Chapter 1

Preface

The Purpose of His Advent, His Call, and His Historical Position

‘Muhammad, the Benefactor of Humanity’ (peace be upon him) is essentially the Bengali translation of ‘Muhsin-e-Insaniyat,’ written in Urdu by Naeem Siddiqui, one of the finest Islamic researchers and thinkers of the Indian subcontinent. The book has also been translated into English under the title Human Benefactor.

This book is not a biography of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) written in the conventional manner. Rather, it presents a remarkable, analytical, and instructive account of the unparalleled social revolution brought about by the Pure Messenger (peace be upon him), and of the extraordinary human community and society he built like a master craftsman. Thus, it is simultaneously a sīrah of the Pure Messenger and a report on the establishment of the Islamic social revolution. This is a highly beneficial book for those who aspire to build an Islamic society.

The Purpose of His Advent, His Call, and His Historical Position

Before studying the life of the Great Prophet (peace be upon him), we must gain a clear understanding of the purpose of his advent. We need to identify precisely what great task this benefactor of all humanity appeared in the world to accomplish, and for the successful completion of what decisive struggle he devoted his entire life. In reality, the history of the Messenger’s life is the history of a tireless struggle to implement an interhuman program. The Messenger’s life is a practical and action-oriented exposition of the teachings and ideals of the Qur’an. The Messenger’s life complements the sacred message whose torch Prophets Adam, Ibrahim, Musa, Isa, and the other prophets kindled in their respective eras. Unless we keep before us the nature and character of the Great Prophet’s work, its distinctive features, and the vastness of its sphere, we cannot organize the narrative of the prophetic life, evaluate and analyze the events that occurred in it, determine the true purpose of studying his life, or obtain from it what we ought to obtain.

The Savior of Humanity

When we review the history of all humanity, we encounter reformers of many kinds. We see many sweet-tongued or fiery orators, philosophers and thinkers, architects of vast empires, kings, monarchs and emperors, victorious heroes, founders of great parties and organizations, great leaders who stirred human civilization, mighty revolutionaries who repeatedly upheaved the social order, advocates of ever-new religions who appeared on civilization’s stage, moral reformers, and legislators. Yet when we consider their teachings, the achievements and contributions they left behind, and the overall results of their efforts and activities, we find no complete good or benefit anywhere. Whatever good and benefit is visible is partial, one-sided, and temporary. Such benefits appear in one area of life, after which they become mixed with various evils. Apart from the personalities of the prophets, history shows no other force or element capable of transforming human society from within. To color the whole of society and civilization with the same color of Allah—from the mosque to the marketplace, from the school to the court, and from the home to the battlefield—and to bring about a fundamental transformation from within the entire human society: this was the success of Muhammad the Messenger’s da’wah (peace be upon him). That was the true achievement of his life. Through his da’wah, people’s minds changed, their ways of thinking changed, their outlook changed, their customs and habits changed, the system of distributing rights and duties changed, the standards of right and wrong and of halal and haram changed, moral values were transformed, laws and constitutions changed, the rules of war and peace were altered, and marriage and social systems changed. In short, every component of civilization and every institution underwent fundamental transformation. From one end of this comprehensive change to the other, nothing but goodness and welfare could be seen. No part contained evil, no sphere contained corruption, and nowhere was there distortion. Everywhere there was only goodness; in every direction there was only constructive activity, improvement, and progress. In truth, through the hands of the Great Prophet, the complete resurrection and revival of humanity took place. Bringing forth a radiant dawn of truth and justice, he cleared the sky of civilization of its clouds. He inaugurated a historical era. In world history this is such a great achievement that no parallel can be found anywhere.

The Prophet of the World, the savior of humanity (peace be upon him), appeared in circumstances when all humanity was immersed in profound darkness. In some places, an age of brutality and savagery prevailed. Elsewhere, the curse of shirk and idolatry was destroying civilized life. Civilization had been completely devastated and thrown into disorder in Egypt, India, Babylon, Nineveh, Greece, and China. Only Rome and Persia still flew the banner of civilization. The outward splendor of Roman and Iranian civilization dazzled the eyes. Yet within those beautiful palaces, horrifying oppression and persecution continued. A foul stench rose from life’s wounds. Kings and emperors were not merely regarded as incarnations of God; they had themselves settled in as gods. In collusion with them, the landowning and priestly classes lorded it over the people. Under the terrible exploitation and crushing oppression of both the Roman and Iranian empires, ordinary people were suffocating to death. They extracted heavy taxes, land revenue, bribes, and gifts from the people. Moreover, the people were forced to toil like animals. Yet these rulers had no concern, no sympathy, and no solution or remedy for the people’s complaints, suffering, hardships, and calamities. The luxury and nature-worship of these ruling classes had completely destroyed their moral being. Temporary changes caused by changes of power and the rise and fall of kings, the appearance of ever-new conquerors, and bloody wars opened no path of liberation for ordinary people. After every change, ordinary people were crushed ever more severely in the millstone of exploitation. Whatever power appeared on the stage of authority used ordinary people as instruments of exploitation, consolidated its power with their blood and labor, and, after attaining victory and dominion, became even more oppressive and exploitative than its predecessors. Rome and Iran themselves were also continually locked in conflict. Various regions would sometimes fall under one empire and sometimes be swallowed by the other. Each time, however, the victorious power cruelly suppressed some group of its subjects. For example, when a place under the Iranian Empire came under Roman control, its fire temples were extinguished and churches were built in their place; conversely, when a place under Roman control fell to the Iranians, all its churches were turned into fire temples. Most regions of the world remained in the grip of anarchy. Wars, conflicts, clashes, and rebellions occurred constantly. Religious sects shed one another’s blood. In these riots and upheavals, human dignity was crushed, and humanity was humiliated and trampled. Even after inhuman toil, people could not meet the barest necessities of life. They could not offer even the slightest protest in the face of a hundred forms of oppression and persecution. They had to swallow their bitterest feelings in silence. Their consciences and minds were bound in such harsh shackles of slavery that they had no freedom even to utter a word. Who cared how terribly they were confined in iron cages, or how heavily the sky and air were laden with their sighs of despair and failure? Not a single window was open in that iron cage, nor did even a firefly of any doctrine or philosophy shine to bring the faintest ray of hope before humanity. Their souls cried out, but no one answered that cry from any direction. No religion came forward to rescue them, for the teachings of the prophets had sunk into the abyss and disappeared through distortion and misuse. Whatever remained in the name of religion had been turned by the religious establishment into a commodity for trade. They had joined hands with the contemporary tyrants and exploiters. Take Greek philosophy, Confucius, or the Laws of Manu; take the Vedas and Vedanta, Buddhism, or the laws of Justinian and Solon—all had become lifeless and inactive. Not a ray of light was visible from any direction. Whenever such a condition arises anywhere in the world—when people become confined in an iron cage and no light of hope is visible from any direction—a crisis and deadlock emerge in the social order. [The Qur’an has reviewed this historical condition of humanity very briefly, in a way for which no parallel can be found: “Corruption has appeared on land and sea because of what people’s hands have earned, so that He may make them taste part of what they have done, that perhaps they may return to the right path.” (al-Rum 41)] Thus, when the most terrible and horrific anarchy in history spread across the world, the torch of light carried by the greatest friend of humanity, the Prophet of the World, suddenly flared up in the pitch darkness of that anarchy. It tore through the darkness of the contemporary social catastrophe and illuminated every direction.

The nearest region to Arabia was the initial field of the Messenger’s work (peace be upon him). Even imagining the terrible condition prevailing there makes one’s body shudder. During the eras of ‘Ad and Thamud, or under the imperial influence of Saba and Yemen, some glimmer of civilization may once have appeared, but even that had been extinguished long before. The remaining regions of Arabia were still submerged in the terrible darkness of pre-civilization. The sun of civilization had not yet risen, and humanity had not yet awakened from the sleep of primitive jāhiliyyah. Intense tension prevailed everywhere. Conflict between people, war, and the ravages of plunder were ongoing. A jāhilī culture combining wine, adultery, and gambling had reached its peak. The Quraysh, with a religion of shirk and idolatry, were flourishing in the lucrative business of serving the sacred Ka’bah. The Jews, too, had opened shops of distorted religious commerce in competition with them. The rest of the Arabs were sunk in intellectual anarchy. The moneylenders of Makkah and Ta’if had spread their nets of usury. The accursed institutions of slave trading operated with great pomp. In short, people had descended to the lowest level of servitude to their desires and lived like savage hyenas and four-legged beasts. [It is said in Sūrah al-Furqān of the Qur’an: “They are like cattle; rather, they are even more astray.” (verse 42)] The powerful led the weak about by the nose, like flocks of goats and sheep. The weak lay prostrate at the feet of the powerful.

In such circumstances, Muhammad (peace be upon him) entered the field alone, calling for a complete and comprehensive transformation. In such a despairing environment, anyone else might have fled the inhabited areas. It is not that the world had never produced honest and sensitive people who hated wrongdoing; it had produced them in great numbers. But they were unable to confront and remedy wrongdoing. To protect their own lives, they left society and settled in forests, jungles, and mountain caves, becoming ascetics and monks. The Messenger (peace be upon him), however, did not think of saving his own life by abandoning distressed humanity to helplessness. Rather, he fought injustice and wrongdoing and opened a path of liberation for all humanity. Taking hold of the helm of civilization’s vessel, he steered it toward the correct destination. To break the deadlock created at that time by the two warring superpowers of Rome and Iran, he emerged as a third power. Gradually, when this third power stood on its own feet, it challenged both Rome and Iran. It overthrew the mighty leadership of both and freed the people from the terrifying cage of civilization, giving them the opportunity to move about in a free environment [Several hadiths deserve mention in this connection: “I was sent in the best of eras among the various eras of the children of Adam.” (Bukhari) “Allah chose Kinanah from the descendants of Isma’il, Quraysh from the descendants of Kinanah, Banu Hashim from Quraysh, and me from Banu Hashim.” (Muslim) “When Allah created the world, He placed me among the best class, then the best tribe, then the best family. Thus, I am the best both as an individual and as a member of a family.” (Tirmidhi)]. A path of liberation opened before the children of Adam, and the caravan of humanity surrounded by bandits set out toward the stations of progress and prosperity.

In short, the Messenger (peace be upon him) appeared as an emissary of liberation and savior for all the inhabitants of the world.

The Place, Time, and Human Material of His Advent

To return humanity to the right path, Almighty Allah selected, on the one hand, the finest personality of the Messenger (peace be upon him), and, on the other, despite the deplorable conditions of that age, He selected for the Messenger the most suitable time, the most appropriate place for the da’wah, and the best nation to address first.

Overall, the time may be regarded as most suitable because the era of tribal social organization was ending and the age of internationalism was approaching. After only a few turns, history was about to enter the age of science. The era of the Messenger’s advent actually marked the boundary between those two eras. To inaugurate a broader and brighter future, it had become necessary to restate the da’wah of the earlier prophets, revive its vital force, firmly establish the foundations of a civilization based on obedience to Allah, and present in full the social order based on Islam’s equality and justice, so that later ages might be illuminated by the rays of the Messenger’s achievement (peace be upon him). This era was also most suitable because no source of hope or support remained before people; therefore, it was easier for them to be encouraged to accept Islam.

If we consider the location of the da’wah, we find that although Arabia was a barren, desert land, it occupied a central position in the civilized world of that time. All the trade routes coming from the East, the West, and the North converged on the Arabian peninsula. Whatever external trade took place among different countries was conducted through Arab merchants. Trade caravans traveled between Amman and Yemen, Sana’a and Makkah, Jeddah and Yanbu, and Madinah and Dumat al-Jandal. These caravans could not travel safely without the permission of the Arab leaders, namely the Quraysh, and the passes issued by important tribes. Thus, the Arabian peninsula—especially Makkah, Ta’if, Madinah, Yanbu, and Dumat al-Jandal—was connected with all the regions of India, China, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Rome, and Ethiopia. A center of collective da’wah and propagation established here could achieve greater success than in any other region. Moreover, Makkah and Madinah held the highest importance in the Arab world. Religiously, commercially, and culturally, their leadership and authority were unrivaled.

Although the backwardness of the Arab nation in civilization and culture, its disorder and anarchy, and its economic hardship created several problems, they also had a major advantage. Arabia was largely free from foreign domination. Moreover, internally, no one possessed enough power to establish systematic political authority over the entire country and then use power, authority, law, and education to place society within a particular structure. Had such a powerful person or group existed, it could have extinguished the Islamic movement, just as various tyrannical kings of the past stopped the prophets’ da’wah before it reached completion. The Quraysh possessed considerable influence and prestige, and they did indeed oppose it with all their might. However, they had no systematic political authority over all Arabia. However deep their religious and commercial influence may have been, they could never serve as a substitute for an organized government.

From the religious perspective, the memories of the da’wah of earlier prophets remained vivid throughout this land. The signs of the fate that had befallen the nations of that age were also visible before everyone’s eyes. To the north lay Ur, the birthplace of Prophet Ibrahim. Nearby were the regions of Prophets Nuh, Lut, and Salih (peace be upon them). Palestine and Jerusalem, where the Children of Israel rose and fell and where Isa (peace be upon him) preached, also lay nearby. To the south were the dwellings of ‘Ad and Thamud, the area of the Marib Dam, and the kingdom of Saba. Egypt lay across the sea. There, Ibrahim and Isma’il strengthened and consolidated the center of tawhid. There they established brilliant examples of worship and obedience. What better region could there have been for obedience to Allah, tawhid, and the reform and development of humanity? If the call to Islam were raised here, conditions existed for the signs left by the former prophets to be readily revived in people’s minds.

The human material available in Arabia was also of the finest quality. The most notable feature of this material was that the sources of its power and abilities had, until then, remained unused and protected. The Arabs were still free from the destructive diseases produced by the brutal civilizations of Rome and Iran. Although they possessed faults arising from a savage way of life, their good qualities were by no means few. As Bedouins, they had an instinctive simplicity of temperament. They were completely free from artificiality. They had the opportunity to observe natural signs from close at hand, and thus could perceive the signs of the Great Truth throughout the universe. Hot weather, blasts of desert storms, difficult journeys by night and day, experiences of hunger and thirst, and daily killing and plunder produced in them fearlessness and daring, helping to awaken the inspiration of heroism. They were precisely the kind of brave men needed to lead a worldwide movement. They possessed generosity; miserly people would not have been suited to accomplish such a great task. The Arabs had extraordinary memories. They memorized not only their own genealogies but even the lineages of their horses. Such people were best able to adopt the principles of a way of life and convey them to others. They possessed a full sense of self-respect, and were therefore capable of safeguarding their dignity. Their language was also highly developed, vast, and flourishing. Its grace and ornamentation were beautifully expressed. Thus they could readily advance the spread of knowledge and science, and were especially successful in inspiring others through a revolutionary message.

The Arabs were firm and unyielding in their resolve. Even when following a wrongful path, they did so with complete inner ease and unshakable conviction of conscience. Facing every kind of obstacle and opposition, they advanced toward their desired goal. If they were directed along the path of justice and truth, however, they would likewise be steadfast and fearless. They possessed many other such qualities. On this basis, it cannot be denied that just as the Messenger himself (peace be upon him) was personally the greatest leader and caller in achieving the objective, he was also provided with the finest human resources.

Not only that, this human resource was eager to achieve progress and advancement in every respect. Among the intelligent and thoughtful people of jāhilī Arab society, religious unease and dissatisfaction had also begun to grow. Certain individuals had become anxious and eager to seek the Great Truth and receive guidance from the Lord of the universe. They had also developed a new political consciousness. Political institutions and infrastructure had arisen in cities such as Makkah and Madinah. A somewhat disorganized outline of a city-state with some degree of democratic character was taking shape. Furthermore, because of the scarcity of economic means and resources in Arabia, the population was compelled to expand beyond the desert region. When stagnation arises in an existing civilization and its leadership becomes inactive, it is Allah’s established and self-evident practice to place a new nomadic group on the seat of civilization’s leadership. In accordance with this practice, Allah brought down the power of Pharaoh and placed the Children of Israel in authority in its stead.

Considering these aspects, the Arabs were the finest human resource in the world of that time. This was the most suitable human resource for bringing about a fundamental and comprehensive revolution in human society.

The Revolutionary Kalimah

There is no room for thinking that the Prophet of the World (peace be upon him) began the work of reform and reconstruction without any creed, ideology, or plan. He did not begin this work driven merely by a vague consciousness, aimless emotion, and immature frenzy. Rather, he entered the field carrying the torch of the greatest truth in the universe. With an exceptionally sensitive mind, he reflected for years on the problems of life. For a long period, he meditated in the secluded chamber of the Cave of Hira about his inner and outer worlds. He exerted great thought to understand the principles by which civilization’s welfare and harm arise. But he took no practical step until Almighty Allah had illumined his heart with the light of truth and the greatest truth had been unveiled before him. That supreme truth was that the universe has one Creator and Lord, and that human beings are His slaves and servants. This Kalimah of truth was the seed of the revolution initiated by the Prophet of the World. From this seed grew the sacred tree of righteous life and pure civilization, whose roots are planted deep in the earth and whose branches spread into the lofty sky.

This Kalimah proclaimed by the Prophet of the World was revolutionary at the highest level. We all know that this Kalimah is “La ilaha illallah.” Lexically, it is extremely brief, but in meaning it is extraordinarily profound: “There is no deity except Allah. He alone is the deity.” Ilah refers to the power or being whom one may serve, for whom a person can selflessly sacrifice himself and everything he possesses, whose superiority one acknowledges and whom one worships, whose complete praise, glorification, sanctity, and adoration one declares; for whom one makes vows; from whom one hopes for every kind of good; whose seizure one fears; from whom one hopes for reward for good deeds and fears punishment for evil deeds; whom one regards as one’s absolute master and owner; whom one accepts as ruler and lawgiver; whose commands one follows and whose prohibitions one avoids; whose principles one adopts as the basis of one’s life; whose rulings concerning halal and haram one implements without question; whom one regards as the source of guidance; according to whose will and desire one shapes one’s way of life; whose beloved ones one honors and whose opponents one rejects; and whose pleasure one makes the foremost aim and purpose of one’s life. All these profound meanings were contained in the single word ilah.

Human society had seized these rights of the Ilah from the One Allah and divided them into fragments among various claimants. Consequently, countless ilahs had entrenched themselves in different layers of society and civilization. Human nature and desires, the customs and traditions of family and tribe, the traditions of caste, lineage, and ethnic solidarity, the domination of landlords and priests, and the arrogance of royal families and councils had all become their ilahs. In the name of these ilahs, one class of society ruled over, exploited, and plundered another. The words “La ilaha illallah” (“There is no deity except Allah”) struck a powerful blow at all these false divinities at once. The one who uttered this Kalimah was, in effect, declaring: I acknowledge no lordship except Allah’s; I recognize no one’s authority or domination; no law devised by anyone is acceptable to me; no superhuman right acquired by anyone is legitimate; I will bow before no one; I will heed no one’s pleasure or displeasure; my life will not run at anyone’s gesture; and all claims to godhood besides Allah will be shattered completely. In truth, this Kalimah was a declaration of genuine human freedom.

