. Yet the believers love Allah most. If only these wrongdoers would realize today the truth they will realize when the punishment descends: that all power and every kind of strength lies in Allah’s hand! Surah Al-Baqarah: 165

——————————— Say: Have you considered the condition of those deities besides Allah whom you call upon to fulfill your needs? Show me what portion of the earth they have created, or what share they have in creating the heavens! … Who is more astray than those who call upon others besides Allah—those who cannot answer their call until the Day of Resurrection? 1 (1) Note: That is, they cannot take any action in response to their supplication. ) ————————————- If there had been other gods besides Allah in the heavens and the earth, the administration of the universe would have been thrown into disorder. Therefore, Allah, the Lord of the Throne—meaning, the ruler of the universe—is pure and free from what they say about Him. He is not required to account for any of His acts, whereas all others are required to account before Him.

——————————— Allah has not taken a son, nor is there any other god with Him. If there had been, each god would have taken away what he created, and some would have sought superiority over others. (Surah Al-Mu’minun: 91)

——————————— — Say: If there had been other gods with Allah, as they claim, they would certainly have sought a way to seize the kingdom of the Lord of the Throne. He is glorified and far above what they say. — Bani Isra’il: 42–43

The same central idea can be seen throughout all these verses. It is this: uluhiyyah and power are inseparably connected and closely intertwined. In spirit and significance, they are one and the same. One who has no power cannot be a god and should not be one. Only the one who possesses power can be a god; only he should be a god. For whatever needs we have of a god—in other words, whatever needs make it necessary for us to acknowledge someone as a god—not one of them can be fulfilled without power. Thus, a powerless god is meaningless and absurd, and turning to him is futile.

The role and consequence of this central concept, as presented by the Qur’an, can be properly understood in the following exposition.

One: Fulfilling needs, removing difficulties, providing refuge, offering help and support, overseeing and protecting, and responding to calls—although you regard all these as ordinary acts, they are in fact not ordinary at all. Rather, they are connected with the creative and administrative power of the entire universe. If you reflect on how even your smallest need is fulfilled, you will learn that it could not be fulfilled without the total operation of countless causes and effects in the vast workshop of the heavens and the earth. Consider a glass of water for drinking or a morsel of food; only Allah knows how much work the sun, the earth, the air, and the sea must perform to supply these small things. Only then do they reach you. Therefore, to hear your prayers and remove your needs and complaints requires not ordinary power, but the kind of power required to create the heavens and the earth, set the planets and stars in motion, make the winds blow, and send down rain—in a word, the power required to administer and maintain the order of the entire universe.

Two: This power is indivisible. It is impossible for the power to create to be in one hand while the power to provide sustenance is in another; for the sun to belong to one and the earth to another; for creation to be under one person’s authority and health and illness under another’s; and for life and death to be under the authority of a third. If that were so, the administration of the universe could not continue at all. Therefore, it is essential that all power and authority belong to one central ruler. The administration of the universe itself demands this. In reality, that is how it is.

Three: Since all power rests in the hands of one ruler and no one has even the slightest share in that power, uluhiyyah is likewise exclusively for that ruler, and no one shares in it. No one possesses the power to respond to your pleas or accept your prayers. Thus, whatever meaning of god you have in mind, there is no other god in that sense. There is not even a god in the sense that someone might exercise some power through proximity to the Director and Controller of the universe and have his intercession accepted. No one has the right to interfere in His administration of the kingdom. No one can intrude upon His acts. Whether intercession is accepted or rejected is entirely within His authority. No one possesses the power by which he could compel Him to accept his intercession.

Four: The claim of sole supreme power requires that all the categories of sovereignty, leadership, and authority be concentrated in the existence of the possessor of sole universal power. No portion of sovereignty can be transferred to anyone else. Since He is the Creator and no one shares with Him in creation; since He is the Provider and no one shares with Him in providing sustenance; and since He alone directs and administers the universe, with no partner in its administration and governance—He alone is therefore the issuer of commands and the legislator. There is no reason for anyone to be a partner at this level of power either. Just as it is false for anyone else within His kingdom to be a responder to pleas, fulfiller of needs, or provider of refuge, so it is also false and wrong for anyone to be an independent commander, an autonomous and arbitrary monarch, or an independent legislator. Creating and providing sustenance, granting life and death, subjecting the sun and moon, alternating the night and day, determining measure, issuing commands, exercising sole dominion and authority, and making laws—all these are different aspects of sole power and sovereignty. This power and sovereignty are indivisible. If anyone regards someone as worthy of obedience without Allah’s authorization, he commits shirk just as the person who prays to one besides Allah commits shirk. If anyone claims, in a political sense, to be the king of kings, the possessor of supreme power, and an absolute ruler, his claim directly resembles Allah’s claim—just as someone’s claim, in a supernatural sense, that “I am your patron, capable manager, helper, and protector” resembles it. Therefore, wherever Allah is mentioned as having no partner in determining the measure of created things and administering the universe, it is also stated that the right to issue commands belongs exclusively to Him, that legitimate authority belongs only to Him, and that no one shares with Him in authority and sovereignty. These points clearly prove that the meaning of kingship and authority is included in the significance of uluhiyyah. In this sense also, refusing to acknowledge anyone as a partner with Allah is essential to the oneness of God. This is expressed even more clearly in the following verse:

Say: O Allah, Owner of sovereignty. You grant sovereignty to whom You will and take sovereignty away from whom You will. You honor whom You will and disgrace whom You will. — Aal-Imran: 26

Therefore, Allah is the true King, Most Exalted. There is no god except Him, the Lord of the Mighty Throne. Al-Mu’minun: 116

Say: I seek refuge in the Rabb of mankind, the King of mankind, the God of mankind. — An-Nas: 1–3

This has been stated even more clearly in verse 16 of Surah Al-Mu’min:

On the Day when all people will be exposed and none of their secrets will remain hidden from Allah, it will be asked: “To whom does sovereignty belong today?” It belongs to Allah alone, the One, the Overwhelming.

That is, on the day when the veils will be removed from all people and none of anyone’s secrets will remain hidden from Allah, a call will be made and it will be asked: “To whom does sovereignty belong today?” There will be no answer that day except: “To Allah alone, whose power prevails over all.” Imam Ahmad narrated from Hazrat Abdullah ibn Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) that, while delivering a sermon, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: “Allah will hold the heavens and the earth in His fist and call out: I am the King; I am the Mighty; I am the Dominant. Where are those who set themselves up as kings on earth? Where are the influential, powerful, arrogant monarchs?”

This Hadith is the finest explanation of the verse under discussion. Hazrat Abdullah ibn Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) said: When the Prophet (peace be upon him) uttered these words in his sermon, his body was trembling so intensely that we feared he might fall from the pulpit!

Rabb

Lexical Analysis

—— The word is derived from the root ——. Its primary and fundamental meaning is to nurture and sustain. From this developed the meanings of using and benefiting, overseeing, effecting a change of condition, bringing to completion, and perfecting. On this basis also developed the meanings of precedence, leadership and authority, mastery, and lordship. A few examples of its usage in dictionaries are as follows:

One: To nurture, foster gradual development and advancement, and increase. For example, a foster son is called rabib (—-), and a foster daughter rabibah (—-). A child raised in the home of a stepmother is also called rabibi (—-). A wet nurse who raises a child is also called rabibah (—-). A stepmother is called rabbah (—-), because although she is not the mother, she raises the child. For this reason, a stepfather is called our Rabb (—-). A medicine kept preserved is called murabbab or murabba (—-). The meaning of ———- is to add to, increase, and bring to completion. For example, — means “he increased it through favor” or “he brought favor to its utmost limit.”

Second: To contract, collect, and gather together. For example, it is said —- meaning that so-and-so gathered the people together, or that all the people assembled around him. The place where people gather together is called (–) marabb; becoming contracted and being collected are called tarabbub (–).

Third: To supervise, rectify and alter a condition, look after, and stand surety. For example, —- would mean that so-and-so looked after and supervised his property. Safwan said to Abu Sufyan:

I prefer a member of Quraysh taking me under his patronage to a member of Hawazin raising me.

A poem by Alqamah ibn Ubaydah:

————————– I have lost the patrons who were formerly my guardians; at last, responsibility for my upbringing has come into your hands.

The poet al-Farazdaq says:

————————– In this poem, ———- means leather from which the hair has not been removed, leather that has not been cleaned by tanning. ———————- means that so-and-so practices his profession under so-and-so, or learns a craft from him.

Fourth: Supremacy, authority, leadership, exercising command, and subjugating; for example: —————- meaning that so-and-so brought his people under his obedience. ——- I exercised command over the people and assumed authority. Labid ibn Rabi‘ah says:

——————- Here —- means the chief of Kindah, the one whose command prevailed over that tribe. In this sense is the poem of al-Nabighah al-Dhubyani:

Fifth: To be the owner. For example, it is related in a noble hadith that the Prophet (peace be upon him) asked a man: ——- Are you the owner of sheep or of camels? In this sense, the owner of a house is called —- (Rabb al-Dar), the owner of a she-camel —- (Rabb al-Naqah), and the owner of property ——– (Rabb al-Dhay‘ah). The word Rabb is also used in the sense of master, and is used in contrast to ‘abd (–) or slave. Through ignorance, the word Rabb has been restricted to the meanings of Lord and Sustainer alone. The definition of Rububiyyah has been given as: ————— not merely bringing something to perfection through gradual development. Upon examining its full breadth, it becomes clear that the word conveys the following meanings:

First: Sustainer, provider of necessities, and giver of nurture and progressive development.

Second: Guarantor, supervisor, caretaker, and one responsible for rectifying and changing conditions.

Third: One who plays a central role, around whom various people gather.

Fourth: Leader and chief, whose obedience is rendered; a powerful authority whose command is obeyed, whose authority is acknowledged, and who has the right to intervene and use force.

Fifth: Owner and master.

The Use of the Word Rabb in the Qur’an

In the Noble Qur’an, the word Rabb has been used in all these meanings. In some places, one or two of these meanings are intended; in others, more than that; and in still others, all five meanings are conveyed together. We will clarify this matter through various examples from Qur’anic verses.

In the first sense: He said, “I seek refuge in Allah! He is my Rabb, who has treated me well.” 1—Yusuf: 23

(1) No one should assume that Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) called the Aziz of Egypt his Rabb. Some commentators have entertained such a doubt. In fact, “he” refers to Allah, in whose refuge he sought protection. He said: ——— Since the one referred to is Allah, and He has already been mentioned nearby, why search for an unmentioned referent, or mushar ilayh?

In the second sense, which also includes something of the first sense:

——————————————————————- The Rabb of the worlds, who created me, guides me, gives me food and drink, and cures me when I am ill—apart from Him, these so-called rabbs of yours are my enemies. —al-Shu‘ara’: 77–80

Whatever blessing you enjoy, it is from Allah. Then, when some affliction befalls you, you turn to Him in desperation. But when He removes your affliction, some among you begin to associate others with their Rabb in granting blessings and removing hardships. —al-Nahl: 54

——————————————- Say, “Shall I seek a Rabb other than Allah, while He is the Rabb of everything?” —al-An‘am: 164

————————————– He is the Rabb of the East and the West. There is no ilah except Him, so take Him as your wakil (the guarantor and responsible guardian of all your affairs). —al-Muzzammil: 9

———————- He alone is your Rabb, and to Him you will return again and again.

—————————————— Then to your Rabb is your return. —al-Zumar: 7

————————- Say, “He will gather both of our groups together.” —Saba’: 26

———————————– ———————- There is no creature that moves upon the earth, nor any bird that flies on its two wings, except that they are communities like you. We have not neglected anything in the Record. Then they will all be driven toward their Rabb. —al-An‘am: 38

———————————————– As soon as the trumpet is blown, they will emerge from their graves toward their Rabb. —Ya-Sin: 51

In the third and fourth senses:

————————- They have taken their ascetics, scholars, monks, and priests as their rabbs instead of Allah. (al-Tawbah: 31)

—————- And none of us should take anyone besides Allah as his Rabb.

In both verses, arbab (the plural of Rabb) means those persons, peoples, and various groups within peoples whom they generally accepted as their guides and leaders, and whom they regarded as possessing the authority to issue commands and prohibitions.

—————————————————- (Yusuf said,) “Certainly, one of you will give wine to his Rabb.” The one of the two about whom Yusuf thought this would happen was released. Yusuf said to him, “Mention me to your Rabb.” But Satan caused him to forget, so he failed to remember to mention Yusuf to his Rabb. (Yusuf: 41–42)

———————- When the messenger came to Yusuf, Yusuf said to him, “Return to your Rabb and ask him about the condition of the women who cut their own hands. My Rabb certainly knows their scheme.” —Yusuf: 50

In these verses, while speaking with the Egyptians, Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) repeatedly referred to the ruler of Egypt, Pharaoh, as their Rabb, because at that time they acknowledged his central authority and sovereignty and regarded him as the one possessing the right to issue commands and prohibitions.