The second part of this Kalimah includes a pledge that the only path to guiding humanity—that is, showing it the way to liberation and welfare—and to correcting civilization and reforming society is the path shown by the prophets and messengers sent by Allah. The sole source of essential and certain knowledge necessary for life is revelation. From it, the human conscience can learn the principles by which to think. Muhammad (peace be upon him) is the final Prophet and Messenger, completing this chain of messengership. The right path of life must be sought from him, and under his leadership humanity can advance toward welfare and progress.

It is precisely because of the importance of this declaration that affirming it has become the first condition of accepting Islam. The muezzins recite this declaration aloud when giving the adhan; it has been described as the greatest dhikr and included in the prayer. In short, this declaration has, in every respect, become the slogan of the Islamic movement.

Whoever received this revolutionary declaration of the Messenger (peace be upon him) in his heart underwent a fundamental transformation within. Whoever admitted this declaration into his life was completely changed. From this seed, a new human being was born, nurtured, and developed.

The Messenger’s (peace be upon him) Objective in Reforming Society

To derive genuine benefit from the life of the Messenger (peace be upon him), it is essential to know the answer to an important question: how extensive was the desired change before the Messenger (peace be upon him), and what was the standard governing his work? Did he seek only partial change in the social system, or comprehensive change? Was his da’wah limited merely to religious and moral reform, or did it also have political significance? In other words, what was his desired objective in the social sphere?

The Qur’an itself has provided a very clear answer to this question. The purpose of the Islamic da’wah has been stated repeatedly in various forms. Here I will mention only two verses. In one place, the purpose for which all prophets and messengers were sent is described as follows:

﴿لَقَدْأَرْسَلْنَارُسُلَنَابِالْبَيِّنَاتِوَأَنزَلْنَامَعَهُمُالْكِتَابَوَالْمِيزَانَلِيَقُومَالنَّاسُبِالْقِسْطِۖوَأَنزَلْنَاالْحَدِيدَفِيهِبَأْسٌشَدِيدٌوَمَنَافِعُلِلنَّاسِوَلِيَعْلَمَاللَّهُمَنيَنصُرُهُوَرُسُلَهُبِالْغَيْبِۚإِنَّاللَّهَقَوِيٌّعَزِيزٌ﴾

“I sent My messengers only for this purpose and revealed the Book and the Balance to them, so that humankind might uphold justice.” (Surah al-Hadid: 25)

The matter has been stated in completely unambiguous language. The sole purpose of the Islamic da’wah is to build human life upon fairness and justice and to establish effective balance and justice in the social system. The subsequent part of the verse also indicates the use of weapons of iron for the same purpose. That is, military power is also indispensable for implementing, safeguarding, and developing the Islamic legal order.

The purpose of Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) emergence as a prophet has likewise been stated several times in even clearer language. For example:

﴿هُوَالَّذِيأَرْسَلَرَسُولَهُبِالْهُدَىٰوَدِينِالْحَقِّلِيُظْهِرَهُعَلَىالدِّينِكُلِّهِوَلَوْكَرِهَالْمُشْرِكُونَ﴾

“He is Allah, Who sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth so that he may make it prevail over every other religion and way of life, however displeasing this may be to the polytheists.” (Surah al-Saff: 9)

That is, the Quraysh and the other polytheists of Arabia would certainly make every effort to preserve their ignorant way of life. Whatever voice was raised against jahiliyyah would inevitably displease them. But, disregarding these likes and dislikes and ignoring their opposition, the Messenger (peace be upon him) had to complete the task of establishing and implementing Islam. If this had not been the purpose of the Islamic da’wah, then where would there have been any occasion for conflict, confrontation, jihad, and hijrah? Why was the call made for the sacrifice of life and wealth? For what purpose was the noble call, “Become helpers of Allah,” issued? For what purpose was the “party of Allah” formed? Toward what goal were martyrs selected? In fact, neither the Qur’an nor the Sirah can be understood without firmly grasping the purpose of the Islamic da’wah.

Now let us examine the various chapters of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) life history and investigate what his desired objective was.

At an early stage, the Messenger (peace be upon him) convened a meeting of the leading figures of the Banu Hashim clan to present his da’wah. There he briefly stated that this da’wah would ensure well-being in both this world and the Hereafter. Much later, while speaking with a Quraysh delegation, he repeated that statement, saying:

(Arabic*****************************)

“If you accept the da’wah I am presenting, it contains well-being for you in both this world and the Hereafter.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 316)

It is entirely unreasonable to understand the simple words “well-being in this world” as referring to some partial benefit. Every da’wah contains some partial benefit. Even every bad system contains some good things. In reality, well-being in this world means that worldly life becomes beautiful in every respect; that the social system becomes pure and perfect; that a permanent system of justice is established; and that people attain a pure and wholesome life.

At the initial stage, when conflict with the Quraysh had begun, they held another discussion with the Messenger (peace be upon him). On this occasion too, he said:

(Arabic***************************)

“If you give me just one word, through it you will gain authority over the entire Arab nation, and all the non-Arab peoples in the world will submit to you.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 316)

During every fair and the season of Hajj, he would visit the camps of the various tribes that came from different regions of Arabia and present this message to each tribal chief. He would tell them, “Come with me. Give me the opportunity to work and cooperate with me, so that I may clearly present to the people the message for which I was sent into the world.” [Those of the Banu Amir tribe who had gone for Hajj returned and reported: “Muhammad (peace be upon him) asked us to protect him, assume responsibility for him, and bring him to our territory.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 34)] Hearing this statement and seeing the Messenger’s passion and enthusiasm, Bukhayrah ibn Firas, the chief of the Banu Amir tribe, was so impressed that he told his close associates, “If I can get hold of this young man, I will be able to conquer all Arabia.” This discerning Arab chief had understood the objective of the Messenger’s da’wah and the possible results of his activity. He therefore wanted to bargain with the Messenger. He informed the Messenger (peace be upon him) that he was prepared to cooperate on one condition: “When you defeat your opponents and assume power, we will become the rulers after you.” There is no denying that Bukhayrah was extremely far-sighted. If the Messenger (peace be upon him) had been merely a religious preacher and admonisher in the narrow sense, with no political objective whatsoever, he would have clearly said, “My brother, I am a man devoted to Allah. What have I to do with a share in power? What connection do I have with the state and government?” But the Messenger (peace be upon him) did not answer in this way. He said:

“Power and authority are in Allah’s hands. He will give them to whomever He wishes.”

With these words, he rejected Bukhayrah’s condition and the proposal to share power. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 23)

During the movement under the leadership of the Messenger (peace be upon him), the idea of “gaining authority over Arabs and non-Arabs” became so famous that it seemed to have turned into the slogan of the Islamic movement. Even children would repeat it. The opponents treated it as something to mock. Whenever the Quraysh saw young men from the slave and impoverished classes who had accepted Islam and were being crushed under Quraysh persecution, they would point at them and say, “What more can I say about these holy men? They supposedly will become rulers of Arabia and Persia!”

However much ridicule, mockery, opposition, and resistance increased, the discerning people of the Quraysh were certainly realizing deep within themselves that this movement was no ordinary matter; rather, it was bound to produce extremely far-reaching results. Once, the leading Quraysh chiefs of Mecca sent Utbah to confer with the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him). Utbah tempted him with government positions, wealth, and every possible kind of profitable worldly benefit, hoping to persuade the Messenger (peace be upon him) somehow to abandon this revolutionary activity. But the Messenger recited to Utbah the first few verses of Surah Ha-Mim. As a result, Utbah’s face turned pale. He went back and said, “This da’wah clearly heralds a tremendous change. A revolution is approaching, and everything in social life will be overturned. So do not say anything to Muhammad (peace be upon him). Let him do what he is doing. Do not obstruct him. If the people of Arabia kill him, you will be rid of him anyway. But if he is victorious, his kingdom will be your kingdom, his honor your honor, and you will become the wealthiest people in the world.” In other words, even a man like Utbah had understood that an empire lay hidden behind this movement and that its outcome could be nothing other than political power. If he had perceived it, how could the Messenger (peace be upon him) and his companions have failed to perceive it? (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 314)

Once, when the Muslims were being crushed under intense violence and persecution, the companions of the Messenger (peace be upon him) described their suffering to him and asked him to pray for deliverance from that situation. At first, the Messenger explained to them that the struggle to establish Allah’s religion in practice involves facing severe obstacles at every step. Those who had carried out this responsibility in the past had endured indescribable suffering and hardship. Then, with complete certainty, he gave them the glad tidings that, “By Allah, Allah will certainly grant final success in this work one day.” Then, describing this success, he said:

“A person will travel completely alone from Sana’a to Hadramaut, fearing no one except Allah.” [Sirat Ibn Hisham—the first volume, p. 314 (the original Arabic book)] That is, such a just society and prosperous age will be established on earth, and such a peaceful order will begin that, in a place where robbery, highway robbery, and murder have become everyday occurrences, where human beings are kidnapped in broad daylight, and where women’s chastity is openly violated, a traveler will be able to journey anywhere completely alone, calmly and without fear. No one will dare touch his life, property, honor, or dignity. The Messenger (peace be upon him) also once said that an age was near when people would travel to and from Mecca without guards. [Shibli Nomani, Sirat al-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 3]

The clarity and brilliance with which the goal and objective have been expressed here are truly unparalleled.

Once, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) asked Uthman ibn Talhah, the custodian of the Ka‘bah’s key, to open the door of the Ka‘bah, Uthman rejected his request. At that time, the circumstances were outwardly extremely chaotic and unfavorable. Nevertheless, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “The day is not far off when this key will be in our hands, and we will give it to whomever we wish.” [Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, Qastallani, vol. 1, p. 158]

A study of the historic pledge, or bay‘ah, taken from the Ansar of Madinah at a place called Aqabah makes it clear that the Ansar too understood how extensive and far-reaching the opposition and conflict arising from the propagation of Islam would become. They also understood that the final settlement of this conflict would later take place on the battlefield. Through this pledge, on the one hand, the Ansar promised to fight the whole world, if necessary, in support of the Messenger (peace be upon him), and welcomed even the destruction of their chiefs and the loss of their lives and property. On the other hand, they extracted a promise from the Messenger (peace be upon him) that when Allah granted him victory, he would not leave them and depart. In this promise of war, this resolve to sacrifice and offer one’s life, and this dream of victory, did the Messenger’s purpose and objective not become clear? [Sirat Ibn Hisham (Arabic), vol. 2, pp. 50–51; Zad al-Ma‘ad (Arabic), vol. 1, pp. 50–51]

The concluding part of the supplication taught to him before he set out for the Hijrah was: “And appoint for me, from Your presence, an authority that will help me.” [Surah Bani Isra’il, verse 80]

In this verse, he was instructed to pray for a “supporting power.” That is, because governing authority was necessary to support this sacred mission and implement this noble objective, he was taught to pray for governing authority.

When pressure was put on his uncle Abu Talib to abandon support for the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the success of his mission, he told the Messenger (peace be upon him), “Do not create difficulties for me.” The answer the Messenger gave at that time is written in golden letters in history. He said, “Even if they bring the sun into my right hand and the moon into my left, I will not abandon this objective of mine.” The final words of his reply were: “Either Allah will grant victory to this objective of mine, or I will die while carrying out this work.” [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 278]

Here he said, “He will grant it victory,” not, “He will complete it.” The very word “victory” contains the idea of conflict and confrontation. And his final statement shows that the intensity of this conflict and confrontation reached the level of mortal danger.

After the Hijrah, Adi ibn Hatim came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and began examining his character. He tried to learn his understanding of the da’wah and observed his conduct from the perspective of a critic. In the course of doing so, his heart became overwhelmed and captivated. In keeping with the visitor’s way of thinking, he informed him that in the future the white buildings of Babylon would come under Islam, great wealth would be found there, and the Muslims would possess extraordinary power and influence. He also informed him of this feature of an Islamic, justice-based social system: soon you would see a woman traveling alone from distant Qadisiyyah, riding a camel, toward this mosque, and arriving here completely safely. How can one say that the Prophet whose eyes, during the Hijrah journey, outwardly undertaken in utter poverty, saw the bracelets of the Persian emperor adorning the hands of a woman from Surakah, was unaware of the ultimate outcome of his movement and the final objective of the new social system he had initiated? How can it be imagined that establishing an Islamic state was not his objective, that no preparation or struggle was undertaken for it, and that it was suddenly given to the organization of the Messenger (peace be upon him) merely as a reward? At most, one may say that he did not seek to establish a state and government merely for worldly interests or personal power and prestige. But how can it be said that an Islamic state was not desired for establishing Allah’s religion in practice, establishing justice and fairness, ensuring humanity’s liberation, and building society?

In reality, the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) objective was not merely to bring about a creedal and moral revolution; with equal seriousness, he also aimed to bring about a political revolution. Alongside reforming individuals, he desired to reform society. In other words, the Messenger (peace be upon him) regarded human beings as a collective entity, or as social beings, and wished to reform them together with all their social relationships. He did not regard people merely as individuals separated from society, nor did he restrict his da’wah to their personal lives. If this point is remembered and the purpose and objective of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) advent is firmly grasped in all its breadth, complete continuity will be discerned in the events of the Sirah, and an explanation will be found for every event, every step, and every initiative. Otherwise, the mysteries of the Sirah will not be uncovered, nor will the statements of the Holy Qur’an become clear.

One Religion, One Movement

The boundary of philosophy is as wide as the boundary of thought. The philosopher has no direct connection with the practical arena of life or with the ups and downs of history. A philosopher may reach conclusions in the light of events and circumstances, but does not participate in effective efforts, endeavors, and struggles to change the course of events and circumstances. Religion, in the narrow conventional sense, has a somewhat broader scope and a somewhat longer reach. Along with imparting certain creeds and beliefs, it also separates the individual from society and gives him a moral education. Yet religion’s path passes outside the social system. It does not concern itself with the country’s political structure, nor does it seek any extensive change in social institutions, and it does not challenge the existing system of government. The call of religion is always delivered through preaching, admonition, and advice. A preacher departs after offering some sweet and pleasant advice. He has no concern with whether his listeners are trapped in a crisis, whether an Islam-hating conspiratorial group is distorting and confusing their mentality and character through objectionable activities, whether daily events and circumstances have adversely affected their character, what ideologies and schools of thought are influencing them, in what ways and to what extent, for or against his good advice, or whether the deeply religious and God-fearing people educated by his religious instruction have become part of an un-Islamic state and social system. He has no collective objective. He has no plan for change. He feels no need for political or leadership wisdom and insight. Whatever can be done to create partial honesty and justice in a small part of life is done. Then, whether falsehood and evil forces continue to wave their flags joyfully across the remaining vast field is no longer their concern.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) was not a philosopher whose responsibility would end after presenting some lofty ideas, without having to think about actual conditions. Nor was he merely a preacher who, shutting his eyes completely to the pervasive anarchy and disorder, would address people only as individuals, distribute sweet advice, and never consider what consequences might follow. This great human being, the savior of humanity, made the complete transformation of human life, with full social awareness, his life’s mission. For this reason, he became acquainted with every force that influenced and controlled collective life. He kept watch over the leaders who drove jahili society and civilization. He even challenged them with arguments and evidence. He kept his eye on the continuity of history. He observed every wave of events and circumstances. He examined and tested every event with leadership insight and political wisdom to determine in what way it assisted or harmed the achievement of reform. He tried to learn the abilities and qualities of all kinds of people in society and, in light of them, sought to understand from whom and when help could be expected in the work of the da’wah. He compared his own strength and momentum with those of his opponents. He patiently waited for the most suitable time to take every step. As soon as the appropriate time arrived, he acted courageously. He properly understood how public opinion fluctuated and, by confronting every piece of opponents’ propaganda, weakened their influence. When he saw that gatherings for anti-Islamic poetry and speeches had been established, he created corresponding gatherings through Islamic poets and public speakers. He strictly followed Islamic principles, but not blindly. Rather, he watched the circumstances and surroundings, understood the demands of the time, and adopted a scientific outlook. Where there was an opportunity to advance, he advanced. When advancing did not seem appropriate, he refrained from an offensive. When faced with two dangers at once, he protected himself from one and confronted the other. When military action became necessary, he adopted it without hesitation. When an opportunity for a truce arose, he extended the hand of peace wholeheartedly. Above all, in all these efforts and endeavors, he not only preserved devotion and obedience to Allah and moral values, but continually improved and developed them. If this entire program and method of action are gathered from the pages of the Qur’an and the Sirah—the history of Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) life—and set before us, the difference will become clear between the conventional term “religion,” limited to personal worship, ascetic practice, and spiritual development, and al-Din, meaning obedience to Allah’s commands in every sphere of life. It will become known how vast the difference is between preaching and revolutionary calling, and between personal purification and social movement.