In the fifth sense: ——————————————————— So let them worship the Rabb of this House, who has provided them with sustenance and secured them from fear. —Quraysh: 3–4

————– Your Rabb, the Possessor of might and honor, is free and pure from what they attribute to Him of faults and deficiencies.

————————- Allah, the Possessor of the Throne, is free and pure from what they attribute to Him of faults and deficiencies. —al-Anbiya’: 22

———– Ask, “Who is the Rabb of the seven heavens and the mighty Throne?”

——————— He is the Owner of the heavens and the earth and everything in the heavens and the earth. He is also the Owner of everything over which the sun rises.

———— And He alone is the Owner and Rabb of al-Shi‘ra (the name of a particular star).

The Misconceptions of the Misguided Nations Regarding Rububiyyah

By these proofs and evidences, the meaning of the word Rabb has been established beyond any doubt. We should now examine what misconceptions the misguided nations held regarding Rububiyyah, to remove which the Qur’an was revealed, and toward what it calls people. It would be more appropriate to discuss separately the matters concerning each of the misguided nations mentioned in the Qur’an, so that the subject may become completely clear.

The People of Noah

The first nation mentioned by the Qur’an is the people of Prophet Nuh. It is clear from the Qur’anic account that they did not disbelieve in Allah’s existence or deny that He existed. The Qur’an itself reports these words of theirs in response to the da‘wah of Prophet Nuh:

————————————————– This man is nothing but a human being like you; in reality, he wants to gain superiority over you. Otherwise, if Allah had wanted to send a messenger, He would have sent angels.

They did not deny that Allah is the Creator, nor that He is Rabb in the first and second senses. When Prophet Nuh said to them:

——————————– He alone is your Rabb. To Him you will have to return.

——————————————– Seek forgiveness from your Rabb; indeed, He is Most Forgiving.

———————————————————————————– Do you not see how Allah created the seven heavens in layers, placed the moon therein as a light and the sun as a lamp, and brought you forth from the earth? —Nuh 15–16

None of them then said: Allah is not our Rabb; or, He did not create the heavens, the earth, and us; or, He is not directing the affairs of the heavens and the earth.

They also did not deny that Allah was their ilah. That is why Prophet Nuh presented his da‘wah to them in these words:

———— ‘You have no ilah other than Him’;

Otherwise, if they had not acknowledged Allah as their ilah, the wording of the da‘wah would have been:

——————- ‘Acknowledge Allah as your ilah.’

The question therefore arises: what was the disagreement between Prophet Nuh and his people—on what matter? A study of the Qur’anic verses shows that there were two causes of their disagreement:

First: The teaching of Prophet Nuh was that the One who is Rabb of the worlds, whom you acknowledge as the Creator of you and the entire universe, and whom you believe fulfills all needs, is alone your ilah—no one else. There is no ilah besides Him. There is no being who can fulfill your needs and complaints, remove your difficulties and troubles, hear your supplications, or come to your aid. Therefore, bow your heads only before Him and acknowledge Him alone as worthy of obedience:

————– O my people! Worship Allah; you have no other ilah besides Him. ……….. But I am a messenger from the Rabb of the worlds. I convey to you the message of your Rabb. —Al-A‘raf 59–60

On the other hand, they stubbornly insisted that others also possessed some greater or lesser share in the administration of Allah’s affairs. Various needs of ours are connected with them as well. Therefore, we shall acknowledge others alongside Allah as ilahs:

————————– Their leaders and chiefs said, ‘O people! Never abandon your ilah—never abandon Wadd, Suwa‘, Yaghuth, Ya‘uq, and Nasr.’ —Nuh 23

Second: They acknowledged Allah as Rabb only in the sense that He was their Creator, the Owner of the heavens and the earth, and the chief administrator, controller, and director of the universe. But they did not acknowledge that, in matters of moral character, society, civilization, politics, and every aspect of life, He alone had the right to sovereignty and supreme authority; that He alone was the guide and lawgiver, and had the sole right to command and prohibit; and that obedience was due to Him alone. In these matters, they had made their own chiefs and religious leaders into rabbs. In contrast, the claim of Prophet Nuh was: Rububiyyah is indivisible; do not divide or fragment it. Acknowledge Allah alone as Rabb in every sense. Follow the laws and regulations that I convey to you as His representative:

————————————————- I am Allah’s trustworthy messenger to you. So fear Allah and obey me. —Al-Shu‘ara’ 107–108

The People of ‘Ad

After the people of Nuh, the Qur’an discusses the people of ‘Ad. This nation too did not deny Allah’s existence. They acknowledged Allah as Rabb in the same sense in which the people of Prophet Nuh acknowledged Him as Rabb. However, the two matters that formed the basis of the dispute, mentioned above in connection with the people of Nuh, were also present here. The following clear declaration of the Qur’an provides unmistakable evidence of this:

—————————————– And to them We sent their brother Hud. He said, ‘O my people! Worship Allah. You have no ilah besides Him.’ ………… They said, ‘Have you come to us so that we may worship Allah alone and abandon the deities whom our forefathers have worshipped? —Al-A‘raf 65–70

—————————– They said, ‘Had our Rabb wished, He would have sent angels.’

———————————- These were the people of ‘Ad, who refused to accept the command of their Rabb, did not accept obedience to His messenger, and followed every arrogant enemy of the truth. —Hud 59

The People of Thamud

Now listen about the people of Thamud. After ‘Ad, they were the most arrogant nation. The misguidance of the people of Nuh and ‘Ad has already been discussed. Essentially, the misguidance of this people was of the same kind. They did not acknowledge that Allah alone is the ilah, that He alone is worthy of worship, and that Rububiyyah in every sense belongs exclusively to Allah. They stubbornly insisted on acknowledging others besides Allah as those who answer pleas, relieve distress, and fulfill needs. In their moral and civilized lives, they were determined to obey chiefs, influential figures, and leaders besides Allah, and to obtain their way of life from them. Ultimately, this was why they became a corrupting, nation-destroying people and consequently fell into punishment. Clear evidence of this is found in the following verses:

————- (O Muhammad!) If they turn away from obeying you, tell them: I warn you of a terrible punishment like the punishment suffered by ‘Ad and Thamud. When messengers came to those nations from before them and behind them, saying, ‘Worship no one except Allah,’ they said, ‘Had our Rabb wished, He would have sent angels; so we do not believe or acknowledge what you have brought.’

————————————- And We sent to Thamud their brother Salih. He said, ‘O my people! Worship Allah; you have no ilah besides Him.’ They said, ‘O Salih! Previously, we had placed great hope and trust in you. Do you forbid us to worship those whom our forefathers have worshipped?’ —Surah Hud 61–62

———————————————- When their brother Salih said to them, ‘Have you no concern for protecting yourselves? Look, I am Allah’s trustworthy messenger to you. Therefore, refrain from incurring Allah’s displeasure and obey me. ……. Do not obey those who transgress the limits, who spread corruption on earth and do no good.’

The People of Ibrahim and Nimrod

Next comes the account of the people of Prophet Ibrahim. Their case is especially important, because a common misconception holds that their king, Nimrod, denied Allah and claimed to be God. In fact, he acknowledged Allah’s existence and believed Him to be the Creator and controller of the universe. He claimed to be Rabb only in the third, fourth, and fifth senses. Another widespread misconception is that this nation was completely ignorant of Allah and did not acknowledge Him as Rabb or ilah at all. Yet their case was not at all different from that of Nuh, ‘Ad, and Thamud. They acknowledged Allah’s existence. They knew that He was Rabb, the Creator of the heavens and the earth, and the controller of the universe, and they did not deny worshipping Him. Their misguidance, however, was that in the first and second senses of Rububiyyah they regarded the planets and stars as partners, and on this basis took them as objects of worship alongside Allah. In the third, fourth, and fifth senses of Rububiyyah, they had made their kings into rabbs. Despite the Qur’an’s clear and unequivocal statements on this matter, it is astonishing that people failed to understand the real issue. First, consider the account of Prophet Ibrahim’s realization. It depicts his search for the truth before his prophethood:

——————————————–

When night covered him in darkness, he saw a star and said, ‘This is my Rabb.’ But when it set, he said, ‘I do not like things that set.’ Then, when he saw the moon shining, he said, ‘This is my Rabb!’ But when it too set, he said, ‘If my Rabb does not guide me, I fear that I shall become one of the misguided people.’ Then, when he saw the sun shining, he said, ‘This is my Rabb—this is the greatest of all!’ But when it too set, he cried out, ‘O my people! I am free of what you associate with Allah. I have turned my face wholly toward the One who created the heavens and the earth, devoting myself exclusively to Him. I am not one of the polytheists.’ —Al-An‘am 77–80

It is clear from the underlined phrases that, in the society where Prophet Ibrahim opened his eyes, the concept that the Great Being who created the heavens and the earth was Rabb was not the same as the concept of the Rububiyyah of those planets and stars. Why would this not have been so? The Muslims who believed in Prophet Nuh belonged to that same lineage. Among their close relatives and neighboring nations (‘Ad and Thamud), the renewal of the religion of Islam was also continuing through successive prophets, peace be upon them.

——————————–

Thus, Prophet Ibrahim acquired from his own society the concept that Allah is the Creator of the heavens and the earth and is Rabb. The questions that arose in his mind, however, concerned how realistic was the notion prevalent among his people that the moon, sun, and stars shared with Allah in the system of providence, and on that basis were associated with Allah in worship.¹ Before his prophethood, he continued searching for this truth. The rising and setting of these bodies helped him arrive at the real conclusion that there is no Rabb besides the Creator of the heavens and the earth. For this reason, when he saw the moon set, he said: If my Rabb—that is, Allah—does not guide me, I fear that I too shall fail to arrive at the truth. I too may be deceived by the sights through which the millions around me are being misled.

Thereafter, Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) was appointed to the office of prophethood, and he began calling people toward Allah’s path. If we consider the language in which he presented his call, the statement made above becomes even clearer. He said:

1. It will not be irrelevant to mention one matter here. Archaeological inscriptions concerning the land of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him), Ur, have revealed that the moon-god was worshipped there. In their language it was called Nannar (–). In the surrounding region, whose center was Larsa (–), the sun-god was worshipped. In their language it was called Shamash (—-). The founder of the ruling dynasty of that land was Arnamu (—). In Arabia, his name became Nimrod. The title there was derived from his name and became Nimrod, just as the successor of Nizam al-Mulk is called Nizam.

How, then, can I fear those whom you associate with Allah? Yet you do not fear associating them with Allah, although Allah has sent down no proof to you concerning their partnership in divinity and lordship.

I withdraw from those whom you invoke besides Allah. —Maryam 48

He said, “Your Lord is only the Lord of the heavens and the earth, who created all these things.” … He said, “Do you then worship these lords instead of Allah, although they have no power over your benefit or harm?” —Al-Anbiya 56–66

When Ibrahim said to his father and his people, “What is it that you worship? Do you wish to serve deities of your own making instead of Allah? Then what is your view of the Lord of all the worlds?” —As-Saffat 85–87

Ibrahim and his Muslim companions clearly declared to the people of his nation: “We have no connection with you or with those whom you worship besides Allah. We reject your ways and principles. Enmity and hatred between us and you have been established forever, until you believe in Allah alone.” —Al-Mumtahanah 4

These statements of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) make it clear that he did not address people who were completely unaware of Allah, who did not acknowledge Him as the Lord of all the worlds and the One worthy of worship, or whose hearts held no settled conception of Him. Rather, he addressed those who associated others with Allah in lordship—in its first and second senses—and in divinity. That is why nowhere in the entire Qur’an is there any statement of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) in which he tried to make his people acknowledge Allah’s existence and accept Him as the divine Lord. Instead, everywhere he called them to the truth that Allah alone is Lord and God.

Now consider the case of Nimrod. The Qur’an mentions the conversation he had with Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) as follows:

Have you not seen the one who argued with Ibrahim concerning his Lord, because Allah had granted him sovereignty? When Ibrahim said, “My Lord is the One in whose hand are life and death,” Ibrahim said, “Indeed, Allah brings the sun from the east, so bring it from the west.” Thus the disbeliever was confounded. —Al-Baqarah 258

This conversation makes it clear that the dispute was not about whether Allah exists, but about whom Ibrahim acknowledged as Lord. First, Nimrod had relations with a people who acknowledged Allah’s existence. Second, unless he had become completely insane, he could not have made the plainly foolish claim that he himself was the creator of the heavens and the earth and the one who controlled the movements of the sun and moon—that he was Allah, the Lord of the heavens and the earth. His actual claim was not this; rather, he claimed, “I am the lord of the kingdom of which Ibrahim is a member.” He did not claim to be lord in the first and second senses of lordship, because in those senses he himself acknowledged Allah as the Lord of the sun, moon, planets, and stars. In the third, fourth, and fifth senses, however, he claimed to be the lord of his own kingdom. That is, he claimed, “I am the owner of this kingdom; all its inhabitants are my servants and slaves. My central authority is the foundation of their unity, and my commands and decrees are law for them.” The basis of his claim to lordship was the arrogance of kingship. The phrase “because Allah had granted him sovereignty” clearly points to this. When he learned that a young man named Ibrahim had appeared in his kingdom, who did not acknowledge the supernatural lordship of the sun, moon, and stars, nor the political and cultural lordship of the emperor of the age, he was astonished and summoned Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him), asking him, “Whom do you acknowledge as Lord?” Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) first replied, “My Lord is He in whose hand lies the power over life and death.” But, hearing this answer, he failed to grasp the deeper issue. He tried to establish his own lordship by saying, “I too have power over life and death: I can kill whomever I wish and grant life to whomever I wish.” Then Ibrahim (peace be upon him) told him, “I acknowledge only Allah as Lord; in every sense of lordship, Allah alone is my Lord. How could anyone else have any share in governing the universe? They have not the slightest influence or authority over the rising and setting of the sun.” Nimrod was shrewd. On hearing this argument, the truth became clear to him: in Allah’s kingdom, his claim to lordship was nothing but absurdity. Thus he was confounded and left utterly bewildered. Yet pride and attachment to personal and hereditary interests did not inspire him to abandon the seat of arbitrary kingship and authority and submit to Allah and His Messenger. For this reason, after mentioning the conversation, Allah Most High says:

But Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people. That is, after the truth had become clear, he was not prepared to adopt the course he should have taken. Rather, through arrogant authority, he considered it preferable to wrong the world and his own soul. Therefore Allah did not grant him the light of guidance either, because it is not Allah’s way to force guidance upon one who has no desire to receive it.

The People of Lot

After the people of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him), we come to another nation whose reform and correction was entrusted to Prophet Lot (peace be upon him), the nephew of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him). From the Qur’an we also learn that this nation did not deny Allah’s existence. Nor did they deny that Allah is the Creator and Lord in the first and second senses. However, they objected to acknowledging Him as Lord in the third, fourth, and fifth senses and accepting the leadership of the Messenger as His trustworthy representative. Their fundamental crime was that they wanted to act as they pleased, according to their own desires. That is why they were afflicted with punishment. The following clear statement of the Qur’an proves this:

When their brother Lot said to them, “Will you not adopt piety? Indeed, I am a trustworthy Messenger to you. So fear Allah’s wrath and obey me. I ask you for no payment for this. My payment rests only with Allah, the Lord of all the worlds. Do you, among all the people of the world, approach only males and abandon the wives your Lord has created for you? Indeed, you are a people who exceed all bounds!” —Ash-Shu‘ara 161–166

It is clear that this address could have been directed only to a people who did not deny Allah’s existence or that He is the Creator and Sustainer. Therefore, we find that they did not reply, “What is Allah?” or “Who is this Creator?” or “Where did He come from to become our Lord?” Rather, they said:

Lot! If you do not desist from what you say, you will surely be expelled from the land. —Ash-Shu‘ara 167

Elsewhere, this incident is described as follows:

“And We sent Lot, when he said to his people, ‘Do you commit such an abomination as no one before you in the world has ever committed? Do you approach men sexually, rob travelers on the roads, and commit evil in your public gatherings?’ The only reply of his people was: ‘Bring Allah’s punishment upon us, if you are truthful.’” —Al-Ankabut 28–29. Could this be the response of a people opposed to Allah? Thus it is evident that denying divinity and lordship was not their real position. Rather, their basic crime was that although they acknowledged Allah as God and Lord in the supernatural sense, they were not prepared to obey Allah in their moral, civilizational, and social lives or to follow the Messenger’s guidance.

The People of Shu‘ayb

Now consider the people of Midian and the people of Aykah. Prophet Shu‘ayb (peace be upon him) was sent to them. We know that they were descendants of Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him). Therefore, the question of whether they believed in Allah’s existence or acknowledged Him as God and Lord does not arise. In fact, they were a people whose beginning had been in Islam, but who later changed after falling into distortions of belief and practice. The Qur’an also gives considerable indication that they claimed to be believers. That is why we find Prophet Shu‘ayb (peace be upon him) repeatedly telling them, “If you are believers, you should do this.” From all the sermons of Prophet Shu‘ayb (peace be upon him) and their replies, it is clear that they were a people who believed in Allah and acknowledged Him as the Lord and Sustainer. However, they had fallen into two kinds of deviation. First, in the supernatural sense, they had come to regard others besides Allah as gods and lords, so their worship was not exclusively devoted to Allah. Second, in their view, Allah’s lordship had no connection with human moral character, social policy, economics, or politics and culture. That is why they used to say that we are free in our civilizational life and will conduct our affairs as we please.

The following verses of the Qur’an establish the validity of this statement:

“And to Midian We sent their brother Shu‘ayb. He said, ‘O my people, worship Allah; you have no god besides Him. Clear guidance has come to you from your Lord. So give full measure and weight, and do not deprive people of their goods. Do not spread corruption in the land after it has been set right. That is better for you, if you are believers.’ … If a small group among you believes in the guidance with which I have been sent, while the others do not, then wait until Allah judges between us. He is the best of judges.” —Al-A‘raf 85–87 ——————————————————-

O my people! Establish justice in measure and weight, and measure and weigh accurately. Do not give people less than their due, and do not spread corruption throughout the land. What remains for you from legitimate business by Allah’s grace is better for you, if you are believers. I am not appointed as your guardian. They replied, “Shu‘ayb! Does your prayer command you that we should abandon the worship of what our forefathers worshipped, or that we should stop using our wealth as we please? You are surely the only forbearing and rightly guided person left!” —Surah Hud 85–86

The final marked lines clearly bring out what their fundamental deviation was concerning lordship and divinity.

Pharaoh and His People

Now we shall discuss Pharaoh and his people. In this matter, even more misconceptions are found than concerning Nimrod and his people. The common view is that Pharaoh not only denied Allah’s existence but also claimed to be God himself. In other words, his mind had become so corrupted that he openly proclaimed before the world, “I am the creator of the heavens and the earth.” And his people had become so insane that they believed this claim. Yet the Qur’an and historical evidence reveal the actual truth: his deviation concerning divinity and lordship was not different from Nimrod’s deviation, nor was the deviation of his people different from that of Nimrod’s people. The only difference was that, for political reasons, a chauvinistic stubbornness and partisan obstinacy developed against the Children of Israel. Thus, out of sheer hostility, they refused to accept Allah as Lord and God, although they concealed this acknowledgment in their hearts, as most materialists do today.

The actual fact is that when Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) gained power in Egypt, he devoted all his strength to spreading Islamic teachings. He left such a profound impression on the land of Egypt that no one can deny it. Perhaps not all the inhabitants of Egypt accepted the true religion, but it is impossible that anyone in Egypt did not know Allah or failed to acknowledge that He alone is the Creator of the heavens and the earth. More than that, his teachings would have had at least this much influence on every Egyptian: in the supernatural sense, he acknowledged Allah as the God of gods and Lord of lords. No Egyptian opposed Allah’s divinity. However, those among them who persisted in disbelief associated others with Allah in divinity and lordship. This influence remained until the appearance of Prophet Musa (peace be upon him).¹ Clear proof of it is found in the speech delivered by a Coptic chief at Pharaoh’s court. When Pharaoh expressed his intention to kill Prophet Musa (peace be upon him), this court official—who had secretly accepted Islam—spoke up anxiously:

—————————————-

1. Relying on the historical account of the Torah, it may be assumed that approximately one-fifth of Egypt’s total population accepted Islam. In light of the census of the Children of Israel included in the Torah, it can be said that about two million people left Egypt with Prophet Musa (peace be upon him). Egypt’s population at that time was no more than ten million. The Torah refers to all of them as the Children of Israel. But it does not seem possible, by any calculation, that the descendants of the twelve sons of Prophet Ya‘qub (peace be upon him) could have increased to two million in twenty-five years. It may therefore be inferred that a large portion of Egypt’s population accepted Islam and joined the Children of Israel. These Egyptian Muslims also joined the Israelites when they left the country. This can be inferred from the missionary work carried out in Egypt by Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) and his representatives.

————————————

“Do you kill a man merely because he says, ‘My Lord is Allah,’ although he has brought you clear proofs from your Lord? If he is a liar, then some of what he warns you about will surely befall you; but if he is truthful, some of what he promises you will certainly come to pass. Indeed, Allah does not guide one who is excessive and a liar. O my people! Today sovereignty belongs to you, and today you are dominant in the land. But who will save us when Allah’s punishment befalls us?” O my people! I fear that you may suffer the fate of earlier peoples when punishment befell the great nations. … Before this, Yusuf came to you with clear proofs, but you remained in doubt about what he brought. Then, when he died, you said, ‘Allah will never send another messenger after him.’ … O my people! I call you toward salvation, yet you call me to disbelieve in Allah and associate with Him those whose partnership I have no scientific proof for. I call you toward Him who is Almighty and Most Forgiving.” —Al-Mu’min 28–42

This lengthy speech proves that, even after several centuries had passed, the influence of the great personality of Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) was still present. As a result of being influenced by the teachings of this great prophet, that people had not reached such a level of ignorance that they were unaware of Allah’s existence, or did not know that Allah is God and Lord, with influence and control over the forces of nature. Nor were they unaware that His punishment was something to be feared. The final portion of the speech also makes clear that the people were not at all unbelieving in Allah’s divinity and lordship. Rather, the cause of their deviation was the same as that described concerning the deviation of other nations: associating others with Allah in divinity and lordship. The reason for doubt is that when they heard Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) say, “Indeed, I am the Messenger of the Lord of all the worlds,” Pharaoh asked, “And what is the Lord of all the worlds?” He told his minister Haman, “Build me a lofty tower so that I may look at the God of Musa.” He threatened Prophet Musa (peace be upon him), saying, “If you take anyone besides me as a god, I will imprison you.” He proclaimed throughout the land, “I am your supreme lord,” and told his courtiers, “I know no god for you other than myself.” In view of such statements, people have assumed that Pharaoh perhaps denied Allah’s existence and had no conception of the Lord of all the worlds, considering himself the sole object of worship. But the actual matter is that all these statements arose from nationalist obstinacy. In the time of Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him), Islamic teachings spread throughout Egypt under the influence of his powerful personality. Moreover, because of the authority he established in the governing power of the state, the Children of Israel became highly influential in Egypt. Their power remained established in Egypt for three or four hundred years. Then nationalist sentiment began to arise against the Children of Israel. Eventually their power was overthrown, and a nationalist Egyptian dynasty ascended the throne. This new ruling group did not merely suppress and uproot the Children of Israel; it also sought to erase every trace of the rule of Prophet Yusuf (peace be upon him) and reestablish the traditions of its ancient pagan religion. When Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) appeared in these circumstances, they feared that political power might once again slip from their hands. It was because of this hostility and obstinacy that Pharaoh repeatedly questioned Prophet Musa (peace be upon him), “Who is the Lord of all the worlds? Who can be god besides me?” In fact, he was not unaware of the Lord of all the worlds. This truth is clearly established by the conversations between him and his courtiers, and by the speeches and statements of Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) recorded in the Qur’an. To give the people of his court the impression that Musa (peace be upon him) was not Allah’s prophet, he once said:

Then why have golden bracelets not been bestowed upon him, or why have angels not come with him in procession? —Az-Zukhruf 53

Can a person who has no conception of Allah or the angels say such a thing? On another occasion, the following conversation took place between Pharaoh and Prophet Musa (peace be upon him):

Then Pharaoh said to him, “Musa! I think you are bewitched; your reason has been lost!” Musa replied, “You know very well that no one except the Lord of the heavens and the earth has sent down these enlightening signs. And I think, Pharaoh, that you are heading for ruin.” —Bani Isra’il 101–102

Elsewhere, Allah Most High described the state of the hearts of Pharaoh’s people, saying:

Then, when Our signs became visibly clear to them, they said, “This is clearly magic!” Their hearts inwardly acknowledged them, but they rejected them out of sheer wrongdoing, arrogance, and disobedience. —An-Naml 13–14

The Qur’an depicts another gathering as follows: Musa said to them, “Woe to you! Do not fabricate lies against Allah, or He will destroy you with severe punishment. Whoever fabricates lies against Allah has certainly failed.” Upon hearing this, they began disputing among themselves and held secret consultations. Some of them said, “These two—Musa and Harun—are sorcerers. They intend to drive you from your land through their magic and eradicate your exemplary way of life.” —Ta-Ha 61–63

It is clear that, after they were warned about fear of Allah’s punishment and the consequences of attributing lies to Him, an argument arose among them because some measure of fear of Allah and awareness of His majesty still existed in their hearts. But when their nationalist ruling class threatened them with political revolution, saying that accepting the message of Musa and Harun (peace be upon them) would result in Egypt once again falling into Israel’s hands, their hearts hardened again. They all resolved to oppose the Messenger.