Since the Messenger (PBUH) led a movement to implement a complete and comprehensive way of life, he searched one by one for those who were honest by nature. Then whoever had the light of truth kindled in his heart, he included in an organization, trained him, and made him a partner in the trials he himself endured. Then, at every level and to the extent that organized strength was acquired, he brought it under his leadership into the struggle against the false system. This struggle took place in the arena of thought, in the political arena, and finally on the battlefield as well. He did not turn those who gathered around him into Sufis or dervishes. He did not shape them into ascetics and hermits, nor did he instill in them the mentality of merely protecting themselves from corruption, fearing the victorious forces of falsehood, or being intimidated by the powerful and wealthy. They were neither simple-minded to the point of foolishness nor world-renouncing to the point of inactivity. They were fearless and courageous; aware and wise; possessed of self-respect and self-confidence; clever and discerning; industrious and tireless; forward-moving and swift. They were not inactive like priests and saints. Rather, they were ever active and possessed every kind of virtue and ability. Thus, people of the finest character, receiving the finest training, bound by the finest organizational ties, and gathered under the finest leadership, became an invincible force. That is why, despite being a small minority, they were able to organize the vast majority of Arabia under their leadership. When the Islamic organization in Mecca numbered only forty people, they created a constant wave of excitement and fervor throughout Mecca and all its surrounding settlements. For years afterward, if there was one subject most widely discussed from house to house and alley to alley, it was the missionary activities of the Messenger (PBUH) and his companions. When, after reaching Medina, the standard-bearers of the Islamic movement numbered only a few hundred and the non-Muslims were still the majority, the foundation of the Islamic state was laid. The policy of the Messenger (PBUH) and his Islamic organization was not that the entire Arab society must first accept Islam, or that the character of most people must first be reformed, before work could begin to establish an Islamic society. Their outlook was not that missionary work should continue first, and thought and creed should gradually be reformed and corrected, until one day an Islamic state and social order would arise automatically, or Allah would grant Islam victory as a reward. Instead, they followed the perennial truth of history: the overwhelming majority of the people always remain ignorant and inactive, while only a small part of society remains active. One section of this active part takes the call to reform and revolution into the field, while another section obstructs it. The real conflict and confrontation takes place between these two sections of society’s active part. Once this conflict is resolved, the people become active of their own accord. They knew that as long as misguided leadership stood in the way of the people, attempts continued to distort their lives, or at least they were left in the darkness of ignorance and inactivity, they could neither broadly accept any call nor bring about any change in their practical lives. Even those who accepted the call could not fully beautify their lives amid the filthy environment created by corrupt leaders and rulers. Indeed, if change was delayed too long, it often became difficult even to preserve the standard that the callers to truth had reached through years of striving, effort, and labor, because an adverse environment continually pushes people backward. Therefore, the normal course of any social movement is to select people of honest character from society’s active section, accumulate as much strength as possible, and employ that strength in confrontation to crush the power of the opposing leadership. History bears witness that every revolution achieved to date has been carried out by active minorities. Since every reformative and constructive call attracts only people of honest character from society’s active section, creates positive emotion and inspiration in them, and increases their moral strength through training, the opposing side is defeated in confrontation despite possessing great power, influence, prestige, and, in some cases, numerical superiority. The Battle of Badr is a notable and conclusive proof of this. Thus, when so many honest and active people from Arab society had gathered around the Messenger (PBUH) that, energized by moral strength, they were capable of fighting the leadership of ignorance and its supporters, he did not hesitate for a moment to take the steps necessary toward his political objective. The significance of the Conquest of Mecca is that it completely overthrew and eradicated the leadership of ignorance. Once all obstacles were removed from among the people, they came forward in groups to accept Islam. There is not a single example in history of a beneficial state and social order adapting itself under misguided leadership, or of a revolution being accomplished without political conflict and confrontation merely through preaching, missionary work, and individual reform. Otherwise, during the thirteen centuries since the Rightly Guided Caliphate, extensive efforts have been made under the mosques, madrasas, and khanqahs in the name of preaching, missionary propagation, teaching, and self-purification; and even today scholars, Sufis, pirs, shaykhs, madrasa teachers, and writers continue to conduct such extensive and immense propagation through speech and writing that it is difficult even to imagine. Yet despite this, the desired number of people could not attain self-purification. Nor did the work of social reform advance far enough to transform the social order and reproduce the revolution of the Messenger (PBUH). It is clear that there was a major flaw in the thought, methodology, and revolutionary ideology followed until now. That flaw was this: to change the leadership, attempts were made to avoid political conflict and confrontation by separating some individuals from the overall social order and calling them to reform at the personal level. Some say that establishing the religion and founding an Islamic state was not the real objective, but that it came unexpectedly as a reward from Allah. But when they say this, they not only diminish the Messenger’s (PBUH) outstanding contribution and life-and-death struggle; they also smear them. Just consider how, through tremendous effort, this great personality brought the people of Medina’s various communities under a constitutional pact within only a few months; how, after immense exertion, he established relations of alliance and friendship with the tribes around Medina; how skillfully he built an impregnable army from a small number of Muslims and arranged regular military patrols; how, through sustained effort, he blockaded the Quraysh’s trade routes; how resolutely he repelled the Quraysh’s aggressive attacks; how cleverly he foiled the conspiracies of the Jews and hypocrites; how wisely and foresightedly he concluded the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah; with what daring courage he uprooted, one after another, every base of the Jews’ collusion; and with what alert intelligence he ended the regional rebellions of numerous formidable tribes. It is difficult to understand how these people can overlook the astonishing examples of statesmanlike insight and wisdom, political skill and discernment, and consummate efficiency embodied in all these measures. It is entirely true to call all this a reward from Allah, for every good thing is a reward from Allah. But a person receives a reward only after striving for it with all possible intelligence and insight. If anyone, by calling the establishment of the religion a reward from Allah, wishes to deny the Messenger’s (PBUH) struggle, hard work, skill, competence, wisdom, and political discernment, then he commits a grave injustice. Unfortunately, the political aspect of the Messenger (PBUH) has remained so obscure that today it has become difficult to hold a correct understanding of his call and objective. Yet unless this aspect is kept in view while studying the entire Prophetic biography, it is impossible to understand the vast gulf between the conventional narrow conception of religion and the comprehensive conception of the religion. The Messenger (PBUH) brought a complete way of life, or religion; he wished to establish the procedures and codes of conduct for the whole of life on the basis of that true and flawless religion, and he came to implement and enforce Allah’s law. We must therefore realize that the Messenger (PBUH) came to lead a movement for complete and comprehensive social and cultural reform and reconstruction. To lead this movement, he possessed the finest statesmanlike wisdom, discernment, intelligence, insight, and the highest degree of political awareness and understanding. Just as no one is his equal in any other respect, no one equals him in political leadership either. Just as he is the exemplary model in every matter of life, his life alone is also the model in political struggle and endeavor. The Messenger’s (PBUH) achievement and contribution were that he called people to integrity, struggled for the triumph of truth and justice, and established a complete society and state. Such a vast and momentous work cannot be accommodated within a limited and narrow conception of religion. Thus, this was the religion—that is, a complete way of life—not mere religion. It was a comprehensive movement, not merely a spiritual discipline.

The Indivisible Completeness of Life

The society and state established by the great movement of Muhammad (PBUH), the liberator of humanity, through an unparalleled revolution, were characterized by the fact that the consciousness and inspiration of its fundamental creed spread equally through every division and sphere of life. Complete unity and harmony prevailed throughout the entire social order. All institutions were dyed in one color and inspired by the same outlook. The Allah worshipped within the four walls of the mosque was obeyed in the marketplace and in the fields. The Quran recited in prayer was the same Quran whose law determined cases in the courts. The same moral principles that operated within the limited family environment were followed in international affairs. The same truth proclaimed from the mosque pulpit guided the government administration. The same creed firmly established in every individual’s heart operated throughout the entire structure. The outlook active in the educational system shaped all cultural activities accordingly. Just as Allah’s pleasure was sought in prayer and fasting, that same purpose and goal remained active on the battlefield while wielding the sword and facing arrows. This was an integrated system under which the whole of human life was directed by the same divine command. Different values and directives did not govern different spheres of life. There was no contradiction in this system. No part conflicted with another. Its various parts contained no complexity, ambiguity, patchwork, or hodgepodge. That is why the speed with which humanity achieved progress and prosperity under it was unprecedented in history.

The Life-Force of the Revolution

Humanity’s greatest misfortune is perhaps that whenever, throughout history, someone has had the opportunity to sit upon the throne of power—whether by the sword, through conspiracy, through democratic election, or through some sudden turn of events—he has begun to think that he is not merely the ruler of people but also their teacher and society’s reformer. When governing power is entrusted to such a self-appointed teacher and reformer, he settles in as the absolute master and sole arbiter of everyone’s destiny. He considers himself the world’s greatest thinker. He shows contempt for every source of knowledge and, keeping society’s most aware and wise people at a distance, takes arbitrary measures, each of which proves to be a terrible disaster. They want to make people truly human through violence and cool everything down with the stick. These self-proclaimed champions of revolution and reform often know nothing of human nature. They lack even basic knowledge of the causes that make the breaking down and rebuilding of life inevitable. They never try to learn the proper way to teach people humanity, where the source of corruption and confusion lies, or where the work of correction and remedy should begin and end. Instead of using earlier experience, they begin acquiring experience afresh in their own way. They close the doors to advice and criticism so that no well-wisher or lover of humanity can obstruct their destructive experimentation. They recognize only one panacea for every disease: force and violence—that is, enacting increasingly severe laws and imposing ever-new harsh regulations, placing spies around people, and repeatedly venting their anger on them through harsh punishment. The driving force of the revolution carried out by the Prophet of the World (PBUH), the liberator of humanity, was not brutality and coercion; rather, it was goodwill and love. He was extraordinarily compassionate toward people. He had genuine concern and love for the children of Adam. He tried to explain his call with the example that, “You are moving like moths toward the cavern of fire, while I am trying to hold you back one by one and save you from it.” That is why the Quran described him as a mercy to all the worlds. Consider this: he carried out such a great revolution, yet not a single example of coercion or violence can be found in it. The ten years the Messenger (PBUH) spent in Medina were entirely under an extraordinarily serious state of emergency. The fear of attack was constant. The Quraysh launched major attacks three times. Small battles here and there and border clashes were becoming daily occurrences. Various tribes living outside Medina would rise from different directions at different times to attack Medina. Small military units were sent out from Medina for patrols or to eliminate disturbances. Military guards were posted at night. In short, life was lived like that of a military camp. In addition, the constant new conspiracies of the Jews and hypocrites made public life unbearable: sometimes conspiracies to provoke war, sometimes conspiracies to fragment Muslim society and set Muslims against one another, sometimes conspiracies to undermine and defeat the Messenger’s leadership, and at times even conspiracies to assassinate the Messenger himself. What emergency could be more serious than this? Yet the Messenger (PBUH) never played the role of a dictator. He declared no state of emergency, introduced no arbitrary regulations, sent no one to prison under security laws, established no summary courts during the emergency, stripped no one’s skin by repeated flogging, imposed no fines, placed no burden on any citizen beyond Allah’s law, and did not deprive people of the right to criticize or hold differing opinions, nor impose restrictions on anyone. He took no action even against a dangerous internal enemy and schemer such as Abdullah ibn Ubayy. He relied entirely on the sincerity and earnestness of his call and the purity of his own character. He neither intimidated anyone, nor showed contempt for anyone’s humanity, nor displayed arrogance or haughtiness. Rather, he patiently tolerated the arrogance and haughtiness of people who, despite their outward bluster, were actually weak and helpless. For this reason he easily won even the hearts of his enemies. His companions were always ready to welcome every new and old law, while his opponents felt extremely lowly and insignificant before him. Then, when they bowed before his truthfulness and sincerity and accepted Islam, a total and radical transformation began within them.

The divine love active in the heart of the Messenger (PBUH) had another form: profound love for humanity. The true nature of this love can be understood from the following incidents. The people of Mecca did not allow him to live in peace even after he went to Medina. When they were struck by famine, he sent them food and five hundred gold coins in cash. His compassionate nature toward humanity can also be understood from the incident in which he lost sleep as soon as he heard the groans of the prisoners of war at Badr and ordered their bonds loosened. The release, on the Messenger’s (PBUH) order, of six thousand prisoners of war from the Hawazin tribe in response to a single appeal was another vivid example of his magnanimity. If one wishes to see another expression of the Messenger’s (PBUH) compassion for humanity, one should observe his extraordinary conduct at the Conquest of Mecca. This liberator of humanity entered Mecca as a complete conqueror. Those who had fought against him for twenty years stood utterly helpless before him. Anyone else would have taken revenge for every attack, ordered a vast massacre, and left only after rivers of blood had flowed. He would not have departed without leaving heaps of corpses. By every standard—Arab society’s universally recognized customs, morality, or law—the people of Mecca were grave offenders. In both religious and political terms, they had made themselves deserving of the death penalty. But at the moment of victory, the Messenger’s (PBUH) heart melted with love for humanity, and he placed the entire history of the Quraysh’s oppression and persecution under the protection of forgiveness and declared:

“There is no complaint against you today. You may go. You are free and at liberty.”

Moreover, he won their hearts by giving them wealth, and instead of humiliating and rejecting them, entrusted them with various responsibilities and embraced them. It was as clear to the Messenger (PBUH) as broad daylight that a revolution that begins by taking revenge ends of its own accord, while a revolution that practices forgiveness and magnanimity subdues even its enemies and turns those who resist into servants.

It was solely because of the Quraysh’s excesses that the Messenger (PBUH) was compelled to adopt such a firm course, so that the edge of their bloodthirsty swords would be blunted. After they imposed war upon him, he took all necessary measures to protect the Islamic state and society. Yet the Prophet (PBUH), inspired by love for humanity, devised such military policies and defensive strategies that casualties and bloodshed were minimized and human dignity remained upheld even on the battlefield.

No other revolution offers such a brilliant and extensive example of love for humanity. The revolution of the Messenger (PBUH) was a genuinely educational revolution, founded upon concern for the welfare of humanity.

The New Human Being

We have before us examples of countless reformative, constructive, and revolutionary movements. Yet not one of these movements changed people. Each tried only to change the external environment while leaving people as they were. But every such change failed completely to solve the problems of human life because it could not bring about change from within people. The most astonishing aspect of the Prophet of the World’s (PBUH) achievement was that people changed from within. They did not merely change; a radical transformation took place in their lives. The instinct-worshipping beasts that wandered about in human form were eradicated by the influence of a single creed. At once, from their ruins emerged a group of righteous people devoted to Allah. The brilliance of these new people’s character is dazzling. Consider the change in the life of Umar (RA), who had been an unruly, wine-drinking young man of Mecca. Think of how extraordinary the change was when it came to Fudalah. Look at Dhu al-Bijadayn, who trampled upon his luxurious life and began living the life of a dervish. Look at Abu Dharr (RA), who, inspired by revolutionary fervor, stood before the Kaaba and challenged the Age of Ignorance, then endured a public beating. Consider the condition of Ka‘b ibn Malik and Abu Khaythamah. Look at the revolutionary courage and morale of slave women such as Lubaynah and Sumayyah. Turn your attention to Ma‘iz ibn Malik al-Aslami and the woman of the Ghamidi tribe. Learn from the courage of Ja‘far al-Tayyar at the court of the Negus. Draw inspiration from the fearless conversation of Rabi‘ ibn ‘Amir at the court of the Iranian commander. In this assembly of stars, is there anyone who does not sparkle with the radiance of faith?

It was through the combined efforts of such people that the entire society was built, and with such leaders and workers that the honest and truthful state order was established, in which every directive was implemented as soon as it was issued. On one side, a prohibition on drinking wine was issued; on the other, drinking vessels already at people’s lips were immediately thrown away, and jars of fine wine were smashed, flooding the public roads. On one side, instructions were issued for women to cover their heads and chests; on the other, they immediately began making and using scarves. On one side, the call to jihad was made; on the other, even young boys at once began trying to prove their fitness for jihad by rising onto their toes. On one side, assistance was requested for jihad; on the other, wealthy merchants like Uthman arrived with entire camel caravans loaded with goods, self-sacrificing people like Abu Bakr piled all their household resources before the movement’s leader, and even day laborers brought and poured out the dates they had received as a day’s wages. On one side, the Ansar were asked to help resettle the Muhajirun; on the other, the Ansar immediately divided their homes, fields, and orchards in half, establishing an unprecedented example of brotherhood. When administrative officers and employees were called upon to rise above a job-holder’s mentality and work in positions of responsibility, officials serving as provincial governors for a daily allowance of one dirham astonished the world. When soldiers were ordered to deposit the spoils of war with their commander, they did so with such precision that every soldier deposited even a needle with his commander. History will record in golden letters the incident in which a soldier named Amir came into possession of a priceless jewel from the spoils of the Battle of Mada’in and, without letting anyone hear even a whisper of it, traveled a long distance under cover of night to deliver it secretly to his commander. These were the people who created that pure and holy environment in which crime was extremely rare. During the Messenger’s (PBUH) entire ten-year Meccan period, only a handful of complaints came before the courts. It was such a clean and unstained society that no detective police were appointed; rather, people’s consciences served as their guards and supervisors. This was Muhammad’s (PBUH) revolution. It changed not only the external environment but also the mind and heart from within, creating a new character. Thus, this revolution succeeded in solving all the fundamental and genuine problems of individual and collective life, and through it a path was created for liberation from the crisis of contemporary civilization.

The Prophet of the World’s Extraordinary Self-Sacrifice

This revolution was unprecedented in another respect as well. The person who brought about this revolution brought it to completion through indescribable sacrifice and devotion, yet accepted no reward or compensation for it. He freely gave away all his resources for the welfare of humanity, but accepted not even the amount of compensation that, in terms of reason, law, morality, and social custom, would not have been unjust or unlawful. After making such a great contribution and achievement, accepting a small return would not have touched him with even the slightest stain of selfishness. Yet he did not accept it. Is there anywhere a comparison for such sacrifice? Let us first consider the economic aspect. The Messenger (PBUH) sacrificed his profitable business, dedicating all the capital earned from it to this noble work. When the era of success arrived, he distributed abundant wealth with his own hands and chose hunger, poverty, and an austere life for himself. He left even a little savings for his family, not a piece of land, did not establish any economic entitlement for them, did not leave them any permanent seat of power by inheritance, and did not fill his house with servants, attendants, brightly colored riding animals, or luxurious goods.

From the political point of view, it becomes clear that he established no privilege for himself, exercised no authority against anyone by transgressing the limits prescribed by Allah, and enacted no despotic laws to enhance his political image. A highly tense situation always prevailed in Madinah. He had to confront the ever-new conspiracies of the Jews and the hypocrites. Yet he arrested no one, imposed no restrictions on anyone’s movements, issued no order depriving people of their personal freedom, established no summary courts, and did not flay anyone’s skin by whipping them. Rather, he granted people the freedom to criticize and express their opinions, the freedom to adopt a different opinion, and even the right not to accept his noble advice. These rights were not merely rights on paper. People exercised them in practice. Many a time, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) abandoned his own valuable opinion and accepted a different one. Whenever he wished to grant someone a special favor, he sought permission from his Companions. For example, when his son-in-law Abul ‘As was captured as a prisoner of war, Zaynab sent a necklace as his ransom; it was a memento of Hazrat Khadijah (may Allah be pleased with her). The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sought the Companions’ permission to return that necklace. Similarly, when Abul ‘As’s belongings were brought as spoils of war, he also returned them after obtaining the Companions’ permission. At a place called Ji‘ranah, a delegation came to request the release of the prisoners of war from Hunayn, appealing on the grounds of their distant kinship with the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). By then, the distribution of the prisoners had already been completed. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) agreed to release the prisoners belonging to his own clan, Banu Hashim. Regarding the rest, however, he said, “Appeal to the Companions in their public gathering.” When the Companions learned that the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) had released the prisoners belonging to his own clan, they all released their prisoners as well. In such matters, he never used pressure or coercion to accomplish anything.

From the social and assembly-related point of view, we find that he preferred equal rights for himself. He did not like any special status. In food and drink, clothing, and residence, he created no extraordinary or aristocratic distinction for himself. Nor did he designate a special place for himself to sit in an assembly. He did not like people to rise reverently before him or address him as lord, sir, or the like. During war and in exile, while digging trenches and building mosques, he personally worked shoulder to shoulder with his Companions, cutting and carrying earth, breaking stones, and sawing wood. He permitted creditors to use stern language toward him so that they would not hesitate to demand repayment of what was owed to them. He even presented himself at a public gathering for retaliation and said, “If I have wronged anyone, let him come and take retaliation from me.”

Where Do We Stand?

This was the great revolution initiated by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). We have been appointed its guardians and custodians. It was that great message for which we were made “witnesses” to humankind and a “middlemost ummah.” This position is the finest and highest position of the Muslim ummah. This was that true Kalimah whose responsibility has been placed upon our shoulders. The purpose of entrusting it to us was that, as representatives of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), we might remain liberators of humanity until the Day of Resurrection. Whenever human life falls into problems and crises and human civilization is cast into the grip of profound chaos, we are meant to become its support. But in practice, we have failed to become that. We have shown negligence in keeping the torch of this true Kalimah burning, and with our own hands we have brought ruin upon this true way of life. As a result, when the thinking people of this age began to go astray, we were no longer qualified to fulfill our responsibility. And today, because of our own incompetence and inability, all human life is afflicted by crisis and chaos. The conflicts created by mutually opposed materialist ideologies continue to destroy the mental peace of the people of the world. Global leadership is held by forces that turn away from Allah, and we have now become dependent upon those very forces. Even after repeatedly suffering blows from adverse circumstances, we have not regained consciousness. Even after becoming victims of continuous humiliation and disgrace, we have not developed regret or remorse. Despite witnessing the strife and disputes of the Muslim world and the disastrous calamities and misfortunes of humanity, we have been unable to turn our attention to the essential task that must be undertaken.

Let us examine thoughtfully what stage of history humanity is passing through now and where we stand.

During my brief lifetime, I have seen myself, the people in my immediate surroundings, and the people of the entire world continuously falling victim to a condition of anxiety, apprehension, restlessness, crisis, and fear. From the home to international organizations, I have seen an atmosphere of suspicion toward others, tension, hostility, conflict, discord, and confrontation prevailing everywhere. Throughout this entire period, it has seemed to me that history is continually seething like a boiling pot over a blazing stove. Like the billions of people of the world, I too seem to be tossed about in this pot like a tiny grain of rice or lentil. Our earth, crushed by two successive world wars and ground down by countless regional wars, has still not recovered. Yet the sword of another devastating war hangs over its head. In this short period, there is no end to the destruction and plunder I have witnessed, the upheavals whose violent shocks have turned everything upside down, the fall and emergence of empires, the conflicts, conspiracies, and intrigues of ideologies, the countries and regions broken into pieces, and the millions upon millions of people made homeless. In this very subcontinent, at the dawn of independence, I saw a flood of blood flow overhead, and in that flood I saw human lives, property, honor, and precious heritage and values swept away.

If one looks behind the glittering curtain of the materialist civilization prevailing throughout the world, such a miserable spectacle of humanity comes into view that the soul of every human being trembles. All humanity is bound within the tentacles of an octopus made up of a handful of desires. Everywhere, war is being waged for wealth and power. The lamp of humanity’s moral consciousness has gone out. Along with the development of urban civilization, crime is increasing at an extremely rapid rate. Psychological instability has become intense, and mental peace has completely vanished. Such fundamental distortions have arisen in people’s minds and characters that no aspect of life has remained free from their harmful effects. The life-force of truth has departed from philosophy. Creeds, beliefs, and ideologies have lost their balance. Spiritual values have disappeared. Justice has no existence in state laws and regulations. In politics, selfishness and self-centeredness have entered in place of a spirit of service. In economics, two classes have emerged: the exploiters and the exploited. All the diverse forms of beauty in the fine arts have been filled with sexual titillation and vulgar expression. Contradiction and conflict prevail everywhere in the world of civilization, and the whole of history has become a terrifying drama. Intellectual development has advanced enormously. Yet the foolishness of the intelligent continues to cause us profound distress. Many new branches of knowledge and science are being discovered. But the ignorance and stupidity nurtured by it have made the children of Adam miserable. Abundant wealth is scattered everywhere. Yet people continue to suffer the torment of hunger and deprivation. Despite the existence of thousands of organizations, political bodies, ideological alliances, and treaty-based bonds, there is no brotherly relationship among human beings; there are only relationships resembling those of wild beasts. Many grandiloquent slogans are uttered in favor of the advancement of intellectual, political, moral, and cultural consciousness. Yet the most reckless and despicable methods of oppression and persecution are still being implemented against humanity. The entire world has today become an arena of wrestling. In some places, a bloody war rages between imperialism and freedom-loving people; in others, between communism and capitalism; in others, between democracy and dictatorship; in others, between individualism and collectivism; and between Orientalism and Occidentalism.

This is the world in which we are living. In this age of artificial satellites and missiles, science, like the genie obedient to every gesture of Aladdin’s wondrous lamp, continually supplies new storehouses of material power at every signal from human beings. The hidden secrets of nature, locked away since time immemorial, are being unveiled with the key of science and technology. Astonishingly fast means of transport and instruments of communication are giving human beings extensive control over space and time. Nuclear power has subdued a vast army of destructive demons and placed them standing before humanity. They are merely awaiting a movement of the eye. On the other hand, the condition of human beings themselves has become such that they are more helpless than ever in the grip of satanic and destructive forces. These forces have repeatedly incited them to fight against their own selves. Age after age, these forces have caused humanity’s great achievements and dazzling civilizations to be destroyed by its own hands.

Imagine a caravan that has set up camp on the summit of a mountain. Beneath splendid tents, its members are absorbed in feasting, dancing and singing, and drinking wine. Moreover, they possess large quantities of commercial goods, cash, vehicles, and livestock. Yet only a few feet below the floor of their camp, a terrifying volcano is preparing to erupt lava. In a short while, the entire mountain will explode, and blazing fire will consume everything to ashes. The condition of our present civilization’s caravan is much like this. Within the mountain upon which it stands at the present stage of history, the eruption of the lava of the most terrible crisis and calamity is imminent.

Fate has confronted us with the challenge of a tremendous global crisis. There is no opportunity to evade this crisis and flee backward. Nor does the present civilization, or the human beings it has produced, possess the ability to answer this challenge. No new philosophy is emerging that could at least provide a temporary means of consolation. In no direction is there any sign that a path is likely to open.

At this critical hour of unrest, when I look around, I see an unfathomable sea of darkness surrounding me from every direction. In this vast sea, far away, at a distance of fourteen hundred years, I can see a bright point of light shining.

It is nothing other than the torch of the message of Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him—the greatest friend, greatest benefactor, and greatest savior of humanity. It is that lamp whose light we, despite being his ummah, have lost amid the debris of our misguided thoughts and unruly actions.

The Perspective on Studying the Seerah

In my view, there is only one purpose in studying the biography of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). It is that the torch of the Messenger’s message should once again illuminate us and the entire world. May human society find, amid the darkness of this age, the path to deliverance, just as it found the way out of the crisis of the sixth century of the Christian era.

Unfortunately, we have had very little success in studying the biography of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) with this desired perspective and inspiration. We are not being moved by the attitude that we must discover a way of life from the Messenger’s biography and shape our lives accordingly; rather, other attitudes have entered into it and continue to increase.

There is no shortage of Muslims who are interested in studying the Seerah, that is, the biography of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), solely to earn reward. (Of course, it cannot be denied that every effort to attain closeness to the Messenger is beloved to Allah and that one should hope for reward for it. But how can it be denied that the purpose of every such effort should also be to arrange one’s life more beautifully?) Milad gatherings are held with great pomp, often on the basis of the belief that the radiant spirit of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) appears at those gatherings and is pleased to see the devotion and love expressed by his devotees. In some places, sweets are distributed; in others, flowers are scattered everywhere; elsewhere, incense, perfume, and fragrant resins are used excessively; and in still others, the same belief is expressed through elaborate illumination. The image reflected by this kind of excessive devotion to Milad al-Nabi or the Seerah of the Prophet is not the image of a human being made of flesh and blood, but rather the image of a superhuman, luminous being. This being casts no shadow; all his actions are miracles, supernatural and extraordinary; angels carry out all his tasks; and everything about him is mysterious. It is undeniable that the Messenger’s moral and spiritual rank was many times higher than that of all humanity. His life contained many supernatural events, and he had many miracles. At times, angels also participated with him in various activities. But it must be acknowledged that this blessed life was nevertheless the life of a human being. The reason for his greatness is precisely that, while being human, he presented the example of such an incomparable life. All his actions were carried out within the bounds of natural laws and the norms of society and civilization. At every inch of the path to success, examples of sacrifice and selflessness were set. Because that life was the life of a human being, it has remained exemplary for us, and by this very fact it contains ideals for us to learn from. Since he was a human being like us, we can learn from him steadfastness and courage, adherence to principles and ideals, and a sense of responsibility; we can gather inspiration to serve humanity and develop powerful motivation to build resistance against evil forces. If the Messenger’s biography is turned entirely into a collection of miracles and transformed into a superhuman achievement, what model will it contain for ordinary people? People may become bewildered and overwhelmed before such a personality, but they will be unable to reflect any of his influence within themselves. They may hold profound devotion and respect for him, but they will be unable to imitate and follow him. That is why it is seen that wherever this particular kind of devotion has arisen, and the deeper it becomes, the more real life becomes detached from following the Prophet. The situation may even reach the point where those engaged in the most heinous social crimes display such cheap devotion to give their restless hearts some consolation, saying:

“Whatever we may be, we belong to the ummah of your beloved Prophet.”

On the other hand, another tendency that came from the West has entered our society; it is called personality worship. This tendency essentially springs from nationalist attitudes and impulses. It is an expression of a kind of national egotism that displays our notable personalities before others. The message of this tendency is: Look how many great personalities we have; how many eminent leaders have passed through our history; and how many memorable achievements they left behind, which constitute our glorious heritage. The sign of this tendency is that it is always devoid of substance. Under its influence, different nations celebrate the birthdays, death anniversaries, and other memorable days of various personalities with great pomp. Yet nowhere do these days provide an opportunity for the nation to learn from the lives of those great personalities. No imprint of the principles and ideals of the personalities proudly presented as models of humanity can be seen in the lives of those celebrating them, nor is any desire to adopt such an imprint observable. Under this tendency, the festivals held to revive the memory of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) also invariably feature the same sort of talk. Yet no effect of it is visible in the lives of the speakers and organizers.

The third erroneous perspective is to regard the message of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) as a religion like other religions, instead of a complete way of life. Those influenced by this perspective believe that the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) came only to convey or teach some articles of faith, several forms of formal worship, some supplications, a few moral counsels, and certain legal instructions. His purpose, they think, was to create people who would adopt Muslim dress and appearance personally, yet become the best workers of whatever filthy social system happened to be in place. Such people learn from the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) only prayer, fasting, voluntary acts, dhikr, and personal character and conduct. But in the broader activities of collective life, they become, without the slightest hesitation, supporters of every false power and collaborators in every kind of wrongdoing. They forget the countless golden chapters of the sacred book of the Messenger’s biography and concentrate so exclusively on a single chapter that they become lost there. Judging by the example of imitation of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) that this group has presented so far, not even an educated Muslim youth, let alone a non-Muslim, can imagine that the Messenger could be their leader and that a satisfactory solution to the most difficult contemporary problems could be found through him. This perspective too has become an obstacle to a correct understanding of the Messenger’s person and to following his ideal.

The only reason these erroneous perspectives have been able to survive is that the environment is favorable to them. The political, social, and economic systems within which we spend our lives require a particular kind of person. It is like a factory that requires a particular kind of machinery. This social system wants to see an entirely different kind of character among its members. Its activities can be carried out only by people possessing an entirely different mentality and character. In other words, in the practical activities of the present, there is no real need for the model of humanity reflected in the life of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). The overall organization of the present has no demand for the thought and action drawn from the life of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). The human standard of the ministers, bureaucrats, judges, lawyers, leaders, journalists, generals, soldiers, police officers, orderlies, revenue officials, administrators, landlords, farmers, writers, literary figures, and laborers demanded by the collective system of today’s world is completely opposite to the human standard of those whom the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) created and presented on the stage of history. The children whom today’s parents lovingly raise in every home are being shaped according to the demands of the prevailing social system. The educational institutions that produce ten million people over fifteen or twenty years do so according to the needs of the society in operation. In accordance with the demands of the prevailing society, every conscious person spends a lifetime shaping his character and mentality in a particular form. Whatever this social system loves, society automatically works to produce among its members. And whatever it dislikes and hates, all the resources of the environment strive with full force to uproot and eradicate. Whatever kind of slogans the prevailing social and political system loves, those slogans spontaneously become common on everyone’s lips. Whatever clothing it favors begins to appear naturally on everyone. At a single signal from it, even the veils are removed from the faces of the daughters-in-law of traditionally modest families. Whatever the prevailing society seeks to establish as respectable conduct is regarded as respectable. Whatever it dislikes is considered undesirable and dishonorable. Whatever art it likes becomes popular, while whatever activities it rejects become universally neglected. This society creates its own values and compels everyone to accept them. All other values and traditions consequently become dim and lifeless. Some proud individuals and families build resistance by exerting force against the constraints of the environment. But the pressure of economic deprivation, cultural backwardness, and inferiority complexes is so powerful that, over time, they become enfeebled and begin to surrender to the environment. Even if they do not surrender, their next generation becomes dispirited. Thus, whether consciously or unconsciously, when the entire world is engaged in shaping its life and character according to the demands of the environment, even if that world writes thousands of books about the Messenger’s biography and makes ample arrangements for sermons and admonition, where will the people obtain the inspiration to follow his sublime ideal?

The real fact is that the Messenger’s biography contains no lesson for those who compromise with an un-Islamic system and whose interests have been reconciled with those of false powers. They may nod their heads while reading books of the Seerah and derive mental pleasure and satisfaction. Their knowledge may also increase, but from where will they obtain the inspiration to shape their own lives in the light of the Messenger’s Seerah or biography? It is utterly impossible for their inertia and stagnation to be removed. But my contention is that the life story of Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, is neither the tale of Sohrab and Rustam, nor an episode from an Arabian romance, nor a fictional story about a legendary hero. His position is never so low that we should reduce him to a subject of mere entertainment or scholarly study. His worth and dignity are so exalted that they do not permit us to use the Seerah merely for mental satisfaction. Our profound devotion and respect for him also prevent us from turning the history of his life into a means of satisfying a desire for mere national pride.

All these varied erroneous perspectives are active together in our society, and they have become obstacles on the way to reaching the real objective. Who keeps count of the hundreds of Milad al-Nabi and Seerah gatherings and assemblies held in our country every year? In the single month of Rabi‘ al-Awwal, who can count how many sermons, admonitions, and speeches fill the air; how many books and articles are written; how many special issues of newspapers and magazines are published on this subject; how many poems and na‘t and ghazals poets write; how many gatherings and associations singers visit to perform na‘t, ghazal, and qawwali; how many messages and statements are issued by leaders and heads of state; how many sweets are distributed and lavish feasts arranged; and how much money is spent on building arches and organizing colorful processions and rallies? [In some regions, the level of amusement, revelry, and entertainment at events organized for the Milad and Seerah of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) is continually increasing. Even open sinful acts, commotion, and uproar are taking place. This means that society has begun moving in precisely the opposite direction from the teachings and ideals of the Prophet’s life.]

But, on the other hand, we must also consider what the true outcome and value of this enormous expenditure of energy and money for a noble purpose actually amounts to. Place all these activities of each year on one side of the scale and the results achieved on the other, and examine whether the proper results are being obtained. Every year, how many people devote themselves to building their lives in imitation of the Prophet’s life and strive to bring change and reform into them, inspired by these noble activities? If each gathering, each article, and each na‘t or ghazal brought about a change in even a single person, imagine how much benefit we could have gained over the past two or two and a half centuries. If that desired success has not been achieved, then we must understand that there is certainly some defect in our efforts, and that defect is of a very fundamental nature. The sorrow is not merely that the desired benefit has not been attained. Rather, seeing an evil tendency emerge in our society that is completely opposed to the ideals and achievements of the Messenger of Allah makes one want to lament. People are now being born in our society who describe the Messenger’s ideals as outdated and unsuitable for this age. They mock the Messenger’s teachings and call for the abandonment of the entire treasury of Sirah, Sunnah, and Hadith. These people seek to separate the Qur’an from the unforgettable, twenty-three-year movement and struggle of the bearer of the Qur’an, and to make the person of the Messenger disappear from our sight as a practical model of the ideal and complete human being. More lamentable still, in the name of interpretation, analysis, freedom of speech, and the exercise of free thought, hired intellectuals deprived of direct knowledge of the Qur’an and Hadith are attempting to prove that the personality, ideals, and contributions of the Messenger are compatible with the intellectual framework of the diseased civilization of the present age, and are audaciously preparing an entirely new image of the Messenger in accordance with the preferences of the established world powers. From whatever I have studied and reflected upon, I have come to understand that we have lost the correct fundamental perspective for studying the Sirah, and that the erroneous perspective mentioned above is what remains active among us. That is why, despite countless proofs and signs of profound devotion and love for the Messenger, and despite extensive thought and research into his life story, a new kind of person has still not emerged from the eastern horizon of the Muslim world—the complete model of whom the Messenger had shown to the world.

The life story of the Messenger can produce its true reflection in us only when we are able to devote our own lives to the same objective and the same struggle to which the Messenger devoted his entire life: accomplishing a great task and realizing a great goal. The only way to build a life as a follower of the Messenger is to undertake the kind of Islamic movement and struggle that the Messenger himself conducted. And only such follower-personalities can build and lead a successful Islamic movement anew.

The biography of Muhammad, peace be upon him, is not merely the biography of an individual; rather, it is the life story of a historical force that appeared in the form of one man. It is not the story of some dervish detached from public life, sitting at the edge of a settlement and occupied solely with his own reform and self-development. Rather, it is the life story of a man who was the driving force of a collective movement. It is not merely the story of one man, but the life story of a craftsman who fashioned human beings. This life story contains a detailed account of the distinguished contributions of the builder of a new world. In truth, the life story of the World Prophet extends in every direction—from the Cave of Hira to the Cave of Thawr, from the courtyard of the Sacred Ka‘bah to the markets of Ta’if, and from the chambers of the Mothers of the Believers to the battlefield. His biography did not remain confined to him; rather, it adorned the lives of countless people. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali, Ammar, Yasir, Khalid, Khuwailid, Bilal, and Suhaib are all different chapters of this same book of Sirah. They are all trees and plants of the same garden, and every leaf and branch records the life story of the gardener of that garden.