Once this truth has been established, we can confidently state what the fundamental dispute between Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) and Pharaoh was, and what kind of deviation Pharaoh and his people actually had. In what sense did Pharaoh claim divinity and lordship? For this purpose, consider the following Qur’anic verses one by one:

First: Those among Pharaoh’s courtiers who insisted on eradicating Prophet Musa’s (peace be upon him) call addressed Pharaoh on this occasion, saying:

Will you leave Musa and his people free to spread corruption throughout the land and abandon you and your gods? —Al-A‘raf 127

On the other hand, the man among those courtiers who had believed in Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) addressed them, saying:

———————————————– Are you calling me to disbelieve in Allah and to associate with Him someone for whose partnership I have no sound proof? —Al-Mu’min-42

When we compare these two verses with the knowledge we have acquired about the Egyptians of that time through history and archaeological discoveries, we can clearly understand that Pharaoh himself and his people associated certain gods with Allah in rububiyyat, in its first and second meanings, and worshipped them. It is clear that if Pharaoh had claimed divinity in the supernatural sense—that is, if his claim had been that he exercised authority even over the chain of cause and effect, and that there was no other Rabb-Ilah of the heavens and the earth besides him—then he himself would not have worshipped any other deity.¹

Second: The following statements of Pharaoh have been mentioned in the Qur’an:

———————————————– 1. On the mere assumption that Pharaoh himself had claimed to be the “Ilah of the worlds,” some exegetes, in the above-mentioned verse of Surah Al-A‘raf, adopted a recitation in place of ———. They took —- to mean worship. According to this recitation, the translation of the verse would be: “abandoning you and your worship.” But first, this recitation is rare and contrary to the well-known and widely recognized recitation. Second, the assumption on which this recitation is based is entirely unfounded and baseless. Third, – can mean not only worship but also an object of worship or a goddess. In the pre-Islamic period, this word was used in Arabia for the sun. It is well known that the chief idol of the Egyptians was generally the sun. In the Egyptian language, the sun was called Ra (-). Pharaoh meant the daughter of Ra, the incarnation of Ra—in other words, the incarnation of the sun. Thus, what Pharaoh claimed was this: I am merely the physical manifestation of the sun-god.

O chiefs! I know of no other Ilah for you besides myself. —Al-Qasas-38

Moses! If you take anyone besides me as an Ilah, I will certainly include you among the imprisoned. —Ash-Shu‘ara-29

The meaning of these statements is not that Pharaoh denied all Ilahs except himself. Rather, his real purpose was to reject the call of Moses (peace be upon him). Moses was calling people to an Ilah who was not merely a deity in the supernatural sense; He was also the owner of command and prohibition, and the possessor of supreme authority in the political and civilizational spheres. That is why Pharaoh told his people, “You have no Ilah other than me.” He threatened Moses that if, in this sense, he accepted anyone besides Pharaoh as an Ilah, he would be thrown into prison.

The Qur’anic verses also show, and historical and archaeological evidence supports, that the Pharaohs of Egypt claimed not only absolute sovereignty, but also a kind of sacredness through association with the gods, so that they could establish a firm seat in the hearts and minds of their subjects. In this respect, the Pharaohs of Egypt were not the only unusual example. In most countries of the world, royal dynasties, besides political sovereignty, made more or less of an attempt to claim a share in uluhiyyat and rububiyyat in the supernatural sense. They also made it obligatory for their subjects to perform one ritual or another of servitude before them. In reality, however, this was merely a subsidiary matter. The real aim was to consolidate political sovereignty. The claim to supernatural uluhiyyat was used as one means of achieving this. That is why, in Egypt and in other countries steeped in the ideas of ignorance, the uluhiyyat of the royal dynasty has always perished along with its political downfall. Uluhiyyat passed to whoever gained possession of the seat of power.

Third: Supernatural divinity was not Pharaoh’s actual claim; political divinity was his principal claim. In the third, fourth and fifth meanings of rububiyyat, he said: I am the greatest Rabb (Overlord) of the land of Egypt and its inhabitants; I am the owner of this country and all its components and resources. The right to absolute sovereignty over this country belongs exclusively to me; my entire personality is the foundation of this country’s social organization and civilization and culture. No law or rule of anyone besides me shall operate here.

In the Qur’an’s words, the basis of his claim was this:

———————————— And Pharaoh proclaimed among his people, “O my people! Do I not own the land of Egypt? Does the kingdom of Egypt not belong to me? Do you not see that these rivers and canals flow at my command?” —Az-Zukhruf-51

Nimrod’s claim to rububiyyat was also founded upon this basis.

(———————) On this very basis, the ruler contemporary with Joseph (peace be upon him) too had assumed the role of Rabb over his people.

Fourth: The call of Moses (peace be upon him)—the reason for his dispute with Pharaoh and Pharaoh’s dynasty—was essentially that no one besides Allah, Rabb of the worlds, is an Ilah in any sense. He alone is the Ilah in the supernatural sense, and indeed also in the social and political senses. Worship, servitude and obedience must be rendered to Him alone; only His laws and commands must be followed. He appointed me as His representative with clear signs; through me He will give the rules and regulations of command and prohibition. Therefore, the reins of power over His servants should not be in your hands, but in mine. On this basis Pharaoh and his political allies repeatedly said that these two brothers wanted to drive us out of the country and establish themselves at the seat of power. They were striving to eradicate the religious and civilizational system of our country and establish their own religion and civilization.

———————– And We sent Moses with Our signs and clear evidence of revelation to Pharaoh and the chiefs of his people. But they followed Pharaoh’s command, although Pharaoh’s command was not right. —Hud-96–97

——————– And before them We tested the people of Pharaoh. A noble Messenger came to them. He said, “Hand over to me the servants of Allah. I am a trustworthy Messenger for you. Do not act arrogantly against Allah. I am presenting to you clear evidence of revelation.” —Ad-Dukhan-17–19

——- (O people of Makkah,) We have sent a Messenger to you as a witness over you, just as We sent a Messenger to Pharaoh. But when Pharaoh disobeyed the Messenger, We seized him with a severe seizure. —Al-Muzzammil-15–16

———————- Pharaoh said, “Moses! (If you acknowledge neither the gods nor the royal dynasty,) then who is your Rabb?” Moses replied, “Our Rabb is He who gave everything its distinctive form and then guided it to its proper function.” —Ta-Ha-49–50

————————— Pharaoh said, “And what is this Rabb of the worlds?” Moses replied, “The Rabb of the heavens and the earth and everything between them, if you would be convinced.” Pharaoh said to those around him, “Have you heard?” Moses said, “Your Rabb and the Rabb of your forefathers.” Pharaoh said, “This Messenger of yours who has been sent to you is surely insane.” Moses said, “The Rabb of the east and the west and everything between them, if only you had any understanding.” At this Pharaoh exclaimed, “If you take anyone besides me as an Ilah, I will certainly include you among the imprisoned.” —Ash-Shu‘ara-23–29

— Pharaoh said, “Moses! Have you come to drive us out of our land by your magic?” —Ta-Ha-57

]——————— And Pharaoh said, “Leave me to kill Moses, and let him call upon his Rabb for help. I fear that he will change your deen (way of life) or spread corruption in the land.” —Al-Mu’min-26

—————————— They said, “These two are certainly magicians. They want, by their power, to drive you out of your land and to eradicate your ideal way of life.” —Ta-Ha-63

When these verses are considered in sequence, it becomes clear that the misguidance concerning rububiyyat which had existed among various peoples of the world from the beginning had also spread throughout the land of the Nile. Moses and Aaron (peace be upon them) were calling people toward the same message to which all the prophets and messengers had been calling from the beginning.

Jews and Christians

After the nation of Pharaoh, we come to the Children of Israel and all the other peoples who adopted Judaism and Christianity. It cannot be supposed that they denied Allah’s existence or did not accept Him as Rabb and Ilah, because the Qur’an itself confirms that they were People of the Book. The question, then, is: what inconsistency or error existed in their beliefs and conduct regarding rububiyyat, because of which the Qur’an called them misguided? We find a brief answer to this in the Qur’an itself:

—————————– Say, “O People of the Book! Do not exceed the limits unjustly in your deen. Do not follow the false ideas of the peoples who went astray before you. They led many astray and themselves strayed from the right path.” —Al-Ma’idah-77

This shows that the misguidance of the Jewish and Christian peoples was essentially of the same kind as that into which their predecessors had been immersed from the beginning. It also shows that this misguidance entered among them by way of “ghulu fi’d-din”—unjustifiable excess in matters of deen. Now observe how the Qur’an explains this brief account:

—————————————– The Jews say, “Ezra is the son of Allah,” and the Christians say, “The Messiah is the son of Allah.” —At-Tawbah-30

———————————— Those Christians who say that the Messiah, son of Mary, is Allah have committed kufr. Yet the Messiah said, “O Children of Israel! Worship Allah, who is my Rabb and your Rabb.” —Al-Ma’idah-72

——————————- Those who say, “Allah is the third of three,” have committed kufr. Yet there is no Ilah except one Ilah. —Al-Ma’idah-73

————————————————– And when Allah will ask, “O Jesus, son of Mary! Did you tell the people, ‘Take me and my mother as Ilahs besides Allah’?” he will reply, “(Glory be to Allah!) How could I say what I had no right to say?” —Al-Ma’idah-116

——————————————————- It is not the role of any human being that Allah should give him the Book, judgment and prophethood, and then he should tell people, “Become my servants instead of Allah.” Rather, he would say, “Become people devoted to the Rabb, as you teach and study the Book of Allah.” It is not the role of a prophet to tell people to take angels and prophets as Rabb. Would he teach you kufr after you have become Muslims? —Al ‘Imran-79–80

In light of these verses, the first misguidance of the People of the Book was that they elevated the great figures recognized by the deen—prophets, messengers, righteous men, angels and others—above their true rank to the rank of divinity; they made them partners and associates in Allah’s works. They worshipped them and regarded them as possessing a share of His knowledge, imagining that they also had the power to forgive, help, support and protect. Their second misguidance was this:

———————————————- They took their scholars and shaykhs, priests and monks as Rabb besides Allah. —Surah At-Tawbah-31

That is, those whose position in the religious profession was merely to explain the laws of Allah’s Shari‘ah and cultivate character according to Allah’s will were gradually given such a position that, according to their own discretion, they began declaring whatever they wished haram or halal, issuing whatever commands they wished without the approval of the deen and the Book, forbidding whatever they wished and enforcing whatever method they preferred. In this way they became immersed in two great fundamental deviations. Like the peoples before them—Nuh, Ibrahim, ‘Ad, Thamud, the people of Madyan and others—who had fallen into this deviation, they too made angels and great personalities partners with Allah in rububiyyat in the supernatural sense. Like those peoples, they continued to adopt from human beings, without caring about Allah’s approval, the laws governing their civilization, culture, customs, conduct, ethics and politics. The situation ultimately reached this point:

—————————————————————- Have you not seen those who were given a portion of the Book? Their condition was that they accepted Jibt and Taghut. —An-Nisa-51

—————————– Say, “Shall I tell you whose outcome is worse in the sight of Allah than that of the defiantly disobedient? Those whom Allah has cursed, upon whom Allah’s wrath has fallen, many of whom He transformed into apes and swine, and who worshipped Taghut. These are the worst in rank, and they have strayed far from the straight path.” —Al-Ma’idah-60

The word “Jibt” is extremely broad, encompassing every kind of imaginary thought and idea. Magic and sorcery, charms, fortune-telling, predictions of the future, notions and fantasies of good luck and bad luck, supernatural activities—in short, every kind of fabricated notion and fantasy falls under it. “Taghut” means all those persons, groups, organizations and institutions that adopt arrogance and disobedience toward Allah, transgress the limits of servitude and set themselves up as bearers of divinity. The Jews and Christians had become immersed in the two aforementioned forms of misguidance. The consequence of the first was that every kind of notion and fantasy took hold of their minds. The second carried them beyond serving their scholars and shaykhs, learned men and Sufis, priests and monks, and religious guides, to serving and obeying oppressors and wrongdoers who were openly hostile to God.