If this greatest and noblest personality on earth is presented in a biographical work merely as an individual person, and if, according to the customary method of biography, a detailed, meticulous, and chronological account is given of the principal achievements of his life, his notable campaigns, and his character and habitual practices, then the true purpose of Sirah can never be fulfilled by such writing. The life of the Messenger is not like the still water of a pond, which can be surveyed at a glance by standing at one of its banks. Rather, it is a flowing river, with powerful currents, movement and turbulence, waves and foam, shells and pearls; through the blessing of its waters, dead land comes back to life, and to understand the mystery of this river one must move along with its current. For this reason, although various books on Sirah may provide rare information, they do not inspire or invigorate readers, awaken emotion, bring a new tide of energy to courage and resolve, kindle fresh warmth and inspiration in the desire to work, or remove the stagnation from our lives. Reading books on Sirah may briefly raise waves of devotion in the heart and perhaps bring floods of tears to the eyes, but we do not grasp that spark of aspiration whose heat once inspired a solitary, destitute, and helpless man to fight against a corrupt social order accumulated over hundreds of years. Nor do we acquire that vigor and intensity of faith which transformed a penniless orphan into the one who determined the destiny of the entire Arab and non-Arab world.

The real point is that the Messenger was not merely an ‘extraordinary’ and ‘famous’ person in the limited sense of those conventional terms, nor is his Sirah, or life story, simply the biography of an ‘extraordinary’ and ‘famous’ person of the kind generally written about famous figures. The person and personality of the Great Prophet stand far above such extraordinary and famous individuals.

Many extraordinary people have been born and continue to be born in the world who present society with some good teaching or constructive idea. They are called extraordinary people. Those who research and reflect upon morality and law are also called great and extraordinary people. Those who devote themselves to social reform are likewise called extraordinary people. This title of ‘extraordinary’ is also given to those who conquered countries, left behind a legacy of heroic deeds, governed and ruled empires, set astonishing examples of poverty and deprivation, and established exceptionally high standards of personal character before the people of the world. But when we study the biographies of such extraordinary and famous people, we generally find that all their strength and ability seem to have been absorbed by one particular virtue of life, while all the remaining branches have withered. If one aspect of their lives appears very bright, the other appears entirely dark. On one side there is extreme excess, and on the other extreme indifference. But every aspect of the Messenger’s life is perfectly balanced with the others, and every aspect is adorned with the same degree of perfection and excellence. Where the majesty of gravity is found, there is also the brilliance of beauty. Alongside spirituality there is the integrated contribution of material life. Economic thought walks hand in hand with concern for the Hereafter. The Deen exists together with the world. Though there is a spirit of complete self-devotion, an unimpaired sense of self-respect is present as well. Alongside worship and service to Allah there is tenderness toward Allah’s servants and respect for their rights. Alongside strict collective discipline there is respect for the rights of the individual. Comprehensive politics stands alongside profound religious consciousness and emotion. Even while he remained constantly occupied with leading the nation, the affairs of married life were also carried out with excellence. Alongside helping the oppressed, there were measures for resisting the oppressors.

From this school represented by the life story of the Messenger, an administrator, ruler, minister, official, employer, employee, merchant, laborer, judge, teacher, soldier, speaker, leader, reformer, philosopher, and literary figure can all learn equally. There is an equally exemplary model there for a father, a fellow traveler, and a neighbor. Once someone reaches this school, there is no need for him to attend any other school. Whatever highest and finest excellence humanity can attain exists in its fullest form in this single personality. That is why I have been compelled to call this person the ‘Best of Men’ or the ‘Greatest Human Being.’ Throughout all human history, there is only this one ‘Best of Men.’ We can make him a torch and illuminate our lives with it. Billions of people in the world have received light from him. Many are building treasuries of knowledge from what they have received from him. Today his message reverberates in every corner of the earth. His teachings have profoundly influenced the civilizations and cultures of various countries. There is no person in the world who has not benefited from this greatest human being in one way or another. Yet those who have benefited from him do not know him or know his identity.

It was the responsibility of the Muslim nation, the community established by the Messenger, to present his personality and spread his message throughout the world. But this nation itself has fallen far away from him and from his message. Page after page of the revealed Scripture preserved by the Muslims contains guidance concerning every aspect of life, yet the biography of this great human being seems to have had no influence on their lives. In the religious life, politics, social life, morality, legal system, and culture of this nation, very little imprint of the Prophet’s life remains. Even what does remain is becoming distorted through its mixture with many new imprints. Nowhere in the social environment of this nation—even in its smallest part—does one find a condition indicating that it represents the principles, ideals, heritage, and values of Muhammad, peace be upon him. Rather, this nation wanders begging at the doors of various misguided and false systems throughout the world, and seems ashamed of its glorious heritage out of fear of every established power. They have wrapped the Qur’an in a cover and made the Sirah of the Messenger into a bouquet of flowers, placing both on a shelf.

Moreover, they have turned Muhammad, peace be upon him, in the narrow sense into a religious and national leader and transformed themselves into a religious and national community. In this way, they have made the message and life-ideal of this world personality a group-based and sectarian monopoly. Yet he came as the leader of all humanity, bringing a message and an ideal for all humanity. His life history should have been presented as a model and ideal of humaneness. If a person were molded in its form, he could become an instrument of benefit for himself and all humanity and, freed from the entanglement of varied problems, attain a pure, spotless, and unobstructed life. In reality, the message and life-ideal of the Messenger, peace be upon him, are a universal source of benefit, like sunlight, rainwater, and air. Yet through our ignorance we have confined him within a group-based circle. Today people of all countries and religions are seen benefiting, more or less, and learning from Plato, Socrates, Darwin, Machiavelli, Marx, Freud, and Einstein. No nation or group harbors blind hatred against them. But the objections and hostility toward learning from the knowledge, ideals, and leadership of Muhammad, peace be upon him, are beyond measure. People think: Muhammad was the leader of the Muslims, after all. We are separate from the Muslims, and the Muslims are a different nation from us. So what connection do we have with the leader and guide of the Muslims? The sad fact is that our own actions have played a considerable role in creating this notion and bringing it to such an abnormal level. Although we are the Ummah of Muhammad, peace be upon him, the friend of all humanity, such thinking has arisen among non-Muslim peoples because we have set an extremely bad example in following him.

For the Western World

The lifetime of the World Prophet lies between two major eras of human history. Looking backward from the day he was appointed as a prophet, we encounter tribalism, feudalism, monarchy, ancestor worship, and pagan civilization. Looking forward, we see the age of international, democratic, and science- and invention-based civilization. The opening of this scientific and intellectual advancement was accomplished by the Messenger himself, peace be upon him. At the same time, through him the world of humanity was given principles that would remain effective until the Day of Judgment. Alongside these principles, he demonstrated the creation of people capable of undertaking future responsibilities. Through him, in light of the needs of that coming age, an inconceivable and miraculous balance was established among spirit and body, morality and materialism, emotion and reason, faith and action, the aspirations of the individual and the group, and prevailing circumstances and needs. Through him a people was formed that was detached from worldly bias yet capable of administering the affairs of the world. On the one hand, this group was unmatched in obedience to Allah; on the other, it was also at the forefront of acting upon the material world. They bowed with utter humility before the truth, while also becoming ready to sacrifice their lives and property completely to weaken the forces of falsehood. They surrendered themselves to Allah’s pleasure, while also being highly skilled in harnessing and utilizing the forces of nature. As soon as this group entered the palaces of history’s kings, it kindled the light of knowledge and science, opened the doors of discovery and invention, and rapidly conducted new experiments for institutional reconstruction. The true credit for all their activities, progress, expansion of knowledge and science, discoveries and inventions, and all the works of civilization and culture belongs to Muhammad, peace be upon him.

Sadly, the Western nations that control this intellectual and democratic civilization failed to understand Muhammad, peace be upon him, his message, and the way of life he brought. The intelligent people of Europe could neither see nor understand the great person whose distinguished contributions played a brilliant role behind the West’s new rise, who was the original source of democracy and internationalism, and who initiated religious reform and movements. There were many reasons for this. It seems appropriate to discuss these reasons briefly here:

1. When Muhammad, peace be upon him, appeared with his message, he had to confront both Judaism and Christianity. At that time, both religions were passing through an era of extreme distortion and decline. Both peoples were carrying, with religious sanctity and solemnity, a ritualistic structure deprived of faith and morality. Religious classes and sects had arisen among both peoples, and they had completely opened shops for the business of religion. The genuine goods of sound thought and action had been looted; only flashy signboards hung outside. All their strength was devoted to preserving their sectarian and class identities, and the sole task of each group was to retain its own members. The improvement of humanity and reform of society were no one’s concern. In such circumstances, the mentality of the Jews and Christians as a whole had become so corrupted that, instead of assessing the priceless personality of Muhammad, peace be upon him, and examining his message and the way of life he presented, they began to display the utmost degree of hatred, hostility, and obstinacy against him. They continued to resist and obstruct his Da‘wah. They broke their promises to him and betrayed him, seeking to destroy the constructive work he had done. They even plotted to kill him. Then, through the natural consequences of all these misdeeds, they stained the lives of themselves and their descendants. They polluted the flowing stream of history with their filthy mentality and despicable ideas, and this polluted water flowed on to later generations. They left a vast inheritance of hatred and hostility for later Jews and Christians. The emotionally tainted reaction of the Jews and Christians contemporary with Muhammad, peace be upon him, continues to be reflected in the minds of their successors to this day.

2. Before the rise of Islam, Christians had clear supremacy and overwhelming power in both the religious and political spheres of the human world. They were not lacking in the desire to expand this supremacy and domination, and circumstances were favorable for doing so. But the rise of Islam appeared to Christians as the emergence of a rival power. When this power gradually developed and became established as an effective world power, intense resentment began to take root among them and grew ever stronger. Then, when Islamic power began in practice to wrest authority and control over various parts of the world from Christian hands, their reaction became even more intense. Instead of judging the open rivalry of two equal powers on the free stage of history with a sportsmanlike attitude, Christians began to nurture fierce resentment against Muslims; indirectly, this resentment was directed against the Messenger himself, peace be upon him, and Islam. This resentment and hostility reached its extreme during the Crusades. By the time this era was reached, the seeds of decline had already been sown within the Muslims themselves, so Christians began attributing their particular weaknesses and deviations to Islam and the Messenger of Allah. Through the character and actions of Muslims, they began attempting to distort the image of the Messenger, peace be upon him.

3. During the first part of this long era of conflict and confrontation between Islam and Christianity, Christian clergy had completely held the Christian people in their grasp, while Islam had struck directly at the group interests of this clerical class. Therefore, this group created a false notion about the Messenger, peace be upon him, and his message and began spreading it everywhere. This propaganda, continued for hundreds of years, completely corrupted the minds of Western people. That is why we see today that even intellectuals who do not follow any religion at all and think independently of Christian influence cannot rise even slightly above the base mentality of the narrow-minded and superstitious priests of six hundred years ago when expressing opinions about Islam and Muhammad, peace be upon him. Turn a few pages of books written by Orientalists and you will see how many erroneous and defective facts have been inserted in disgraceful ways, and how foolishly the life of the greatest person on earth has been portrayed. That would be different if one or two exceptional examples were found. But here I am speaking of the general practice of Western people.

4. The past two hundred years were the satanic age of Western imperialism. During this period, Muslim nations successively became victims of the imperialist greed of capitalist Europe as punishment for their departure from Islam, disobedience to Allah, and failure to follow the ideals of Muhammad, peace be upon him. Everywhere, this imperialist greed of the West encountered fierce resistance from the Muslims. Religious inspiration was active behind this resistance in every case. The doctrine of Tawhid, or servitude to the One Allah, taught by Islam gives such instruction in freedom and human equality that Islam’s followers cannot agree to serve anyone except Allah alone. That is why we see that Islamic consciousness and inspiration were active behind every movement that arose among Muslims against Western imperialism. Everywhere, one religious personality or another is seen providing leadership, and everywhere there is an active desire to reestablish Islamic systems of government and society. Thus religious inspiration was found to be powerfully active in all the independence movements of Muslim countries. For this reason, fresh hatred and hostility toward this force arose in the minds of Western imperialists. This force had obstructed their path at every step and was generating an indomitable enthusiasm. Driven by this hostility, Muslims’ love of religion was labeled madness, and the ‘mullah regime’ was portrayed as a terrible menace. At the same time, the religious inspiration of Muslims proved so powerful that it was not only unwilling to accept defeat before Western culture and thought, but confronted them in every country. Even after applying all the forces of education, literature, influence, and prestige, Western imperialism could, after many years, turn only a small number of people among the Muslim nation into its dependents. It then helped such dependent groups and installed them in power, using them extensively in intellectual, cultural, and political warfare against the Islamic consciousness of Muslims. As a result, the conflict between the West and Islam and the Messenger, peace be upon him, continued to grow.

5. When the Western nations succeeded in turning Muslims into slaves, it became difficult for them to learn from Muslims—who were politically, economically, and organizationally inferior to them—about ways of life and philosophies of life. It likewise became difficult for them to respect the Messenger, peace be upon him, the presenter and propagator of Islam. Not only that: when they saw in Muslims all the signs of mental enslavement and terror before the West, this condition created an even greater obstacle. When they observed that the modern-minded Muslims they had fashioned had begun altering and modifying Islam according to the Western viewpoint, what more was needed? Islam and the Messenger, peace be upon him, fell still lower in their eyes. The defensive attitude of the Muslims inflicted enormous harm on the image of Islam and the standing of Muhammad, peace be upon him.

For these five reasons, a vast iron wall has risen between Muhammad, peace be upon him, and the people of the West.

Thus today the Western world accepts Muhammad, peace be upon him—the liberator of all humanity—only as a sectarian leader of the Muslims, and studies his life story with an attitude of opposition and objection instead of seeking to understand and explain it properly. The picture of this great person that the West has drawn in its literature presents the image of a man deprived of mental balance and soundness, whose every activity was the result of an unconscious mental aberration, and who, carrying a bloodthirsty sword, advanced in whatever direction he went while perpetrating wholesale massacres. They have credited as a worldly worshipper and an ambitious, aggressive invader the one whom the whole world knows as compassion from head to toe, and have labeled his sincere contributions deception and trickery. They have also tried to prove that whatever was good in the Islamic movement was borrowed from the Jews and Christians; otherwise, Muhammad, peace be upon him, possessed no significant moral ability. It has also been claimed that all his spiritual and religious activities were merely for show, and that he achieved his interests simply by subduing the people through theatrical techniques. Let them call any person in the world worldly and cunning, but the question is: how can that be reconciled with the innocent, flawless, and noble character found throughout the Messenger’s biography, when compared with those so-called cunning and worldly-worshipping people?

Moreover, an even graver injustice committed against him is that the central message of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) call is not studied with a comprehensive view—from its roots through its branches, leaves, and foliage, everywhere. Instead, without understanding its fundamental principles or grasping the profound significance of the basic philosophy of its thought, arguments are raised over a few minor issues according to the methods of polemical priests. For example, it is said that Muhammad (peace be upon him) legalized polygamy, took up arms for religion, made prisoners of war into male and female slaves, and so on. This one-sided method of study and evaluation always serves a hostile and antagonistic mindset. With such a mindset, it is impossible to understand any way of life or any religion; rather, it blocks the way to understanding everything. The real subject of consideration, and the real thing to know and understand, is the basic philosophy or ideology. The essential question is how true and sound that philosophy and ideology are, how much benefit they bring to life, and how much harm they prevent or remedy. Next, the principles developed from this fundamental truth and ideology—principles on the basis of which the various aspects and departments of life are established and governed—must be considered and examined. Then one must examine the detailed subsidiary rules or branches derived from these principles to see whether they are consistent with the basic ideal. A person brought you a philosophy of life. Instead of considering that philosophy, you began arguing over certain subsidiary rules about which a particular fixed notion prevails in your society, beyond which you are unable to think. The result is that you yourself become confused and cast thousands of people into confusion and narrow-mindedness. A person created within his own being a new, complete model of humanity and presented it before you. Before understanding the model as a whole, you began discussing one or two of its small parts and questioning their validity and justice. Had you first understood the entire model comprehensively, those parts would have become clear to you automatically. In understanding various doctrines and ways of life, and in evaluating historical figures, the West generally adopts the most scientifically sound method; yet, in the case of Islam and Muhammad (peace be upon him), it sets that scientific method completely aside. To form an opinion or reach a decision about a garden, the entire garden must be visited and observed. One cannot detach a branch, leaf, fruit, or flower of a tree from the whole garden and examine it separately. In the same way, look at the vast garden that is Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) life and ideal, and understand its overall structure. Then every branch, fruit, flower, bud, and petal within it will become understandable to you on its own. If a doctrine, ideology, movement, or leading personality contains a few things contrary to your taste and your cherished traditions and customs, that cannot mean that it contains no good, or that the whole thing must be rejected outright. Your taste or personal preferences are neither universal nor historical standards. It is quite possible—indeed, it ought to be expected—that a particular ideology, movement, or leading personality has brought with it its own standards of good and evil, and that those standards are entirely different from yours. Therefore, the first thing necessary is to place the standards and criteria side by side and test them, while at the same time examining and assessing the worth of the fundamental truth and ideology according to those standards.

The literature produced to date by the Christian world and Orientalists about the Qur’an, Islam, and Muhammad (peace be upon him) is, on the one hand, full of ignorance and misunderstanding, while on the other, the poison of reckless obstinacy runs through its every vein. Even those who, displaying an open mind, acknowledged the truth and went a step further by using somewhat laudatory language have, in places, concealed such sugar-coated knives beneath cunning words that readers cannot help being stunned by the skill of the deception. Certainly, a few shining examples can be found in which sincere recognition has been given to the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) words and achievements. But such authors have received very little appreciation from Westerners. When an outstanding book of this kind has recently been published, attempts are made to diminish its standing in Western eyes by labeling it “Muslim-supporting” (Pro-Muhammaden). What is astonishing is that, now that the West’s diplomatic interests are connected with Muslim countries, countless efforts are being made to please Western countries. Yet no one has anywhere thought of remedying the injustice done to the Messenger (peace be upon him) all these years.

You are not being asked to support the ideology and way of life presented by the Messenger (peace be upon him) against the judgment of your conscience. If your conscience does not approve, you should certainly disagree, and do so firmly. What is being asked of you is that you must not distort facts by violating the principles and standards that you yourself have formulated and endorsed for writing history and biographies. Do not accept accounts from sources that are, on the one hand, unanimously regarded by Muslims as unreliable and unacceptable and, on the other, do not meet the universally accepted standards of historical research. Do not deliberately omit the good causes of an event and replace them with undesirable causes. Speak with reason; do not adopt a dishonest, insulting, uncivil, sarcastic, or mocking manner.

Our purpose in this discussion is not to create an unpleasant emotional situation; rather, it is to bring an end to the undesirable situation that has prevailed until now. The first condition for achieving this purpose is that the West must clarify its own view of Islam, the Qur’an, and Muhammad (peace be upon him), and must create a new, constructive psychological environment—something possible only by recognizing the areas of agreement existing between Westerners and Muslims. Our areas of agreement are as follows:

– Christians, Jews, and Muslims all worship Allah and believe in the Hereafter. Their methods of worship have similarities, and their basic moral values are the same.

– The source of the religious teachings of all three communities is revelation, and Muslims believe that all prophets and messengers carried the banner of the same religion and the same supreme truth.

On the other hand, Westerners and Muslims share the following areas of agreement in social and cultural matters:

– The purely religious outlook of Muslims supports the measures by which Western civilization has advanced knowledge and science. Islamic ideology can accommodate this materialism, within limits, alongside spirituality in its society and civilization, although the West has reached the highest summit of progress in this respect. Whereas other religions remain confined to the purely personal sphere, Islam is relatively broad-minded because it is a complete social and state system.

– The basic principles of democracy on which Western civilization has built its state institutions were already present in Muslim thought. Not only were they present; Islamic civilization was the first to give them a complete form. [Lebon and Bréfaud have reluctantly testified that the spirit and vitality of democracy reached the West from the Muslims.] Muslims implemented long before the West popular representation and elections, consultation with both distinguished people and the general population on state and administrative matters, the rule of law, civil rights, and equal status and equal rights for all citizens in these matters. They did so while maintaining compatibility with the social and cultural environment of their time. Considering the matter in light of international tension and instability, Muslim cooperation is also more valuable to Western reformers in solving this problem. There are two reasons. First, if the West reflects with sincerity and devotion, it will see that no one is as capable as Muslims of contributing to world peace. In the beliefs of this community, the roots of love for humanity are more deeply established, and the moral foundations of international unity and solidarity are more firmly rooted in its heart, than in any other community. If this rare and unique quality of the community were fully translated into action, it would be possible to end international conflicts and confrontations. In a word, only Islam can supply sufficient values and moral elements for building the world state of the future.

Second, Islam and its followers may be expected to play the most effective role in resisting both extreme forms of materialism—capitalism and socialism—and bringing humanity onto a moderate, justice-based path.

After presenting these matters of general agreement for reflection, what we wish to say in their light is this: what harm would there be if Westerners now changed their view of Muhammad (peace be upon him)? Why should they object to pushing aside and tearing apart the veil of hatred erected by priests and Orientalists? Materialist ideologies have been tested and examined extensively up to now. It is not possible to continue these experiments in the same way, and this enlightened Western population is not producing a new generation on whose arrival one can pin one’s hopes and wait a little longer. On the other hand, every religion in the world besides Islam prefers to curl up within a small part of individual life. They are not prepared to move forward and take the reins of the whole civilization into their hands. In short, ideologically, humanity has lost all its capital and stands utterly bankrupt. Only one source remains, from which a small ray of hope is bursting forth. If, by closing the doors of our minds, we deprive ourselves even of that light, no guidance will come from Mars.

Therefore, there is still time for us to recognize Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a maker of history, a savior of suffering humanity, a guide of a civilization, and a supreme human being. Let us open the windows of our minds to the light that comes from him. Let us try to understand him scientifically. It would not be appropriate for us to regard Islam merely as a religion competing with Christianity; rather, we must accept it, like democracy, socialism, and other similar idealistic movements, as a movement and as a way of life that brings the whole society and civilization under its influence and control. We must also recognize Muhammad (peace be upon him) as the leader of this movement and the founder of this social system, and acknowledge his achievement in inaugurating an extraordinary and brilliant age in history. We must consider the ideals and basic principles he presented in terms of how helpful and essential they are for governing a highly modern world state. We must examine the model of humanity he created to determine how suitable it is to serve as the tools and instruments of an ideal and perfect civilization.

Today, when impenetrable darkness prevails before us and not even a spark can be seen burning anywhere in the far distance, let us look back and see that a torch is burning in the hand of the Messenger (peace be upon him), and that it has continued to burn in the same way for fourteen hundred years through countless storms and tempests. Can it lead to a good result to refuse the light of this torch and blindfold ourselves merely because of confusion and hatred of our own making? Would it be right to allow humanity and human civilization to be destroyed in this terrible darkness? We must understand very clearly what a tremendous challenge the prevailing circumstances have thrown before us, and whether we possess the strength to answer it.

But the real fact is that we ourselves are the actual culprits. We did not allow the world to know the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) personality, words, and achievements, nor did we try to know them ourselves. Therefore, it is necessary today to introduce the Messenger (peace be upon him) anew. This undertaking may perhaps be a greater achievement than the discovery of atomic energy.

Two Words Concerning This Book

Despite the existence of high-quality books on the sacred Sirah, or biography, of the Messenger (peace be upon him), I have dared to undertake this difficult task despite my own incapacity, solely so that the noble person of the Messenger (peace be upon him) may once again become known as the only source for understanding the purpose of life. The finest books containing the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) biography bring together all the available information concerning events. Yet the reader becomes stuck, sometimes in disagreements over accounts and sometimes in profound theoretical discussions. In some places, the connection between the sequence of events is severed for him; in others, he is confronted with such minute details that he finds no clear significance or satisfactory explanation for them. Elsewhere, he is startled by the abundance of theoretical and research-based information and sources. Yet even after reading volume upon volume, he cannot see before him a vibrant movement. He cannot see the conflict-filled environment created by the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) call. He cannot see himself in the age of the Messenger (peace be upon him). Reading the books of Sirah does not make him feel that he too is a surging wave in the movement led by the Messenger (peace be upon him), and that he too has been entrusted with the responsibility of fighting the filth of the environment around him. It is also his responsibility to hold aloft the burning torch of the supreme truth brought by the Messenger (peace be upon him) and to develop its light so fully that, in the world of civilization and culture, that torch becomes a radiant sun. It is with the aim of filling this gap that I have undertaken this modest work.

For the study of history, I have adopted the Qur’anic perspective. In my view, the world spread around us is a restless and dynamic world. It is a diverse and changing world. Above all, it is a world of competition, conflict, confrontation, jihad, and struggle. Here there are both attraction and repulsion. Here action is accompanied by reaction, construction by destruction, and darkness by light. Here night and day chase one another. Life and death, fire and water, winter and spring are at war with one another. In short, wherever you look in this world and in whatever realm, you will find opposing things engaged in face-to-face conflict. In an insignificant and tiny part of this universe—that is, on the planet called Earth—lies the most terrifying battlefield of human life. Our entire social and political system is a vast sea tossed by waves. Wave collides with wave, bubble with bubble, and drop with drop at every moment. Here, since ancient times and continuing to this day, a long struggle has been taking place between truth and falsehood, justice and injustice, good and evil, oppression and fairness, sin and virtue. The reins of this struggle are held by the ruh, or spirit, and the nafs, or evil inclination. From these two sources, diverse thoughts, beliefs, and ideologies arise one after another, and collective systems with varied characters and mutually opposed dispositions emerge. Every idea, creed, belief, doctrine, ideology, character, and system is born accompanied by its exact opposite counterpart. Whatever force comes into being is born together with the force opposed and contrary to it. From this opposition and contrast arises an all-consuming conflict that has turned the entire history of humanity into a history of struggle. The history of this struggle now stands before us as a history written in our own blood.

From the dawn of human civilization, an unceasing and all-out struggle has continued from age to age and from land to land. In some places that struggle is waged with the weapons of reason, and in others with lethal weapons. In this struggle, people have divided into two camps and continued to play two roles. On one side, a person becomes the bearer of the banner of disorder, injustice, and falsehood. On the other, he becomes the standard-bearer of justice, truth, honesty, and welfare. Sometimes he becomes an active henchman of the villains of destruction and corruption. At other times he comes forward as a strong supporter of the advocates and initiators of constructive work. One kind of devil in human form devotes itself wholeheartedly to the attempt to afflict human life with sorrow, misery, and calamity. On the other hand, a class of people gives away all its means and resources unstintingly to turn the earth into a paradise filled with happiness, peace, and joy. Among the death-defying soldiers of the battle of life are those whose hands unleash floods of falsehood, oppression, and wrongdoing. And there is also a class of uncompromising mujahids who depart from the world after sounding the victory drum of truth, justice, and fairness.

These fighting soldiers of truth, justice, and fairness have made the earth somewhat habitable and human life somewhat enjoyable. Whatever things in society are today considered worthy of some respect are the contributions of those noble people. They presented an ideal life before humanity. They established before us a standard and model of civilization and culture. They gave us the sublime goals of life and excellent principles. They infused the veins of history with the blood of living and eternal tradition. They set glittering constellations of moral values in the sky of civilization. They gave people encouragement, inspiration, courage, and ambition. For the sake of their aims and principles, they taught sacrifice, devotion, and struggle. Because of the glorious deeds and contributions of these noble people, history has become so valuable that its relics are considered worthy of preservation, and it will continue to be honored until the Day of Resurrection as a continual source of fresh inspiration for humanity.

Moreover, whenever tyrannical and mendacious evil forces have bound people in the tentacles of fascist and dictatorial rule and rendered them helpless, and people have lost courage and been cast into the deep pit of despair, these great heroes of history have come forward as the saviors of humanity. They awakened sleeping people, lifted up the fallen, gave cowards the life-giving drink of bravery, and placed those who had surrendered their weapons once more in the front ranks of the battlefield, engaging them in war against anarchistic and corrupt evil forces. In other words, these great heroes ended the deadlock of history, melted the ice of civilization’s frozen sea, created a new current in the stagnant river of thought and action, and overthrew steel-hard dictatorships to restore human freedom and human rights. In this way, the caravan of humanity moved forward unhindered along the straight and correct path of self-development.

In the foremost ranks of the virtuous class of human society that has participated in the noble work of establishing truth, justice, and welfare on earth, and of construction and progress, stand the prophets and messengers, holders of unique distinction. In addition, the siddiqin—those who accept the call of Islam wholeheartedly as soon as they receive it—the martyrs, and the salihin, or righteous people, follow in the achievement of this foremost rank and work under its leadership. Among the sacred ranks of the prophets and messengers, the great person upon whom the eye is first and most irresistibly drawn is Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him. He is history’s greatest friend and greatest benefactor of humanity, a truly great human being. Whichever aspect of this great man you examine, his varied excellences and greatness will shine forth. Countless people have departed this world over the past fourteen centuries while describing this greatness and excellence; there is no accounting of their number. Yet the fact is that even to this day, the account of his excellence and greatness has not been completed. No one knows who will be able to complete this task in the future. People of the past have cherished, and many in the future will cherish, an irresistible desire merely to participate in this noble work. At one point, this irresistible desire took hold of me as well. I wished to present, especially and briefly, this aspect of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) life: when he entered the field to promote the welfare and reconstruction of humanity, what kinds of oppression and persecution he suffered; how the service of an incomparable servant of humanity was repaid throughout his life with blind opposition and the most despicable misconduct; and, on the other hand, what kind of character the Messenger (peace be upon him) continued to display while advancing through the fury of such oppression, persecution, opposition, and misconduct. This poignant life story of the beloved Prophet contains lessons both for those who seek to establish the rule of righteous people and for those who resist the struggle to establish it.

This is Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) place in human history. History testifies that he was the greatest maker of history.

When the Messenger (peace be upon him) appeared to undertake this greatest work for human welfare, Satan gathered together all the persecution inflicted upon the prophets and messengers in different ages and compelled this orphaned and helpless young man to wage a four-sided struggle. The scene of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) life is somewhat like that of a swimmer without a boat, in a storm-tossed sea amid pitch darkness, continually battling waves as huge as mountains. A violent storm rages there, and flashes of lightning repeatedly dazzle the eyes in a sky covered with dense black clouds. The thunder threatens to burst the ears. Even through all this, the uncompromising swimmer continues steadily forward along his course. Is there anywhere else in history an example of such heartbreaking oppression and persecution, and such an uncompromising, indomitable struggle?

Whenever the drama of the struggle between truth and falsehood, and between justice and injustice, is staged, its fundamental character always remains the same. Time changes, geographical conditions change, and the names of the protagonists change. But their assigned roles never change. One role is that of the caller to truth.

The protagonists in the second role are those pure, sincere, and innocent people in society who, as soon as they hear the call to truth, justice, and good conduct, recognize it through their innate disposition. They are thrilled and captivated by the call, accept it without hesitation and wholeheartedly, and assume the role of its first followers.

The third role is taken by those who disagree courteously. They listen and reflect upon what they hear. But because of a lack of knowledge and awareness, along with certain psychological barriers, they are slow to understand the truth.

The protagonists of the fourth role are the group of extremely rigid and vociferous enemies who, because of their own interests, status, and distorted customs and habits, begin opposing the call from the very first day in an extremely reckless manner. Their opposition only continues to grow. The fifth role is played by the weak masses, who are so helpless before the overwhelming power of the higher classes of society that they cannot play any courageous or active role. Mentally, they also lack the ability to grasp the deepest meaning of any call. Therefore, for generations they generally remain silent spectators of the conflict between the callers to truth and the enemies of truth, waiting to see what becomes of each side. When either side wins, this flood of people flows toward the victorious power. Thus, the drama of the war between truth and falsehood depends on the actors in two roles: the role of the callers to truth and their followers, and the role of the active and rigid opponents. It is utterly impossible for the drama of the call to truth to be staged while the actors in these two roles do not confront one another. You will raise your voice for truth and justice, yet the forces supporting falsehood and injustice will not collectively stand against it—this simply cannot happen. You will begin working for the welfare and service of humanity, yet all the evil forces of society will not unite and rush toward you aggressively with the terrible weapons of abuse, accusation, malicious propaganda, slander, conspiracy, and violence—this is inconceivable.

The same thing happened in the case of the Messenger (peace be upon him). If he had merely spoken a few good words, reflected on matters of public welfare, spent his life worshipping Allah through bowing, prostration, and the like in a manner of his own choosing, remained secluded in remembrance and glorification, continued giving good sermons and admonitions, established a sect of spiritual guide and disciple, or even formed a harmless association with his followers, society would have tolerated it. But he wanted to change the entire way of life. He wanted to rebuild the whole structure of society and civilization. He had been commanded to bring down the entire collective system and reconstruct it according to the finest design. He was determined to shatter the unjust yet unbreakable compromise that had been established in contemporary society between vested interests and rights. He had been sent to shape people according to a new framework of faith and morality. From the very first day, he called people to this task, and from that first day the people understood the meaning of his call. It was precisely because they understood its meaning that the counter-actions of the Age of Ignorance naturally emerged.

Whenever the opponents of the universal movement for truth and justice are examined, in any age, it becomes clear that the strategy and sequence of their negative activities have always been the same. At first, ordinary mockery and ridicule were used. Then came abuse, false accusations, malicious propaganda, and a campaign of assigning disgraceful titles. After that, specific false propaganda was launched to create confusion and misunderstanding among the people. When the matter escalated further, on the one hand appeals were made to the danger facing national interests and unity, while on the other attempts were made to incite the ignorant masses under religious pretexts. In between, battles of argument continued, along with efforts to humiliate the caller through questions and answers. When it became clear that a dangerous movement was steadily gaining strength, attempts were made to reach a settlement through inducements. When every scheme failed, the most hateful methods of violence were adopted. The Messenger (peace be upon him) and his companions were subjected to social and economic boycott. Plots of oppression and persecution were put into effect. Finally, a conspiracy was even made to assassinate the Messenger (peace be upon him). When the movement to establish truth and justice still could not be silenced, war was declared and a call was made for open battle. All these stages came one after another in the life of the Messenger (peace be upon him). But Allah Most High granted him glorious success at every stage. At last, all Arabia came beneath the feet of the Messenger (peace be upon him).

In this book, the events of the life of the Messenger (peace be upon him) have been presented from highly reliable sources and in proper chronological order, in such a way that the terrible struggle between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil, which the Messenger (peace be upon him) waged by breaking through the inertia of history, vividly appears before the eyes. His entire life was spent in this struggle. I hope that while reading this book, readers will feel themselves very close to the Messenger (peace be upon him). They will see the flow of events taking place before their eyes and watch the turbulent waves of the Islamic movement dance in the world of their imagination. As a result, they will not be able to remain detached and neutral spectators of this conflict between truth and falsehood. Rather, positive awareness will awaken within them, and they will be compelled to reflect on what their position in human history is now and what it ought to be.

I firmly hope that this book will impart lessons in courage and heroism and inspire people to fulfill their responsibilities and duties even in the most difficult circumstances. Reverence and love will arise in the heart for that great man who was humanity’s greatest servant and who benefited humanity more than anyone else. The heart will overflow with gratitude toward him, and the mind will be filled with profound love for him. This is precisely what Islam desires. By reading this book, one will understand through what severe trials of fire, in the face of what deadly opposition, by repelling what kinds of attacks, and after crossing what vast seas of blood and tears, the bearer of the light of truth by which our souls are illumined today was able to bring that light to us. One will also realize that the path of the bearers of the banner of truth and justice is exceedingly thorny. If this path was not made free of thorns and strewn with flowers even for a virtuous personality like Muhammad (peace be upon him), for whom else will it be strewn with flowers? For whom will such a comfortable shortcut be prepared that a person can leave his secure room and go straight to Paradise without even getting dust on his feet? Reading the heartrending stories of the Messenger’s life removes this misunderstanding. Otherwise, people remain indifferent, considering obedience to Allah an easy and luxurious undertaking. In the light of the Messenger’s life, we must reflect: the trials, calamities, obstacles, blows, and attacks that the books of the Qur’an, Hadith, and Sirah describe as unavoidable in the life of a true believer—if they do not come into our lives, we must reconsider whether our path and destination are correct. We must investigate whether what we regard as the path of Islam might actually be the path of unbelief and ignorance. By studying this book, every Muslim will know beforehand that whenever any person or group within the Muslim ummah enters the field with the Messenger’s call and movement exactly as he presented them, and follows precisely the method of action he followed, then mockery, accusations, propaganda, slander, conspiracy, oppression, persecution, violent attacks, and the like against that person or group are inevitable. These are the unavoidable worldly recompense for this work. In the midst of all these calamities and misfortunes, it is not easy in any age to recognize the caller to truth active in the field, understand his words, and accept them. This is possible only for those fortunate people who, by studying the Qur’an, Hadith, and the Sirah of the Messenger, have already gained a correct understanding of the eternal struggle between truth and falsehood. Every Muslim should know that the forces of falsehood did not spare the pure and sinless being of the Messenger (peace be upon him), nor did they later spare such great figures among his followers as Imam Husayn, Imam Malik, Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Imam Abu Hanifah, Mujaddid Alf-e Thani, and Shah Waliullah from oppression and persecution; they will spare no one else either. Studying the Sirah of the Messenger teaches us to distinguish, in every age, between the character of the callers to truth and that of the enemies of truth. In this book I have clearly presented the identity of those who remain active in the conflict between Islam and unbelief.