The Polytheistic Society of Arabia

We shall now examine the kind of misguidance of the polytheists of Arabia in this matter. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was sent to them, and they were the first people addressed by the Qur’an. Were they unaware of Allah and disbelievers in His existence? Was the Messenger sent merely to make them acknowledge Allah’s existence? Did they not accept Allah as Rabb and Ilah? Was the Qur’an revealed merely to make them acknowledge the uluhiyyat and rububiyyat of Allah, the Exalted? Did they deny worship and servitude to Allah? Or did they believe that Lat, Manat, Hubal, ‘Uzza and the other objects of worship were in fact the creators, owners, providers and controllers of the worlds? Or did they recognize these objects of worship as sources of law and sources of guidance in moral and civilizational matters?

From the Qur’an we receive a negative answer to each of these questions. The Qur’an tells us that the polytheists of Arabia not only believed in Allah’s existence, but also acknowledged Him as the Creator, Owner and Grand Lord of the entire universe and of their own objects of worship; they acknowledged Him as Rabb and Ilah. In times of crisis, difficulty, calamity and distress, the court to which they made their final appeal was His court. Nor did they deny worship and servitude to Allah. They did not believe that their own deities and objects of worship were the creators and providers of themselves and the universe, nor did they believe that these objects of worship guided them in the moral and civilizational problems of life. The following verses state this: ————————————– O Prophet! Ask them, “To whom belongs the earth and everything in it, if you know?” They will say, “To Allah.” Say, “Will you not then take heed?” Ask, “Who is the Rabb of the seven heavens and the Mighty Throne?” They will say, “Allah.” Say, “Will you not then fear Him?” Say, “In whose hand is the sovereignty of everything? Who is it that grants protection, while none can grant protection against Him? Tell me, if you know.” They will say, “These qualities belong only to Allah.” Say, “Then how are you deceived?” The truth is that We have brought them the truth, yet they are surely liars. —Al-Mu’minun-84–90

He alone is Allah, who enables you to travel by land and sea. When you board ships and sail happily with a favorable wind, then suddenly a contrary wind blows violently and waves begin surging from every direction, and they think that the storm has surrounded them, they call upon Allah alone, dedicating their deen to Him and praying, “If You save us from this danger, we shall surely be grateful servants of Yours.” But when He saves them from danger, they rebel unjustly on the earth and turn away from the truth. —Yunus-22–23

————————————— When danger befalls you at sea, all those whom you call upon besides Allah disappear from you. But when He saves you and brings you to land, you turn away from Him. Truly, man is exceedingly ungrateful. —Bani Isra’il-67

The Qur’an has mentioned their conception of their own objects of worship in these words, spoken by them themselves:

————————————————————— Those who take others besides Him as friends and intercessors say, “We worship them only so that they may bring us nearer to Allah.” —Az-Zumar-3

———————- And they say, “They are our intercessors with Allah.”

Nor did they believe that their objects of worship were guides in the problems of life. In verse 35 of Surah Yunus, Allah instructs His Prophet:

——————————– Ask them, “Is there among your alleged partners anyone who guides to the truth?”

But silence descended upon them when they heard this question. None of them replied that Lat, Manat, ‘Uzza or the other objects of worship guided them to the correct path of thought and action, taught them the principles of peace, comfort and justice in worldly life, or enabled them to acquire knowledge of the fundamental reality of the universe through their knowledge. Seeing their silence, Allah finally said to His Prophet:

————————————— Say, “Allah guides to the truth. So which is more worthy of being followed: the One who guides to the truth, or the one who cannot find guidance unless he is guided? What is wrong with you? How do you judge?” —Yunus-35

After these clear statements, only one question remains unresolved: what was their real misguidance regarding rububiyyat, for the correction of which Allah sent His Prophet and revealed the Book? When we turn to the Qur’an to resolve this question, we find two fundamental errors in their beliefs and conduct—the same errors found among all misguided peoples from ancient times. On the one hand, they associated other Rabb-Ilahs with Allah in the supernatural sense and believed that, in the chain of cause and effect, the angels, revered persons, planets and stars and others possessed some kind of authority over the power and discretion of the One who controls it. For this reason, in their prayers, appeals for help, worship, customs and ceremonies, they did not turn only to Allah; they also turned to those fabricated gods.

On the other hand, they were completely empty-minded concerning civilizational and political rububiyyat. The idea that there could be a Rabb in this sense had not even found a place in their minds. In this sense, they had made their religious leaders and authorities, chiefs and notables, and eminent members of their dynasties into Rabb, and accepted their way of life from them. Regarding their first misguidance, the Qur’an bears witness:

————————– Among people is one who worships Allah on the very edge of devotion. When good comes to him, he is content with it, but when any hardship befalls him, he turns away. He has lost both this world and the Hereafter, and that is the clear loss. He calls upon, besides Allah, those who can neither harm nor benefit him. That is the farthest misguidance and the greatest error. He calls upon one whose harm is nearer than his benefit. How evil a protector and how evil a companion! —Al-Hajj-11–13

———————– They worship, besides Allah, those who can neither harm nor benefit them. And they say, “They are our intercessors with Allah.” Say, “Are you informing Allah of something He does not know in the heavens or on earth?” Glory be to Him; He is free of what they associate with Him. —Yunus-18

——————————— O Prophet! Tell them, “Do you truly disbelieve in the One who created the earth in two days, and set up others as equals and rivals to Him?” —Ha-Mim As-Sajdah-9

———————————

1. That is, you have fallen into the mistaken belief that those objects of worship possess such power with me that whatever intercession they make on your behalf must necessarily be accepted. That is why you bow your heads at their shrines and offer gifts. I know of no being in the heavens or on earth who is so powerful in my court, or so beloved by me, that I would be compelled to accept his intercession. Do you then inform me about such intercessors of whom I have no knowledge? Clearly, for something not to exist in Allah’s knowledge means that it does not exist at all.

Say, do you worship anyone besides Allah—those who possess no authority over your benefit and no power to harm you—while Allah alone is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing? —Al-Ma’idah 76

—————————- When hardship touches a person, he calls upon his own Lord with a devoted heart. But when He grants him a blessing, he forgets the hardship over which he had previously called upon Him and begins to set up equals to Allah, thereby leading others astray from Allah’s path. —Az-Zumar 8

—————————– Whatever blessing you have received is through Allah’s gift and bounty. Then, when hardship touches you, you turn in supplication to Allah alone. But when He removes that hardship from you, some of you begin to associate others with Him in removing it, responding to His favor by forgetting the favor. Well then, enjoy yourselves; soon you will come to know the consequence. You assign a share of the provision We have given you to those of whom you have no knowledge.2 Allah’s

1. “They set up equals to Allah” means that they say: “This hardship was removed through the blessing of such-and-such a venerable person,” or “We received this blessing through the favor and grace of such-and-such a revered person.”

2. That is, they make offerings and dedicate gifts to those whom they regard as rescuers from hardship and relievers of distress, although no knowledge or evidence has established this truth about them, as an expression of gratitude. The amusing thing is that they do all this from the provision We have given them.

By My oath, you will certainly be questioned in meticulous detail about the bizarre and absurd notions you invent. —An-Nahl 55–56

Their second error of misguidance remains. The Qur’an’s testimony concerning it is this: ——————- And likewise, their invented partners made the killing of their own children seem pleasing to many polytheists, so as to bring about their destruction and make their religion obscure and doubtful to them.

It is clear that here the meaning of shuraka (partners) is not idols or deities. Rather, it refers to the leaders and authorities who presented the killing of children to the Arabs as an act of benefit, honor, and beauty. These were the ones who introduced such an abhorrent practice into the religion of Abraham and Ishmael (peace be upon them). It is further clear that the Arabs regarded them as wielding authority within the chain of causation, or worshiped them, or prayed to them. They were not called Allah’s partners in these senses. They were called partners with Allah in rububiyyah and uluhiyyah because the Arabs acknowledged their right to formulate social, moral, and religious matters of civilization as they pleased.

——————————— Have they set up partners who have legislated for them in religious matters laws and regulations that Allah has not permitted and for which He has given no authorization? —Ash-Shura 21

The word deen will be explained later. The full breadth of this verse’s meaning will also become completely clear there. But here at least this much is clear: for their leaders and authorities to establish customs and practices, resembling the nature of deen, without Allah’s permission, and for the Arabs to acknowledge that these must be followed exclusively—this was their associating partners with Allah in rububiyyah and uluhiyyah; this was how the Arabs acknowledged their partnership.

The Qur’an’s Call

The analysis of the ideas and notions of the misguided nations mentioned earlier makes this truth absolutely clear: from ancient times until the period of the Qur’an’s revelation, not one of the nations whom the Qur’an describes as unjust, possessing erroneous thought, and astray denied Allah’s existence. Their fundamental and common error, however, was that they divided the five meanings of rububiyyah—which we established at the outset through dictionaries and the Qur’an’s evidence—into two categories.

They understood the meaning of Rabb—that He is supernaturally sufficient to nurture, sustain, fulfill the needs and oversee created beings—as something distinct. Although, in this sense, they acknowledged Allah as the greatest Rabb, they also associated angels, deities, jinn, unseen forces, planets and stars, prophets, saints, spiritual masters, and priests with Him in rububiyyah.

Their conception of Rabb as the possessor of the right to command and prohibit, the owner of supreme power, the source of guidance and direction, the foundation of law, the head of the state, and the center of social organization was entirely different. In this respect, they either regarded human beings as Rabb instead of Allah, or, although they regarded Allah as Rabb in theory, in practice they bowed in obedience before human beings’ moral, civilizational, and political rububiyyah.

The prophets and messengers appeared from the very beginning to remove this misguidance. This is why, ultimately, Muhammad (peace be upon him) came. The call of all of them was this: there is only one Rabb in all these meanings, and He is Almighty Allah, Rabb of the worlds. Rububiyyah is indivisible. No one can possess any portion of rububiyyah in any sense. The universe is governed by a complete system under a centralized law. Allah alone created it. Allah alone exercises authority over it. Allah alone possesses all power and authority in the universe. No one has any share in its creation, nor any partner in its administration and management. No one shares with Him in governance. As the possessor of centralized authority, He alone is your supernatural Rabb. He alone is your moral, civilizational, and political Rabb. He alone is your object of worship; He alone is worthy of your bowing and prostration. He alone is the ultimate focus of your prayers and supplications. He alone is the support of your hopes and reliance. He alone fulfills your needs and complaints. Likewise, He alone is the King, the Master of the Kingdom, the King of Kings. He alone is the Lawgiver and the possessor of the right to command and prohibit. These two aspects of rububiyyah—which, because of the Age of Ignorance, you had separated—are in fact indispensable parts and defining attributes of Allah. Neither can be separated from the other, and it is not permissible to associate any created being with Allah in either aspect.

Listen to the call presented by the Qur’an in the language of the Qur’an itself:

—————————————- Indeed, your Rabb is Allah. He created the heavens and the earth in six days, then established Himself upon the Throne. He covers the day with the garment of night, while the night rapidly pursues the day. The moon, the sun, and the stars are all subject to His command. Listen: creation belongs to Him, and authority belongs only to Him. Blessed is Allah, the Rabb of all the worlds. —Al-A‘raf 54

———————– Ask them: Who provides you with sustenance from the heavens and the earth? Who controls the power of hearing in the ears and the power of sight in the eyes? Who brings the living out of the dead and the dead out of the living? Who runs this workshop of the universe? They will surely say: Allah. Say: Will you not then fear Him? Since all this belongs to Him, He is therefore your true Rabb. After the truth has become clear, what can remain except misguidance? So where are you being turned away from the truth after stumbling in this way?