I hope that through studying this book we will become aware of the terrible contradiction and self-conflict that have arisen between our faith in the Messengership and our practical lives. Today not a single country remains in the world where the way of life brought by the Messenger (peace be upon him) is fully victorious and operative. Monarchies and dictatorships reign throughout the Muslim world, plunging us simultaneously into the darkness of ancient and modern ignorance. Mentally, we are immersed in ignorance from head to toe. Economically, we are defeated. Culturally, we are known throughout the world as a beggar nation, and internationally we are victims of imperialist exploitation. We continue to suffer the poisonous consequences of this discrepancy between our faith and our character.

In this book I have primarily called for the revival of the call of the Prophet of the world. My main aim is that we should initiate change in our lives exactly according to the method demonstrated by the Messenger (peace be upon him), and establish the social system founded by this great leader of humanity in the light of the principles of the Qur’an and Hadith—a system based on magnanimity and justice. The time has come when we and our young people should cast off the burden of mental slavery to Western civilization and raise the banner of intellectual revolt against this materialistic age. The biography of Muhammad (peace be upon him) must be taken out of the pages of books and written anew on the pages of real life. His ideal must be compiled in the form of a collective system and brought into the position of that third force showing the path to liberation, whose place in history still lies vacant.

May Merciful Allah accept this humble effort of mine and fulfill its noble purpose.

Amen.

Na’im Siddiqi, December 1, 1959.

Chapter 2

A Glimpse of the Personality

When I cast my eyes over his face,

It was like a flash of lightning in a rain-bearing cloud. [This famous Arab poet of the Age of Ignorance composed these lines about a beloved person. Later, on one occasion, Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) aptly applied them to the Messenger (peace be upon him).]

—Abu Kabir al-Hudhali

This face cannot belong to a liar.

—Abdullah ibn Salam

A Glimpse

[Written mainly in the light of al-Tirmidhi’s Shama’il.]

Those who make great and distinguished contributions in the world, especially the prophets (peace be upon them), invariably possess extraordinary personalities. The true source of strength of those who lead movements and guide the reconstruction of civilization is their individual nature, formed through a combination of a particular kind of thought and character. Properly understanding the personality of the Messenger (peace be upon him) is one of the principal purposes of studying his Sirah.

Physical beauty greatly assists in understanding any personality. From the build of a person’s body from head to toe and the proportion and strength of his limbs, one can understand what level he occupies mentally, morally, and intellectually. In particular, the entire history of human character and deeds is written on the face. A single glance at it allows us to sense what kind of person it belongs to.

Those of us who came into the world later are unfortunate in this respect: the incomparable face of the greatest human being in the world is not before us, nor will we have the opportunity to behold it in this world with our physical eyes. Whatever glimpse we can see of the Messenger’s physical beauty is visible only in the mirror of his words and deeds.

There is no genuine picture or statue of the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Messenger himself forbade making or keeping such things. For a picture is so dangerous that it can in no way prevent the risk of falling into idolatry. If a picture of the Messenger existed, there is no limit to how many miraculous acts would be attributed to him or how many new miracles would be credited to him. It is difficult even to imagine how many colorful ceremonies would be held in its honor. It would not even be strange if its worship began. Many imaginary pictures of the Messenger (peace be upon him) have been made in Europe. But what artist possesses such a subtle, comprehensive, and complete understanding of every aspect of the Messenger’s thought and actions that he could fully express that understanding with brush and color? An imaginary picture may belong to anyone else, but not to Muhammad (peace be upon him). A picture is made of a personality based entirely on conjecture and then passed off as the Messenger. Not the slightest honesty is shown in producing these pictures. They are deliberately made in a way that creates an impression of a weak and incomplete personality. The conception for all these pictures is taken from those hostile Western books that are products of stubbornness, rashness, distorted thinking, and unrealistic notions. The harm in making pictures or films of prophets and righteous people is that their true character may disappear behind the screen.

But the companions of the Messenger (peace be upon him) painted a perfect picture of him with the fewest possible words, and the transmitters brought those descriptions to us carefully preserved and unaltered. Here we present those verbal portraits so that readers may catch a glimpse of the personality of this great man before studying his character. It may be called a kind of meeting, or perhaps an introduction.

The impression of the Messenger’s sacred face, physical form, conduct, and beauty that has reached us across fourteen hundred years reflects the image of a man who was at once exceptionally intelligent and brilliant, a courageous hero, patient, steadfast in principle, honest and just, generous and magnanimous, charitable, dutiful, humble and grave, gentle in speech, and eloquent. More accurately, one should say that the mark of prophethood was visibly present in his physical structure. His handsome physique was a symbol of his high rank. In this connection, one statement of the Messenger (peace be upon him) is noteworthy. He said:

“God-consciousness makes a person’s face radiant and beautiful.”

Since prophethood is the highest level of faith and God-consciousness, the face of a prophet cannot fail to be luminous.

Now let us take a glimpse of his radiant, sun-bright, dazzling face.

Physical Beauty

“I recognized the Messenger (peace be upon him) as soon as I saw him. His face could not be the face of a liar.” (Abdullah ibn Salam) [He was a very great Jewish scholar, whose name was Husayn. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) came to Medina, he went to see him, and here he describes the impression formed in his mind. He embraced faith, and his Islamic name became Abdullah. (Sirat al-Mustafa, Mawlana Idris Kandhlawi, vol. 1, pp. 341–350)]

“I came with my son. The people pointed him out and said, ‘There is the Messenger of Allah.’ As soon as I sat near him, I said to myself, ‘Surely this is Allah’s Prophet.’” —Abu Ramtha al-Taymi

“Rest assured, I have seen this man’s face, bright like the full moon. He could never be dishonest in a transaction with you. If such a man did not pay for the camel, I would pay for it myself.” —A certain respectable woman. [A commercial caravan had stopped on the outskirts of Medina. By chance, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went there. He selected a camel and settled its price, then took it away saying that he would send the payment. Later, the camel sellers became uneasy, wondering how they had given a camel on credit to an unknown man. At that point, the wife of the caravan leader reassured them with the words above. This incident was narrated by Tariq ibn Abdullah, a member of that caravan. Shortly afterward, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent dates in an amount greater than the agreed price. (Sirat al-Nabi, Shibli Nomani, vol. 2, p. 380; al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 244.)]

“We have never seen a more handsome person. We saw light radiating from his face.” —The mother and maternal aunt of Abu Qarsana. [These two women went with Abu Qarsana to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to pledge allegiance. On the way back, they expressed this reaction. (Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 255)]

“I have never seen anyone more handsome than the Messenger (peace be upon him). It seemed as though the sun were glittering.” —Abu Hurayrah

“If you had seen the Messenger (peace be upon him), you would have thought that the sun had risen.” —Rabi‘ bint Mu‘awwidh

“Whoever saw the Messenger (peace be upon him) was overwhelmed at first sight.” —Ali

“Once, on a moonlit night, I was looking at the Messenger (peace be upon him). He was wrapped in red clothing. I looked once at the moon and once at him. Finally, I reached the conclusion that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was more beautiful than the moon.” —Jabir ibn Samurah

“When happy, the Messenger’s face (peace be upon him) would shine like the moon. We could sense his happiness simply by seeing it.” —Ka‘b ibn Malik

“His face had a moonlike radiance.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Face

“Round like the full moon.” —Al-Bara ibn Azib

“His face was not completely round, but almost round.” —Ali

“A broad forehead; arched, fine, and thick eyebrows; the two eyebrows were separate, with a raised vein between them that became prominent when he was angry.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“Signs of joy would appear on his forehead.” —Ka‘b ibn Malik

Complexion

“Neither white like lime nor dark-complexioned. Wheat-colored, but somewhat fair.” —Anas

“Reddish white.” —Ali

“White, but radiant.” —Abu Tufayl

“Bright white.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“His body seemed to be made of silver.” —Abu Hurayrah

Eyes

“Black eyes, long eyelashes.” —Ali

“Black pupils, a lowered gaze, and a shy tendency to look from the corners of his eyes.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“Red veins in the whites of his eyes, long eye sockets, and naturally kohl-lined eyes.” —Jabir ibn Samurah

Nose

“Slightly elevated, with a luminous radiance above it, which made it appear large at first sight.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Cheeks

“Light and smooth, somewhat fleshy toward the lower part.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Mouth

“Broad.” —Jabir ibn Samurah

“Broad.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Teeth

“Fine and gleaming. The front teeth had a captivating brilliance.” —Ibn Abbas

When he spoke, a radiance shone from between his teeth.” —Abbas

Beard

“A full, thick beard.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Neck

“Slender and long, beautifully carved like a statue.”

His neck was bright and pleasing like the moon.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Head

“Large, yet proportionately moderate in size.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Hair

Slightly curly.” —Abu Hurayrah

“Neither completely straight nor very curly.” —Qatadah

“Slightly curly.” —Anas

“Thick—sometimes reaching the earlobes, and sometimes the neck.” —Al-Bara ibn Azib

“Parted down the middle.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“There was not much body hair. A fine line of hair extended from the chest to the navel.” —Ali and Hind ibn Abi Halah

“A small amount of hair on the neck, arms, and upper chest.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

Overall Physique

“His body was strongly built. The bones at the joints of his limbs were large and strong.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“He was not heavyset.” —Ali

“He was neither very tall nor short, but of medium height.” —Anas

“He was somewhat tall. When he stood among many people, he appeared taller still.” —Al-Bara ibn Azib

“His abdomen did not protrude.” —Umm Ma‘bad

“Despite experiencing hunger and poverty, he was fresher and stronger than people raised amid abundant worldly wealth.” [It is famous that, while performing Umrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) drove one hundred camels by himself and slaughtered sixty-three of them with his own hands. He entrusted the rest to Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). (Al-Mawahib, vol. 1, p. 310)]

“I have never seen anyone stronger than the Messenger (peace be upon him).” —Ibn Umar [In Makkah there was a professional wrestler named Rukana. Once, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) met him and invited him to Islam, he asked for proof of prophethood. The Messenger (peace be upon him) expressed his willingness to wrestle him according to his preference. They wrestled three times, and each time he defeated him. In addition, he defeated several others, including Abu al-Aswad al-Juhmi, in wrestling. (Al-Hakim, Abu Dawud, al-Tirmidhi, and al-Bayhaqi; al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 303)]

Shoulders and Chest

“His chest was broad, and his chest and abdomen were flat.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah

“His chest was broad.” —Al-Bara ibn Azib

“The space between his shoulders was greater than average.” —Hind ibn Abi Halah, Al-Bara ibn Azib

“The area between his shoulders was muscular.” —Ali

Hands and Arms

“Long arms, broad palms, and fingers of proportionate length.” — Hind ibn Abi Hala

“I have never seen silk, whether fine or thick, or anything else as soft as the Messenger’s hand.” — Hazrat Abbas

The feet

“The flesh of his feet was not thick; they were light and slender.” — Jabir ibn Samura

“His palms and the soles of his feet were fleshy. The soles were slightly hollow. His feet were so smooth that water would not remain on them.” — Hind ibn Abi Hala

“There was very little flesh around his ankles.” — Jabir ibn Samura

A General Picture

Although many Companions of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) gave remarkable descriptions of him, no description compares with that of Umm Ma‘bad. When the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) set out from the cave of Mount Thawr to migrate to Madinah, he stopped to rest on the very first day at the home of this noble old woman of the Khuza‘ah tribe. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and his companions were suffering from severe thirst. By Allah’s special grace, the old woman’s emaciated, hungry goat gave so much milk that, after the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and his companions had drunk their fill, some milk still remained. When Umm Ma‘bad’s husband returned home and saw the milk, he was astonished. He asked where it had come from. Umm Ma‘bad related the whole incident. Her husband then said, “Describe this Qurayshi young man’s appearance, so that I may see whether he is the long-awaited person.” Umm Ma‘bad then gave a magnificent description of him. At that time, Umm Ma‘bad did not know the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), nor did she harbor envy or hostility toward him. She described exactly what she had seen. It is best to consult this description in the original Arabic. [See Zad al-Ma‘ad, vol. 1, p. 307.] Here is its translation:

“His face was bright and broad, his nature pleasant; his belly was not protruding, and his head was not bald. He was handsome and beautiful, with large, dark eyes, long, thick hair, and a deep, resonant voice. His neck was high, his eyes were lined with kohl, his eyebrows were fine and joined, and his hair was black and curly. He possessed quiet dignity and sincerity. Seen from a distance, he was handsome and captivating; seen up close, he was exceptionally sweet and beautiful. He was gentle and clear in speech, and his conversation was free of unnecessary words. All his words were linked together like a necklace of pearls. He was of medium height, so that no one despised or belittled him. Handsome and youthful, he was beloved by those who accompanied him constantly. When he spoke, everyone listened silently; when he issued an instruction, everyone immediately hurried to carry it out. He was served by all and obeyed by all. He was neither too brief in speech nor excessively talkative.” [Zad al-Ma‘ad, vol. 1, p. 307.]

Clothing

A person’s personality is also revealed through clothing. The size, length, width, color, quality, cleanliness, and other such features of a person’s clothing indicate what kind of character and mentality its wearer possesses. The information given by his Companions about the Messenger’s clothing reveals much about his taste and mentality.

In fact, the Messenger presented a practical interpretation of the following verse concerning clothing:

﴿يَابَنِيآدَمَقَدْأَنزَلْنَاعَلَيْكُمْلِبَاسًايُوَارِيسَوْآتِكُمْوَرِيشًاۖوَلِبَاسُالتَّقْوَىٰذَٰلِكَخَيْرٌۚذَٰلِكَمِنْآيَاتِاللَّهِلَعَلَّهُمْيَذَّكَّرُونَ﴾

“O children of Adam, We have appointed for you clothing that covers your private parts and adornment. But the clothing of God-consciousness is best.” (Surah al-A‘raf: 26)

Other characteristics of clothing are described in Surah al-Nahl as follows:

سَرَابِيلَتَقِيكُمُالْحَرَّوَسَرَابِيلَتَقِيكُمبَأْسَكُمْ

“He has provided you with garments that protect you from heat and armor that keeps you safe in war.” (Surah al-Nahl)

Thus, the principal characteristics of the Messenger’s clothing were that it covered modesty, provided adornment, and embodied taqwa—that is, fear of God and integrity. It met practical needs, ensured adherence to moral principles, and reflected the taste of a well-mannered person. The Messenger strictly avoided arrogance, ostentation, luxury, and the desire to show off. He said:

“I am merely a servant of Allah, and I wear the clothing appropriate for servants.” [Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 328.] He declared silk clothing forbidden for men. Once he wore a silk garment that he had received as a gift, but he immediately removed it restlessly. Since excessive length in shirts, lungis, and turbans was a sign of arrogance, and such clothing was customary among arrogant people, he detested it intensely. [Abu Dawud, al-Nasa’i, Ibn Majah, al-Tirmidhi, Musnad Ahmad].

He also prohibited imitating the clothing of other nations, particularly the distinctive clothing of their religious priestly classes. [Musnad Ahmad, Abu Dawud]. He imposed this prohibition so that the Ummah’s distinctiveness and sense of self-respect would remain intact, and so that imitation of clothing and fashion would not lead to imitation of character and ideals. For this reason, he introduced an entirely new taste in dress, fashion, and culture within the framework of Islamic culture. The Messenger paid particular attention to preserving protection from the weather, modesty, simplicity, cleanliness, and dignity in clothing. If we view the Messenger’s clothing in the context of contemporary cultural trends, Arabia’s geographical, cultural, and climatic needs, and prevailing customs, it becomes clear that it represented exceptionally refined taste. Now let us see what the Messenger’s clothing was like. [See al-Shama’il al-Tirmidhi, Zad al-Ma‘ad, and Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah].

He particularly liked shirts. Their sleeves were neither tight nor loose, but of medium width. Sometimes the sleeves reached the elbows and sometimes the wrists. The shirt he wore while away from home, especially when traveling for jihad, was relatively shorter in both body and sleeves. For climatic reasons, he sometimes left open the part of the shirt over the chest, and he even prayed in that state. When putting on a shirt, he inserted his right arm first and then his left. He taught the Companions to do the same. Giving priority to the right hand and using it for good deeds was an important part of the culture taught by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him).

He wore a lungi throughout his life. He kept it slightly below the navel and wore it to just above the ankles. The front portion hung slightly lower.

He took an immediate liking to trousers when he first saw them. The Companions also wore them. He once bought a pair himself. (There is disagreement as to whether he wore it.) It was found among his discarded possessions. The story of his purchase of the trousers is rather amusing. Accompanied by Hazrat Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him), the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) went to the market and entered the shops of the clothing sellers. He bought the trousers for four dirhams. There was a prominent weigher in the market who weighed merchandise. He took the trousers to him to be weighed and said, “Weigh it with a tilt.” (That is, weigh it so that the result would be slightly more than its actual weight.) The weigher said, “I have never heard anyone say such a thing.” Hazrat Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him) drew his attention and said, “Do you not recognize your Prophet?” When the man immediately moved forward to kiss his hand, he stopped him and said, “This is an un-Islamic practice.” In any case, he had the trousers weighed and bought them. Hazrat Abu Hurairah asked in astonishment, “Will you actually wear this?” His astonishment was probably due, first, to the striking change from an ancient custom, and second, to the fact that trousers were Persian clothing, whereas the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) avoided everything foreign. (He did, however, adopt beneficial elements of other nations’ cultures.) The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “Yes, I will wear them—at home and abroad, by day and by night, in every circumstance. For I have been commanded to cover my ‘awrah, and no garment covers the ‘awrah better than trousers.” [Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, pp. 336–337].

He loved wearing a turban. It was neither very large nor very small. According to one report, it was seven cubits long. He left its tail hanging one span down his back. Sometimes, to protect himself from intense sunlight, he spread the turban and its tail broadly over his head. When necessary because of the weather, he would sometimes loosen the final coil of the turban and wrap it around his neck. When he had no turban, he would tie a large scarf around his head. [According to some, he did this only when ill, especially when suffering from a headache.] For cleanliness, he used a special cloth beneath the turban, over his hair, to protect it from oil; in Arabic this was called a “kannā.” Even today, many people place a piece of paper or celluloid beneath a cap. That piece would indeed become oily, but he was so conscious of cleanliness that, according to various reports, no one ever saw it dirty. Besides white, he sometimes wore yellow turbans (most likely brownish or ash-colored). At the conquest of Makkah, he also wore a black turban. He wore and liked a cloth cap beneath the turban. According to some reports, wearing a turban with a cap became a distinctive style of Islamic culture, and the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) declared this style a special fashion in opposition to the polytheists.

Sometimes, without a turban, he wore only a white cap. The cap used at home fit closely to the head, while the cap he wore away from home was relatively tall. He also wore a pointed cap made of densely stitched cloth.