——————————– He created the heavens and the earth with truth and wisdom. He wraps the night over the day and the day over the night. He has subjected the sun and the moon to an orderly system, each continuing its course until an appointed term. ………………. This is Allah, your Rabb. Sovereignty belongs to Him. There is no deity for you except Him. So where are you being turned away after stumbling? —Az-Zumar 5–6

——————————————— He is Allah, who has made the night for you so that you may find rest in it, and He has made the day bright. ….. That is Allah, your Rabb, the Creator of all things. There is no deity except Him. So where are you being deceived and turned away? ….. Allah is the One who made the earth a dwelling place for you and spread the sky as a roof over you, providing pure and wholesome things for your sustenance. This is Allah, your Rabb. He is the Rabb of all the worlds, the Possessor of abundant blessing. He is Ever-Living. There is no deity except Him. So call upon Him, devoting the deen exclusively to Him. —Al-Mu’min 61–65

——————————————- Allah created you from dust. …. He merges the night into the day and the day into the night. He has subjected the sun and the moon to an orderly system, each moving until its appointed time. This is Allah, your Rabb. Sovereignty belongs to Him. Those whom you call upon besides Him possess no control over even the smallest particle. If you call them, they cannot hear your call; and even if they hear it, they have no power to answer your request. As for your associating them with Allah, they themselves will reject it on the Day of Resurrection. —Fatir 11–14

————————————- Whether inhabitants of the heavens or of the earth, all are His slaves and all follow His command. …. Allah presents an example for you from among yourselves: Can any of your slaves share with you in ownership of the things We have provided you? Are you and your slaves equal in the use and enjoyment of these things? Do you fear them as you fear your equals? They pursue their baseless conjectures without knowledge or reason. … So establish and devote yourself wholly to the true deen, adhering to Allah’s nature upon which He created all people. There is no changing Allah’s creation. That is the true and correct way, but most people do not know. —Ar-Rum 26–30

—————————————— They did not form a conception of Allah’s greatness and majesty as they ought to have. On the Day of Resurrection, they will see the entire earth within His grasp and the heavens folded in His right hand. He is exalted and pure; far above what they associate with Him. —Az-Zumar 67

————————————- So all praise belongs to Allah, the Rabb of the heavens, the earth, and all the worlds. Greatness and majesty in the heavens and the earth belong solely to Him. He is Mighty over all, Most Wise, All-Knowing. —Al-Jathiyah 36–37

——————————————- He is the Rabb and Master of the heavens and the earth and of whatever is in them. So worship Him and remain steadfast in His worship. Do you know of anyone comparable to Him? —Surah Maryam 65

————————————— The hidden realities of the heavens and the earth are with Allah’s knowledge. Every matter is presented before Him. So worship Him and place your trust in Him. —Surah Hud 123

———————————————– He is the Rabb of the East and the West. There is no deity except Him. So take Him alone as your Trustee and Disposer of affairs. —Al-Muzzammil 9

————————————— Indeed, this community of yours is one community, and I am your Rabb. So worship Me alone. People have divided among themselves the functions of rububiyyah and the affairs of life. But whatever the case, they must all return to Me. —Surah An-Nisa 93–96

—————————————- Follow the Book that has been revealed to you from your Rabb, and do not follow anyone else as a disposer of your affairs, abandoning it. —Al-A‘raf 3

———————————- Say: O People of the Book, come to a common word between us and you: that we worship none but Allah, associate no one with Him, and none of us takes anyone besides Allah as a Rabb. —Al-Imran 64

————————— Say: I seek refuge in the Rabb of humankind, the King of humankind, and the God of humankind. —An-Nas 1–3

——————————- So whoever hopes to meet his Rabb should do righteous deeds and associate no one in the worship of his Rabb. —Al-Kahf 110

A sequential study of these verses makes it clear that the Qur’an establishes rububiyyah as fully synonymous with sovereignty. The Qur’an presents the concept of Rabb as that of the sole Lord of the universe, the absolute ruler, and the unshared owner and judge.

In this capacity, He is our Sustainer, Nurturer, and the Fulfiller of the needs and complaints of all the worlds.

In this capacity, He is our Guardian, Protector, Disposer of our affairs, and Patron.

In this capacity, loyalty to Him is a natural foundation upon which the edifice of our social life can be soundly and beautifully established. Connection with His central personality can establish the bond of one ummah among all separated individuals and groups.

In this capacity, He alone is worthy to receive the worship, obedience, and adoration of us and of all creation.

In this capacity, He is the Owner, Master, and sole Sovereign of us and of all things.

Arabs and all ignorant and foolish people throughout the ages have been—and remain—immersed in the error of dividing this comprehensive concept of rububiyyah into five different kinds of rububiyyah. Based on their own notions and imaginings, they concluded that different kinds of rububiyyah could, and did, belong to different persons. But the Qur’an has established through powerful arguments and proofs that, in this perfectly centralized system of the universe, no function or level of rububiyyah can be entrusted to any other being besides the One in whose hands sovereign power is vested; there is not the slightest room for such a thing. The centralization of this system itself testifies that every kind of rububiyyah is designated exclusively for Allah, who brought this system into existence. Therefore, whoever, while living under this system, believes or practically makes any aspect of rububiyyah belong in any sense to anyone besides Allah is in conflict and struggle with reality, turns away from the truth, rebels against the truth, and, by acting against reality, plunges himself into destruction.

Worship

Lexical Analysis

In the Arabic language, the basic meaning of this root is to be compelled, to submit, to obey, and to surrender oneself before someone in such a way that there is no resistance, disobedience, or ingratitude in confronting him. He may accept service from him and employ him however he wishes, according to his own will. Therefore, the Arabs called a camel completely obedient to its rider by a particular term; and a path made level by the passage of many people by another term. From this root subsequently arose the meanings of slavery, obedience, worship, service, captivity, or obstruction. The largest Arabic dictionary, Lisan al-Arab, gives the following summary of this word’s explanation:

First: A person who is owned by someone and is not free is called an ‘abd. This is the opposite of a free person. The expressions meaning “he made the man a slave” and “he treated him like a slave” are used. The same meaning is stated in the Hadith:

——————————————– On the Day of Resurrection I will bring a complaint against three persons and become their adversary. One of them is the person who enslaves a free person, or who, after freeing a slave, treats him like a slave.

The Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) said to Pharaoh: —————————————————- The favor with which you reproach me amounts to this: you enslaved the Children of Israel.

Second: Worship means obedience performed with complete humility. To worship the taghut means to submit and become obedient to it.

————– We worship You alone means: we obey You with complete compliance with Your commands.

———————— Worship your Rabb means: obey Him.

———————————- That is, when Pharaoh said that the people of Moses and Aaron were our worshiping slaves, he meant that they were obedient to my command. Ibn al-Anbari says: —————- This means that he obeys his master and follows his command.

Third: “He worshiped him” means that he worshiped him as a deity. ——– Ta’arrud — means becoming someone’s worshiper. A poet says:

————————— I see the miser’s money being saved.———————

Fourth: The expressions meaning “he became connected to him” and “he attached himself to him” mean that he became associated with him and did not separate from him; he followed him and did not abandon him.

Fifth: If a person refrains from approaching someone, it is said: “What kept you from coming to me and prevented you?”

This explanation makes it clear that the basic meaning of the root ‘abd is to acknowledge someone’s authority and supremacy, abandon freedom and self-will in relation to him, give up arrogance and disobedience, and become obedient to him. This is also the essence of slavery and servitude. Thus, the first idea that this word evokes in an Arab’s mind is the idea of slavery and servitude. Since a slave’s fundamental duty is obedience and compliance with his master, in practice he does not merely surrender himself to obedience; he also acknowledges his master’s faithfulness, superiority, and authority, and therefore goes to excess in honoring and revering him. He expresses acknowledgment of favors in various ways and thereby performs the rituals of servitude. This is called worship. The concept contained in ‘abdiyyah arises when a slave not only bows his head before his master, but also keeps his heart and mind humbled before him. Two concepts remain. In essence, those two are contextual concepts related to ‘abdiyyah, or servitude, rather than foundational concepts.

The Qur’an’s Use of the Word Worship

After this lexical analysis, when we return to the Qur’an, we learn that this word has been used in this sacred Book in all of the first three meanings. In some places the first and second meanings are intended together; in some only the second; in others the third; and in some all three meanings simultaneously.

In the sense of worship, servitude, and obedience

Here is an example of the first and second meanings:

——————– Then We sent Moses and his brother Aaron to Pharaoh and his chiefs with Our signs and clear proof of the revealed message. But they acted arrogantly, for they were a powerful people. They said: “Are we to believe in two human beings like ourselves, while their people are our worshiping servants and followers?” —Al-Mu’minun 45–47

——————- (Pharaoh was reproaching Moses, saying, “Did we not raise you among us as a child?” Moses replied:) The favor with which you reproach me is only that you enslaved the Children of Israel and made them your ‘abd. —Ash-Shu‘ara 22

In both verses, worship means slavery, servitude, obedience, and compliance with commands. Pharaoh said that the people of Moses and Aaron were our worshipers—meaning our slaves and followers of our commands. The Prophet Moses said: “You have made the Children of Israel your ‘abd”—meaning you have enslaved them and take service from them according to your own will.

————– O believers, if you worship Me alone, then eat the pure things We have provided for you and give thanks to Allah. —Al-Baqarah 172

In the pre-Islamic period, the people of Arabia followed various restrictions concerning food and drink in obedience to the instructions of their religious leaders and the notions and imaginings of their forefathers. When they accepted Islam, Allah said, “If you worship Me alone, then abolishing these restrictions and obligations, eat without hesitation what I have made lawful, considering it lawful.” The clear and unambiguous meaning of this is that you must follow My laws concerning lawful and unlawful, permissible and impermissible, instead of the man-made rules of your scholars and religious leaders—if you are My servants alone, and if you have truly abandoned their obedience and compliance with their commands and accepted obedience to Me. Thus, here too, the word worship has been used in the sense of servitude and obedience.

——————- Say, “Shall I tell you whose end is worse in the sight of Allah?” Those upon whom Allah’s curse has fallen and His wrath has descended; many of whom He transformed into monkeys and pigs; and those who worshipped the Taghut. —Al-Ma’idah 60—

————————- We sent a messenger to every nation to teach them this: worship Allah and refrain from worshipping the Taghut. —An-Nahl 36

———————– Glad tidings are for those who abandon the worship of the Taghut and turn toward the worship of Allah. —Az-Zumar 17

In all three verses, worship of the Taghut means servitude to and obedience of the Taghut; we have already indicated this. Any state authority that, in rebellion against Allah, enforces its own rule on Allah’s earth and makes Allah’s servants follow its commands through force, the display of greed and temptation, or misleading instruction is called Taghut in Qur’anic terminology. Bowing before the leadership of such an authority, accepting its servitude, and submitting to its commands is worship of the Taghut.

Worship in the Sense of Obedience

Now consider the following verses. In these verses, worship has been used only in the second sense.

———— O Children of Adam! Did I not command you not to worship Satan? Indeed, he is your manifest enemy.

It is obvious that no one in the world worships Satan. Rather, curses and maledictions rain upon him from every direction. Therefore, the charge Allah will bring against the children of Adam on the Day of Resurrection is that they followed Satan’s words, obeyed his commands, and rushed along every path to which he directed them.

——————— (When the Resurrection takes place, Allah will say,) “Gather all the wrongdoers, their companions, and the deities they worshipped besides Allah, and show them the way to Hell.” … Then they will begin blaming one another. The worshippers will say, “You were the ones who came to us claiming to lead us toward prosperity!” Their deities will reply, “In fact, you yourselves were not ready to believe. We had no power to compel you; rather, you yourselves were disobedient.” (As-Saffat 22–30)

Careful consideration of the dialogue mentioned in this verse between the worshippers and the worshipped makes it clear that the meaning of the worshipped here is not the idols and deities that were worshipped. Rather, it refers to those deity-like ruling figures who misled people under the guise of promoting their welfare; those who appeared in the garb of holiness and, through prayer beads and cloaks, deceived Allah’s servants and made them devoted followers; or those who, claiming to be reformers and well-wishers, spread destruction, harm, and disorder. Blindly following such people and obeying their commands without question is here called worshipping them.

———————– They took their scholars and spiritual leaders as lords besides Allah, and likewise the Messiah, son of Mary. Yet they were commanded to worship none but one God. (At-Tawbah 31)

Making scholars, spiritual leaders, priests, and clergymen into lords and worshipping them here means accepting their commands as authoritative. The Messenger of Allah himself clearly expressed this meaning in many authentic reports. He was asked, “We never worshipped our scholars, spiritual leaders, priests, or clergymen.” He replied, “Did you not make unlawful what they declared unlawful?”

Worship in the Sense of Adoration

Now consider the verses concerning the third meaning. It should be remembered in this connection that, in the Qur’anic sense of worship as adoration, two matters are included:

First: Performing before someone the rituals usually performed for the purpose of worship—bowing and prostrating, standing with folded hands, circumambulation, kissing a shrine, offerings and sacrifices—whether or not one regards that being as an independent deity (object of worship) makes no difference.

Second: Considering someone powerful in the world of cause and effect, praying to him for one’s needs, calling upon him for help in one’s troubles and suffering, and seeking refuge with him from loss, harm, and calamities.

In the Qur’an’s view, both kinds of action equally fall within the category of worship. For example:

—————— Say, “After receiving clear instructions from my Lord, I have been forbidden to worship those whom you worship instead of Allah.” —Al-Mu’min 66

——————– (Abraham said,) “I renounce you and all those whom you call upon besides Allah, and I call upon my Lord.” … and those whom they worshipped besides Allah. When he became completely detached from them all, We granted him a son like Isaac. —Maryam 48–49

—————— Who could be more astray than one who calls upon, instead of Allah, those who cannot answer his call until the Day of Resurrection and are unaware that they are being called? On the Day of Judgment, they themselves will be enemies of those who called upon them, and on that day they will deny having worshipped them.¹ —Al-Ahqaf 4–4

In these three verses, the Qur’an itself has made clear that worship here means praying and calling for help.

—— Rather, they worshipped the jinn, and most of them believed in them.” —Saba 41

The meaning of worshipping the jinn and believing in them here is explained by verse 6 of Surah Al-Jinn:

—– Some people sought refuge with some of the jinn. —Al-Jinn 6

It is thus known that worshipping the jinn means seeking refuge with them and asking them for protection from dangers and harm; and believing in them means believing that they can grant refuge and provide protection.

———————– On the Day Allah gathers them and also gathers the deities whom they worshipped instead of Allah, He will ask them, “Was it you who led these servants of Mine astray, or did they themselves lose the straight path?” They will reply, “Glory be to You! It was never proper for us to take anyone besides You as a patron and companion!” —Al-Furqan 17–18

The style of the passage makes it clear that the meaning of the worshipped is patron and companion, while worshipping them means considering them elevated above the qualities of servitude and endowed with divine qualities—attributing to them unseen assistance, the removal of difficulties, and sustenance—which reaches the level of worship.

—— On the Day Allah gathers them all, He will then ask the angels, “Were you the ones whom these people worshipped?” They will reply, “Glory be to Allah! What connection do we have with them? Our connection is with You.” —Saba 40–41

Here, worshipping the angels¹ means adoring them. This worship was performed by creating representations of their status, forms, and imagined images. Its purpose was to please them, attract their gracious attention to one’s circumstances, and obtain their help in worldly affairs.

———— They worship besides Allah things that can neither benefit nor harm them, and they say, “These are our intercessors with Allah.” —Yunus 18

—– Those who have taken others as patrons besides Allah say, “We worship them only so that they may bring us nearer to Allah.” —Az-Zumar 3

Here too, worship means adoration. The purpose for which this adoration was performed has also been explained.

Worship in the Sense of Servitude, Obedience, and Adoration

The examples above have made it quite clear that the word worship is used in the Qur’an sometimes in the sense of servitude and obedience, sometimes only in the sense of obedience, and sometimes only in the sense of adoration. Before giving examples in which this word is used in all three senses together, another introductory point should be remembered.

All the examples given above mention worshipping others besides Allah. Where worship means servitude and obedience, there

¹. Other polytheistic nations made these angels into gods. The Arabs called them daughters of Allah.

The object of worship is either Satan or those rebellious people who, making themselves Taghut, caused Allah’s servants to offer them servitude and obedience instead of Allah, or those leaders and ruling figures who led the people according to their own invented ideas and ways instead of the Book of Allah. Where worship means adoration, the objects of worship are prophets, saints, righteous people, and pious men who were made into objects of worship in opposition to their teachings and guidance; or angels and jinn, who were mistakenly regarded as partners in supernatural lordship; or idols and images representing imaginary powers, which, through mere satanic prompting, became centers of worship. The Qur’an declares all such objects of worship false and their worship misguided, whether they are treated with servitude, obedience, or adoration. The Qur’an says: “These objects of worship of yours—whom you worship—are servants and slaves of Allah. They have no right to receive your worship. Through worshipping them, you will gain nothing except failure, disgrace, and humiliation. In reality, Allah is their Master and the Master of the entire universe. All power and authority belong solely to Him. Therefore, no one besides Allah is worthy of worship.”

——————— Those whom you call upon besides Allah are only servants like you. Call upon them and let them answer you, if your belief concerning them is true.¹ … Those whom you call upon besides Allah are unable to help you in any way. —Al-A‘raf 194–197

¹. Answering does not mean responding verbally; rather, it means taking measures in response to it. We have indicated this earlier.

————– They say, “The Most Merciful has taken a son.” Exalted is He far above having a son. Those whom they call His sons are actually His servants, whom He has honored. They cannot put themselves forward before Him to make any request; rather, they act only according to His command. He knows what is evident to them, and He knows what is hidden from them. They cannot intercede for anyone before Allah except for one whose intercession He Himself wishes to accept. And they themselves remain constantly in awe of Allah.¹ —Al-Anbiya 26–28

————————– They have made the angels—who are in reality servants of the Most Merciful—into female deities. —Az-Zukhruf 19

———————————– They have imagined a genealogical relationship between the jinn and Allah, although the jinn themselves know that one day they will be brought before Allah to give an account. —As-Saffat 158

——————————– The Messiah never considered being a servant of Allah disgraceful, nor did the nearest angels. And whoever feels ashamed of serving Him and acts arrogantly—where will he flee? Allah will bring all such people before Him.

—————————— The sun and the moon move according to a reckoning. The stars and the trees bow their heads in submission before Allah. —Ar-Rahman 5–6

———————————— The seven heavens, the earth, and everything within them glorify Allah. There is nothing that does not glorify Him with praise, but you do not understand their glorification. —Bani Isra’il 44

————————— There is no creature whose forelock is not held in the grasp of Allah’s power. —Hud 56

——————————— No one among the inhabitants of the heavens and the earth will fail to appear before the Most Merciful as a slave. He has counted them all and recorded them. On the Day of Resurrection, each one of them will come before Him individually. —Maryam 93–95

——————— Say, “O Allah, Owner of sovereignty! You grant sovereignty to whomever You will and take sovereignty away from whomever You will. You honor whomever You will and disgrace whomever You will. All good is in Your hand. Surely, You have power over everything.” —Aal ‘Imran 26

After proving all those who were worshipped in any form to be Allah’s slaves and incapable, the Qur’an demands of all jinn and human beings that, in every sense, worship must belong exclusively to Allah. Servitude, obedience, and adoration—all must be for Him alone. No trace of any form of worship may remain for anyone besides Allah.

————– We sent a messenger to every community with this message: worship Allah and keep away from the Taghut. —An-Nahl 36

———————————- Glad tidings are for those who refrain from worshipping the Taghut and turn back to Allah. —Az-Zumar 17

———————- O Children of Adam! Did I not command you not to worship Satan? He is your manifest enemy. And worship Me alone. This is the straight path. —Ya-Sin 60–61

————————————– They took their scholars, spiritual leaders, priests, and clergymen as lords instead of Allah. … Yet they had been commanded to worship no one except God. —At-Tawbah 31

—————————————– O believers! If you truly worship Me, eat without hesitation the pure things We have provided for you, and give thanks to Allah. —Al-Baqarah 172

These verses prove that the worship which means servitude, slavery, obedience, and compliance is commanded to be devoted exclusively to Allah.

——————————– Say, “I have been forbidden to worship those whom you call upon instead of Allah. Clear evidence has come to me from my Lord concerning this, and I have been commanded to submit before the Lord of the worlds.” —Al-Mu’min 66

———————————————— Your Lord has said, “Call upon Me; I will answer you. Surely, those who are too arrogant to worship Me will enter Hell in humiliation.” —Al-Mu’min 60

——————————– He is Allah, your Lord; sovereignty belongs to Him. Those whom you call upon besides Him possess not even the weight of an atom. When you call upon them, they do not hear your call; and even if they hear it, they cannot answer you. On the Day of Resurrection, they will deny your associating partners with Allah.

—————————- Say, “Do you worship, instead of Allah, things that can neither harm nor benefit you? He alone is the Hearer of all things, the Knower of all things.”

These verses instruct that worship in the sense of adoration be devoted exclusively to Allah. They also contain clear indications that worship is used in support of the meaning of prayer. The preceding and following verses mention those objects of worship whom people regarded as partners of Allah in supernatural lordship.

It is not difficult for anyone with insight to understand that wherever the Qur’an mentions worship of Allah, it is not necessarily restricted to one of the various meanings of worship. Even where there is no such evidence in the surrounding context, worship in such passages encompasses all three meanings: servitude, obedience, and adoration. Consider the following verses, for example.

——————————- I am Allah. There is no deity except Me. So worship Me alone. —Ta-Ha 14

———————– That is Allah, your Lord. There is no deity except Him. He is the Creator of everything. So worship Him alone, and He is fully aware of all things. —Al-An‘am 102

———————————————————— Say, “O people! If you are still unaware of what my religion is, then know that I do not worship those whom you worship besides Allah. Rather, I worship Allah, who causes you to die. I have been commanded to be among the believers.” —Yunus 104

———————————— Those whom you worship besides Allah are nothing but names you and your forefathers have invented; they have no reality. Allah has sent down no proof that they are deities. Authority belongs only to Allah. He has commanded that you worship none but Him. This is the straight path. —Yusuf 40

———- Allah alone possesses knowledge of all the secrets of the heavens and the earth that are unknown to His servants. All matters are presented before Him. So worship Him alone and rely upon Him. —Hud 123

——————————————————————————————– Whatever is before us, whatever is hidden from us, and whatever lies between the two—all belongs to Allah, your Lord. Your Lord never forgets. He is the Lord of the heavens and the earth and of everything between them. So worship Him and remain steadfast in His worship. —Maryam 64–65

————————– So whoever hopes to meet his Lord should do righteous deeds and associate no one with his Lord in worship. —Al-Kahf 110

There is no reason to restrict worship in these and similar verses to mere adoration, servitude, or obedience. In such verses, the Qur’an presents a comprehensive call. The Qur’an’s clear call is that whatever takes place as servitude, obedience, or adoration must all be for Allah. Therefore, restricting worship in these passages to only one particular meaning is essentially a restriction of the Qur’an’s call. Its inevitable consequence will be that those who believe with only a limited conception of the Qur’an’s call will follow it incompletely and imperfectly.

Din

Lexical Meaning

In the Arabic language, the word ‘Din’ is used in various senses.

First: power and authority; compelling others to obey; exercising sovereign power over them; making them slaves and subject to command. Thus it is said: ———— meaning, “he compelled the people to obey”; ——— meaning, “I overcame them, and they became obedient”; ———- meaning, “I subdued such-and-such a group and made them slaves”; ——– meaning, “such-and-such a person attained status and power”; ————– meaning, “I compelled him to do something he was unwilling to do”; ———– meaning, “such-and-such a person was forcibly compelled to do that”; ———– meaning, “I exercised authority and command over him”; —— meaning, “I entrusted the rule and authority over the people to such-and-such a person.” In this sense, a certain poet addressed his mother, saying:

—————————– You were appointed the guardian and caretaker of your children, until at last you reduced them to something finer than flour.

It is stated in a noble Hadith:

———————— That is, the intelligent person is one who restrains his lower self and performs deeds beneficial for his Hereafter. In this sense, the person who prevails over and exercises authority over a country, nation, or group is called a — (dayyān). Āṣim al-Haramāzī addressed the Prophet (peace be upon him), saying: ———– (O leader of mankind, chief of the Arabs). In this sense, — (madīn) means “slave,” while – (madīnah) means “female slave.” And —- means “slave girl’s son.” The poet Akhṭal says: ————

And the Qur’an says:

——————- That is, if you are not under anyone’s authority, obedient and compelled, then why do you not save a dying person from the hands of death?

Second: servitude and obedience; service; becoming submissive to someone; being under someone’s command; being crushed by someone’s influence and power and enduring humiliation in confronting it. It is said: ———- meaning, “I overcame them, and they became obedient”; ——- meaning, “I served such-and-such a person.” It is stated in a Hadith that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said:

——————- I wish to make the Quraysh obedient to a single statement which, if they acknowledge it, will cause all Arabia to bow before them. In this sense, an obedient nation is called —— (qawmun dayyinūn). It is in this sense that the word dīn is used in the “Hadith concerning the Khawārij”:¹

1. The meaning of this Hadith is not that the Khawārij would leave the dīn, that is, the millah. For when ʿAlī (may Allah be pleased with him) was asked about them, “Are they unbelievers?” he replied: —- meaning, “They have fled from unbelief itself.” He was then asked, “Are they hypocrites?” He said, “A hypocrite remembers Allah little, whereas their condition is that they remember Allah and engage in His remembrance day and night.” Thus it is established that in this Hadith dīn means obedience to the imam. Ibn al-Athīr wrote its meaning in his work al-Nihāyah:

—————

Third: Sharīʿah; laws and regulations; a way and method; religion; millah; customs and conventions; habit. Thus it is said: ———- “This has always been my way and practice.” ———- That is, whether a person follows a good or bad way, in either case the way he follows will be called his dīn. It is stated in a noble Hadith: ————- “The Quraysh and those who followed the way of the Quraysh.” It is also stated in a Hadith: ———- Before prophethood, the Prophet (peace be upon him) followed the dīn of his people; that is, in matters of marriage, divorce, inheritance, and other social and civilizational affairs, he followed the customs prevailing among his people.

Fourth: consequence of deeds; exchange; recompense; compensation; judgment; reckoning. There is an Arabic proverb: ——— meaning, “As the deed, so the result. You will experience the result according to the deed you perform.” The Qur’an mentions this statement of the unbelievers: ———– “Will we be held to account after death? Will we receive recompense?” It is stated in the Hadith of ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar:

——————– Do not curse the rulers. If you must say something, then say: “O Allah, deal with them as they deal with us.” In this sense, the word ——- (dayyān) is used to mean qāḍī, judge, or judge of a court. When a venerable person was asked about ʿAlī (may Allah be pleased with him), he said: ——- “After the Prophet (peace be upon him), he was the greatest judge of the Ummah.”

The Use of the Word Dīn in the Qur’an

First: influence, prestige, and dominion—from the side of one possessing authority.

Second: obedience, worship, servitude, and submission—from the side of one who bows before the possessor of authority.

Third: the rules, principles, way, or method that is followed.

Fourth: reckoning, judgment, recompense, and requital.

The Arabs used this word in different ways, sometimes with one meaning and sometimes with another. But since their understanding of these four matters was not completely clear or very developed, there was ambiguity in their use of the word. Consequently, it could not become a technical term for any systematic ideology. The Qur’an considered this word suitable for its purpose and used it with a completely clear and precise meaning. In Qur’anic usage, the word dīn represents a complete system of law. That system consists of four parts:

First: sovereignty, supreme and comprehensive power.

Second: surrender and obedience in response to sovereignty.

Third: the pattern of thought and action formed under the influence of this sovereignty.

Fourth: the recompense and requital granted by the higher authority in that system, as a reward for obedience or a punishment for rebellion and opposition.

The Qur’an has used the word sometimes in the first sense, sometimes in the second, sometimes in the third, and sometimes in the fourth. At times, by saying “al-dīn,” it has meant the entire system together with all four of its parts. To understand this clearly, consider the following verses of the Qur’an:

Dīn in the First and Second Senses

————————- He is Allah, who made the earth a dwelling place for you and the sky a canopy, gave you form, and made your forms beautiful. He provided you with wholesome sustenance. That Allah is your Lord—the Lord of the worlds, Possessor of great honor and blessing. He is Ever-Living. There is no deity except Him. So call upon Him, making the dīn sincerely devoted to Him. All praise belongs to Allah, the Lord of the worlds. —Al-Mu’min 64–65

———————— Say, “I have been commanded to worship Allah, making the dīn sincerely devoted to Him. I have been commanded to be the first to bow my head in obedience.” ……. Say, “I will worship Allah, making my dīn sincerely devoted to Him. You are free to worship whoever you wish besides Him.” … And for those who refrain from worshipping the Ṭāghūt and turn to Allah, there is good news. —Al-Zumar 11–17

————————- We have sent down to you the Book in truth. So worship Allah alone, making the dīn sincerely devoted to Him. Indeed, the dīn belongs exclusively to Allah. —Al-Zumar 2–3

Everything in the heavens and the earth belongs to Allah. The dīn is devoted exclusively to Him. Will you then fear and revere anyone other than Allah? (That is, is there anyone besides Allah whose command will make you refrain from disobedience and whose displeasure you will fear?) —Al-Nahl 52

—————– Do they seek a dīn other than Allah’s, while everything in the heavens and the earth submits to His command, willingly or unwillingly? And to Him they will all be returned. —Āl ʿImrān 83

——————– They were commanded nothing except to make the dīn sincerely devoted to Allah. —Al-Bayyinah 5

——————- In these verses, the word dīn is used to mean supreme authority and accepting its worship and obedience by acknowledging that authority. Making the dīn sincere for Allah means that a person will acknowledge no sovereignty, governing authority, or dominion besides Allah, and will make his own servitude and obedience so exclusively devoted to Him that he will never associate direct obedience to anyone else with obedience to Allah.¹

Dīn in the Third Sense

————————— Say, “O people, if you have any doubt about my dīn”—that is, if you do not clearly know what my dīn is—“then listen: I do not worship or obey those whom you worship and obey besides Allah.” 1. That is, whatever obedience you render to anyone besides Allah must be rendered under obedience to Allah and within the limits He has prescribed. A son’s obedience to his father, a wife’s obedience to her husband, a slave’s or servant’s obedience to his master, and all other such forms of obedience, if based on Allah’s command and within the limits He has set, are exactly obedience to Allah. But if they are free from Allah’s rules, prohibitions, and boundaries—in other words, if they constitute independent obedience—they are not obedience; they are open rebellion against Allah’s command and direct opposition to it. If a state’s system of government is established on the basis of Allah’s law and implements His commands, obedience to it is obligatory. If it is not, obedience to it is a crime and a form of sin.

Rather, I worship Allah, who takes your souls. I have been commanded to be among those who believe in this Allah. I have been commanded to remain firmly established exclusively upon this dīn and never to be among those who associate partners with Allah.

——————— Governance belongs to none but Allah. His is the command: worship none but Him. This is the true and correct dīn.

———————- Everything in the heavens and the earth belongs to Him. All are subject to His command. ……….. To help you understand, He presents an example from your own circumstances. Say, “Do any of the slaves under your authority share with you in what We have provided you? Do you make them equal partners with yourselves in ownership of wealth? Do you respect them as you respect your peers?” In truth, these wrongdoers merely follow their own desires without knowledge or understanding. Thus establish yourself exclusively upon that dīn, adhering to the natural disposition upon which Allah created humankind. There must be no alteration in Allah’s creation.¹ This is the true and correct dīn, but most people remain in ignorance.

1. That is, in the natural disposition in which Allah created human beings, no one besides Allah has any share in creating them, providing them with sustenance, or exercising lordship over them. No one besides Allah is humanity’s god, owner, master, or worthy of true obedience. Therefore, the natural order is that a person should be a servant of Allah alone, and not a servant of anyone else.

————- Strike the male and female adulterer, each of them, with one hundred lashes. Let no compassion for them prevent you from enforcing the dīn. —Al-Nūr 2

————————— From the day Allah created the heavens and the earth, the number of months in His decree has been twelve. Four of them are sacred and honored. This is the true and correct dīn. —Al-Tawbah 36

———————- Thus We made a way for Joseph. Under the king’s law, he could not have detained his brother. —Yūsuf 76

————————————— Thus, the partners they invented made the killing of their children seem attractive to many polytheists, so that they might bring them to ruin. And they made their dīn doubtful for them.² —Al-Anʿām 137

———————————— Or have they taken partners who have prescribed for them a law resembling the dīn, although Allah has not permitted it? —Al-Shūrā 21

1. A partner means someone made a partner of Allah in lordship, dominion, and legislation.

2. Making the dīn doubtful means that false legislators present sin in such an attractive form that the Arabs become uncertain, thinking perhaps this act is part of the dīn they originally received from Abraham and Israel (peace be upon them).

—————– For you is your dīn, and for me is my dīn. —Al-Kāfirūn 6

In these verses, dīn means law, regulations, Sharīʿah, way, method, and the thoughts and practices by which people live. If the authority on whose sanction a system is followed comes from Allah, then a person is following Allah’s dīn. If it belongs to a king or ruler, then the person follows the dīn of that king or ruler. If it belongs to scholars and priests, then the person follows their dīn. If it belongs to a lineage, tribe, society, or an entire nation, then the person follows their dīn. In short, whoever regards someone’s sanction as the final sanction and someone’s judgment as the final judgment, and follows a system accordingly, is a follower of that person’s dīn.

Dīn in the Fourth Sense

——– The message of which you are being informed—that is, the life after death—is certainly true, and the dīn will certainly come to pass.

——————— Have you seen the one who denies the dīn? That is the one who repels the orphan and does not encourage feeding the needy. —Al-Māʿūn 1–3

—————————- And what do you know of the Day of Judgment? Yes, what do you know of the Day of Judgment? It is the day when no person will have any power to benefit another. On that day, all authority will belong to the Lord. —Al-Infiṭār 17–19

In these verses, the word dīn is used to mean reckoning, judgment, and the consequence of deeds.

Dīn: A Comprehensive Term

The Qur’an has so far used this word almost in the meanings in which it was used in the speech of the Arabs. We have then seen that the Qur’an uses this word as a comprehensive term. The Qur’an means by it a system of life in which a person acknowledges someone’s supreme authority, accepts his obedience and dominion, and lives under his rules, regulations, and laws. He hopes for honor, progress, and reward by obeying his commands, and fears humiliation, disgrace, and punishment for disobedience and defiance. Perhaps no word in any language of the world is broad enough to convey its complete meaning. The modern word “state” comes somewhat close to it. Yet it still requires considerable expansion to convey the full meaning of the word dīn.

In the following verses, dīn is used as a technical term.

————————— Among the People of the Book, fight those who do not believe in Allah (1)—that is, who do not acknowledge Him as the sole possessor of supreme authority—nor in the Last Day (2)—that is, who do not believe in the Day of Reckoning and Recompense—who do not regard as unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have declared unlawful (3), and who do not adopt the dīn of truth as their dīn (4), until they pay the jizyah with their own hands and live in submission. —Al-Tawbah 29

In this verse, “the dīn of truth” is a technical term. Allah Himself, the one who established the term, has explained it in the first three phrases. We have indicated by numbers that all four meanings of the word dīn are mentioned in these phrases. Their totality is called “the dīn of truth.”

——————————— Pharaoh said, “Leave me to kill Moses, and let him call upon his Lord. I fear that he may change your dīn and cause corruption in the land.” —Al-Mu’min 26

After considering the detailed discussion of the story of Moses and Pharaoh in the Qur’an, there can be no doubt that dīn here was not used merely in the sense of religion. Rather, it was used in the sense of the state and civilizational system. Pharaoh’s position was that if Moses succeeded in his mission, the state would change. The system of life then operating on the basis of the rule of the Pharaohs and the prevailing laws and customs would be uprooted completely. In its place, either a different system would be established on entirely different foundations, or no system at all would be established and disorder would spread throughout the land.

—————————— Indeed, Islam is the dīn with Allah. —Āl ʿImrān 19

—————————- Whoever seeks a dīn other than Islam, it will never be accepted from him. —Āl ʿImrān 85

——————————– He is Allah, who sent His Messenger with guidance and the dīn of truth, so that He may make it prevail over every dīn, even though the polytheists dislike it. —Al-Tawbah 33

—————- Fight them until persecution and disorder disappear and the dīn becomes wholly devoted to Allah. —Al-Anfāl 39

————————————- When Allah’s help comes and victory is achieved, and you see people entering Allah’s dīn in groups, then glorify your Lord with praise and ask His forgiveness. Indeed, He is Ever-Forgiving. —Al-Naṣr

In these verses, dīn means a complete system of life. Every aspect of thought, belief, principle, and action falls within it.

The first two verses state that, for humanity, the only correct system of life before Allah is the one established solely upon obedience and worship of Allah (Islam). No other system of life—one founded on obedience to imagined powers—is acceptable to the Master of the universe. Naturally, it cannot be acceptable. For the One who created, governs, and sustains a person, and in whose kingdom that person lives like a subject, cannot possibly accept that person’s right to live in worship and obedience to any power besides Him or to follow anyone else’s commands.

The third verse states that Allah sent His Messenger with the true and correct system of life, namely Islam, and that the ultimate objective of his mission was to make this system of life prevail over all other systems of life.

The fourth verse commands the followers of the dīn of Islam: continue the struggle throughout the world and do not rest until fitnah—that is, the existence of God-defying systems—has been eliminated and every system of obedience and worship has been devoted to Allah.

The fifth verse addresses the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) after the revolution in Arabia had been completed following twenty-three years of uninterrupted effort. Islam, in its fully expanded form, had been practically established as a complete system governing thought and belief, principles, education, society, civilization, economics, politics, and every other matter. People from the farthest corners of Arabia were taking shelter under that system in groups. Thus, when Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) appointed task had been completed, he was told not to become proud, thinking of this work as his own achievement; the flawless and perfect Being belongs to your Lord alone, not to anyone else. Therefore, express His praise and glorification for accomplishing this great work and petition Him: “Lord and Sustainer! Forgive all the errors and shortcomings I committed during these long twenty-three years of service!”

The End