He wore a shawl four cubits long and two and a quarter cubits wide. Sometimes he wrapped it around his body; at other times he passed one side directly under his armpit and placed it over the opposite shoulder. Sometimes he wrapped it around his legs while sitting, and at other times folded it and used it like a pillow beneath his head. He would also sometimes spread it out to welcome distinguished visitors. He particularly liked a Yemeni shawl called a jabārah, which had red or green stripes. Once, a black shawl, probably woolen, was made for the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). When he wore it, it developed an unpleasant odor from sweat, so he did not wear it again for reasons of cleanliness.

He generally put on new clothing on Fridays, praising and thanking Allah. He did not have extra sets of clothing made. He patched and repaired his garments. As a precaution, he would occasionally inspect the house to see whether lice or bedbugs had been brought in through social contact with ordinary people. (Unclean people sometimes attended congregational prayers and gatherings. It took him many years of continuous effort to improve even the general standard of cleanliness to some extent.)

On the one hand, poverty and simplicity were among the defining features of his life. On the other hand, it was also his responsibility to oppose asceticism. Once, seeing a prosperous person living an excessively poor life, he said, “Allah loves to see the effects of the blessings He has bestowed reflected in the life of His servant.” [Al-Tirmidhi and al-Nasa’i].

In accordance with this principle, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sometimes wore fine clothing. Adopting a moderate and balanced approach was his principle, and he wanted to protect his Ummah from excess and extremism. Once he wore a Roman robe with tight sleeves. He also wore a striking outfit with red stripes. At times he wore a royal Persian taylasan robe. [Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah]. Once he bought and wore a valuable outfit in exchange for twenty-seven she-camels, and prayed while wearing it. This was in fact an interpretation of the Qur’anic verse: “Say, ‘Who has forbidden the adornment Allah has produced?’” (Surah al-A‘raf). Nevertheless, his general practice was that simple, unostentatious clothing was dearer to him.

White was his favorite color for clothing. He said, “The best clothing for you to wear before Allah is white clothing.” [Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah]. He also said, “Wear white clothing and shroud the dead in white cloth, for it is purer and more pleasing.” [Ahmad, al-Tirmidhi, al-Nasa’i, Ibn Majah].

After white, his preferred color was green. He especially liked it with light-green stripes. He strongly disliked completely solid red clothing. (This applied not only to clothing; he prohibited red in other things in certain circumstances as well. However, he wore cloth with light-red stripes. Similarly, he wore light-yellow, or brownish, clothing.)

The Messenger’s footwear, in accordance with customary Arab culture, was shaped like sandals or wooden clogs. It had two straps: one between the big toe and the adjacent toe, and the other between the next two toes. The footwear had no hair. Like the shoes of ordinary people, it was one span and two fingers long. He sometimes put on his shoes standing and sometimes sitting. When putting them on, he inserted his right foot first and then his left; when removing them, he withdrew his left foot first and then his right. He wore socks of ordinary, medium, and fine quality. The Negus gave him black socks as a gift. He wore them and performed masah over them. Likewise, Dihyah al-Kalbi gave him socks as a gift, and he wore them until they became torn.

He used a silver ring with a silver bezel. Sometimes the bezel was made of Abyssinian stone. According to some reports, an iron ring had been plated with silver. It is well known, however, that he disliked iron rings as jewelry. He generally wore the ring on his right hand, though he sometimes wore it on his left. He did not wear it on the middle or index finger; he preferred the finger next to the middle finger. He kept the bezel facing the palm rather than outward. The bezel was engraved with “Muhammadur Rasulullah.” He used it to seal letters. According to historians, the ring had been made specifically for use as a seal. It was essential because of his political status.

Dress and Adornment

The Messenger kept his hair very neatly arranged. He used plenty of oil, combed it, parted it, trimmed the excess hair above his lips, and kept his beard even in length and width with scissors. He also trained his Companions in this regard. For example, he strongly rebuked a Companion whom he saw with disheveled hair. He himself trimmed the excess hair from a Companion’s beard. He said that whoever keeps hair on his head or a beard should keep it neat and well-groomed. He told Qatadah, “Keep your beard well-groomed.” [Abu Dawud].

The Messenger emphasized this because religious people sometimes become careless about cleanliness. In particular, advocates of ascetic Sufism sometimes regard remaining dirty as a sign of high status. He took measures to remove this misconception. Whether traveling or at home, he always kept seven items close at hand and near his bed: a bottle of oil, a comb, a kohl container (for black kohl), scissors, a miswak, a mirror, and a piece of light wood.

At bedtime, he applied kohl three times to each eye. In the last part of the night, after relieving himself, he performed ablution, changed his clothes, and applied fragrance. He particularly liked a perfume called rayhan. He also loved the fragrance of henna flowers. His greatest favorites were musk and sandalwood.

He would spread the smoke of fragrant substances throughout the house. A perfume container held high-quality fragrance, which he used. (Sometimes Hazrat Aisha applied perfume to him with her own hands.) It is widely known that the lane through which he walked would remain fragrant for a long time. The air itself would announce that the messenger of eternal spring had passed that way only moments earlier. If someone gave him perfume as a gift, he always accepted it. If someone did not accept a gift of his perfume, he would be displeased. In accordance with the distinctive preferences of Islamic culture, he preferred for men a fragrance whose color was invisible but whose scent spread around, and for women a fragrance whose color was visible but whose scent did not spread.

Manner of Walking

The Messenger’s manner of walking reflected dignity, self-respect, courtesy, and a sense of responsibility. He walked with firm steps. He did not drag his feet lazily. His body remained composed as he walked. He walked without looking to the right or left. He lifted his feet briskly in front of him. His body leaned slightly forward as he walked, making it seem as though he were descending from above. In the words of Hind ibn Abi Hala, “When he walked, it seemed that the earth drew itself together as he passed.” When walking quickly, he took long strides, though he usually walked at a moderate pace. Yet in the words of Hazrat Abu Hurairah (may Allah be pleased with him), “It was difficult for us to keep up with him.” His manner of walking was a practical reflection of the instruction in Surah Luqman: “Do not walk on the earth arrogantly.”

Speech

Speech completely reveals a person’s beliefs, character, and dignity. The subject matter and choice of words, sentence structure, rise and fall of the voice, manner of speaking, and forcefulness of expression all show the level of personality possessed by the speaker.

The Messenger’s responsibility and rank were such that, if that heavy burden had been placed upon anyone else, he would have become absorbed in profound thought and preferred solitude. Yet one of the Messenger’s distinctive qualities was that, on the one hand, he carried mountain-sized responsibilities and burdens of thought, and passed his time amid various anxieties and worries; while on the other hand, he mixed deeply with people, and conversation continued day and night. His temperament had gravity, but it also contained laughter, amusement, and wit. He possessed a remarkable balance of seemingly contradictory qualities. A worldwide movement, the problems of an entire empire, the many complexities of a society and organization, and the responsibility of a large family were mountain-sized burdens for him. These burdens rested on his shoulders alone. Imam Hasan, relating from his maternal uncle Hind ibn Abi Hala, said, “The Messenger of Allah was always occupied with various matters. He constantly thought about one problem after another. He could never remain free of worry even for a moment. He would remain silent for long periods and did not speak without need.” [Al-Shama’il al-Tirmidhi, chapter on the Messenger’s manner of speaking].

But he was a preacher and caller, and the leader of a movement. Therefore, contact with the people was essential for conducting activities related to preaching, teaching, reform and correction, and political administration. Speech was the most important medium of this contact. Thus, participating in all kinds of discussions was also his practice. Hazrat Zayd ibn Thabit said, “When we discussed worldly matters, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) would participate in that as well. When we spoke about the Hereafter, he would also speak about it. When we discussed food and drink, he would join in that too. Yet despite all this, the Messenger swore that nothing but truth and justice ever came from his mouth. The Qur’an also testified that he did not speak anything of his own invention.”

When speaking, he pronounced every word slowly and clearly, so that listeners could easily memorize it; indeed, his words could be counted as he uttered them. Umm Ma‘bad praised him by saying, “His speech was like a necklace of pearls.” He neither spoke more than necessary nor less. He was neither excessively concise nor unnecessarily lengthy. To emphasize, explain, and facilitate memorization, he repeated particular words and statements three times. On matters where explicit speech seemed inappropriate, he spoke through hints and gestures. He detested indecent, obscene, and shameless speech. He generally accompanied his words with a slight smile. Abdullah ibn al-Harith said, “I have never seen anyone smile more than the Messenger.” This slight smile prevented his gravity from becoming harshness and increased his appeal to his Companions. While speaking, he would repeatedly look toward the sky. During an address, when wishing to emphasize a matter, he would suddenly sit upright from a reclining position and repeat a particular statement. When warning listeners about something, he would strike the ground with his hand as he spoke. He also used movements of his hands and fingers to help explain things. For example, to indicate the joining of two things, he would bring his index and middle fingers together. Sometimes he interlaced the fingers of both hands to convey strength and unity. To point to an object or direction, he would move his entire hand. Sometimes, while reclining and discussing an important matter, he would place his right hand over the back of his left hand and interlock his fingers. When expressing amazement, he would sometimes turn his palms upward. At times he would strike the middle section of the thumb of his left hand with the palm of his right hand. Sometimes he would shake his head and press his lips with his teeth. At other times he would slap his thigh with his hand.

This distinguished man from a refined and noble family of Makkah’s Quraysh tribe grew up among the Banu Sa‘d and mastered Arabia’s most precise language. In addition, the eloquent language of revelation further refined the sweetness of his speech. In fact, he was the most eloquent man in Arabia. The literary quality of the Messenger’s language was high and excellent, yet it was also clear and simple. Although he used readily understandable language, he never used vulgar or indecent words, nor did he favor artificial language. In truth, for the needs of his da‘wah and his mission, the Messenger had developed a distinctive language and a unique manner of expression. While explaining one of the Messenger’s statements, “a connected technique,” Tha‘lab said that this was the Messenger’s special language. He created many technical terms, coined many new idioms, metaphors, and examples, introduced a new method of public speaking, and abandoned many conventional words and methods. Once, several people from the Banu Nahd tribe came and conversed with him for a long time. During the discussion, the visitors asked in great astonishment, “O Messenger of Allah, you and we are children of the same parents and were raised in the same place. Yet you speak an Arabic whose meaning most of our people cannot understand. What is the secret?” He replied, “Allah Himself taught me language and literature, and therefore taught me the finest speech. Moreover, I was raised among the Banu Sa‘d. That is the secret.” Once, he was speaking with a visitor while Hazrat Abu Bakr listened attentively. Abu Bakr asked, “What did this man say to you, and what did you say to him?” The Messenger explained. Abu Bakr then said, “I have traveled throughout Arabia and heard the pure and fluent speech of its greatest orators. Yet I have never heard words sweeter than yours from anyone’s mouth.” Here too, the Messenger repeated that Allah had taught him language and that he had been raised among the Banu Sa‘d. Similarly, once Hazrat Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) said, “O Messenger, you have never been distant from us, so how do you speak more beautifully and correctly than all of us?” He replied, “My language is the language of Ishmael. I learned it especially. Jibril brought this very language to me and firmly established it in my heart.” In other words, the Messenger’s language was not ordinary Arabic; rather, it was a special, prophetic language resembling the language of Hazrat Ishmael. The language in which Jibril revealed the Qur’an was likewise that prophetic language.

It should be remembered here that when great historical figures, especially the prophets—who came with a particular mission and purpose and became involved in conflict and struggle with their surroundings, and in whom the passion for truth and justice always prevailed—speak, the greatness of their purpose and objective reveals profound significance in their words; their sincerity and devotion enhance their literary quality, and their moral excellence makes them purer.

One of the Prophet’s distinctive qualities was that he had been endowed with “Jawami al-Kalim.” He himself said, [Muslim: Abu Hurairah (RA)] (“I have been given Jawami al-Kalim.”) The Prophet’s briefest statements, which carry broad significance, are called “Jawami al-Kalim.” No one equaled the Messenger in expressing the widest meanings in the fewest words, and he regarded this as a special gift from Allah.

Here are some examples of his Jawami al-Kalim:

1. (*******) A person will be with the one he loves on the Day of Resurrection.

2. (*******) Become Muslim and you will live in peace. [Part of the letter of invitation sent to Heraclius, the Roman emperor.]

3. (******) Deeds will be judged according to intentions.

4. (******) Whoever performs a deed receives its result only according to his intention.

5. (******) The child belongs to the marriage bed, and the adulterer receives the stone.

6. (******) War is a strategy.

7. (******) Seeing and hearing are not the same.

8. (******) Trustworthiness is essential for a gathering.

9. (******) Refraining from evil is itself a good deed.

10. (******) The one who serves the people is their leader.

11. (******) Every fortunate person is envied.

12. (******) Speaking good words is also a good deed.

13. (******) Whoever shows no mercy will receive no mercy.

The Prophet’s sayings can generally be recognized by their language, style, and subject matter. In the books of Hadith and Sirah, his sayings shine like pearls. A few words, marvelous harmony among those words, depth of meaning, and sincerity that affects the heart are notable features of the Prophet’s speech. I will mention a couple of sayings enriched with these qualities as examples:

I advise you always and at all times to fear Allah. I strongly urge you to listen to and obey the leader’s commands for the sake of the collective order, even if that leader is an enslaved Black person. For those among you who live after me will become involved in numerous disagreements. In such circumstances, it is your duty to follow the path of myself and my rightly guided caliphs, to hold firmly to it and cling to it with your molar teeth. Beware: refrain from introducing new practices into Islam. Every new practice is an innovation, and every innovation is misguidance.24 [24. Mishkat—Chapter on Holding Fast to the Book and Sunnah.]

Amr ibn Abasa asked the Messenger of Allah several questions, and he gave very brief and concise answers. Observe this short dialogue!

—Who were with you at the very beginning of this work (the Islamic call and movement)?

—A free man (Abu Bakr) and an enslaved man (Zayd).

—What is Islam?

—Speaking good words and feeding the hungry.

—What is faith?

—Patience and generosity.

—Whose Islam is best?

—The one from whose tongue and hands people remain safe (that is, from evil deeds and evil words).

—Whose faith is finest?

—The one whose character is good.

—What kind of prayer is best?

—The prayer in which one stands for a long time with humility.

—What kind of Hijrah is best?

—To abandon forever the things your Lord dislikes.

—Which Jihad is best?

—The Jihad of the person whose horse dies on the battlefield and who himself becomes a martyr.

—What time is best for worship?

—The last part of the night. [Mishkat—The Book of Faith.]

Once he was asked what chiefly makes Hell inevitable for people. He replied, “The mouth and the private parts.” [Tirmidhi—Narrated by Abu Hurairah.] The mouth refers to speech and food, while the private parts refer to unlawful sexual relations. In other words, evil speech, unlawful livelihood, and sexual deviation are the greatest means of people’s destruction in the Hereafter. Most oppression, persecution, and conflicts also arise from these.

Once Ali asked him to explain his principles. In reply, he presented, in extremely concise yet highly ornate language, such a comprehensive picture of his ideas, character, and spirituality that it is a miraculous monument in the history of human language. He said:

“Knowledge of Allah is my capital, intellect is the foundation of my religion, and love is my foundation. Aspiration is my mount, remembrance of Allah is my companion, trust and faith are my companions, knowledge is my limb, patience is my clothing, Allah’s pleasure is my greatest blessing, humility is my honor, asceticism—detachment from worldly possessions—is my profession, conviction is my strength (according to another pronunciation, my food), truthfulness is my intercessor. Obedience is my protection, Jihad is my character, and prayer is the coolness of my eyes.” [Qadi Iyad: Ash-Shifa.]

Many rare examples of similes and metaphors can be found in the Prophet’s words. Through them, he explained great matters to the Bedouins. Here is one example:

“The example of the guidance and knowledge Allah Almighty has given me is like abundant rain falling upon the earth. Some parts of the earth are fertile and absorb the water abundantly, causing the withered vegetation to become fresh and new plants to grow. Some parts are hard and retain the water, so Allah benefits people through it; they use it for irrigation. Then this water falls upon another tract of land filled with stones. That soil neither retains the water nor absorbs it to show any sign of fertility. The first is like those who acquire knowledge of Islam and benefit from the guidance Allah has sent through me: they acquire knowledge themselves and teach others. The second is like those who reject my call and the guidance Allah sent through me.”

If a title had to be given to the Prophet’s manner of speaking, it could be taken from this Qur’anic phrase: “Call people with appealing language.” Simplicity was inherent in the Prophet’s captivating style of speech, and he stayed far from artificiality. He said:

“Those among you who will be farthest from me on the Day of Resurrection are those who speak excessively, talk too much, and display arrogance in their speech.”

He also greatly disliked loquacious and obscene speech. His gatherings were always cheerful, and his face was the most smiling of all, although he was almost always surrounded by difficult responsibilities and hardships.

Speeches

An important part of conversation is speechmaking. The Messenger had brought a great and valuable message for humanity, and therefore public speaking was essential. Arabs were naturally eloquent speakers, and the Quraysh in particular possessed exceptional oratorical ability. The Messenger stood far above the oratorical environment of the Arabs and Quraysh. Whenever leadership duties required him to speak, he delivered a timely address without delay. His tongue then became active sometimes like the gentle breeze of dawn, sometimes like a powerful torrent, and sometimes like a sharp sword.

Nevertheless, he refrained from delivering speeches and addresses too frequently. He gave balanced speeches according to society’s needs and the overall circumstances. When speaking in the mosque, he stood leaning on his staff; when addressing people on the battlefield, he stood leaning against a bow. At times he delivered an address while seated on the back of a riding animal. During a speech, his body would lean slightly to the right and left. He moved his hands as needed. Sometimes during a speech he would swear, saying, ‘By the One in whose hand is my soul,’ or, ‘By the One in whose hand is Muhammad’s life.’ The emotions of his heart were reflected equally in his voice and face, and they affected his listeners as well. The addresses of this great man stirred people’s hearts profoundly. Here I will give only two examples. After the battles of Hunayn and Ta’if, while distributing the spoils, the Messenger gave fairly large shares to the newly Muslim leaders of Makkah, in accordance with the clear injunctions of the Qur’an, so that their hearts would soften further and they would become more closely attached to the Islamic state through the bonds of generosity. Some of the Ansar reacted strongly. They said:

“The Messenger gave the Quraysh many rewards but deprived us, even though blood is still dripping from our swords.” Others said:

“He remembers us in times of hardship, but others receive the spoils of war.”

These remarks reached the Messenger’s ears. A leather tent was set up, and the Ansar were gathered there. The Messenger asked them, “Did you say these things?” They replied, “What you heard is true. However, our responsible leaders did not say these things. Some young men said them.” After investigating the entire matter, the Messenger delivered the following speech:

‘Is it not true that you were first astray, and then Allah guided you through me? You were divided—was it not Allah who united you through me? You were poor—was it not Allah who made you prosperous through me?’ (In response to each question, the Ansar said, “Indeed, Allah and His Messenger have bestowed many blessings upon us.”)

‘No, you could instead have replied, “O Muhammad, when everyone rejected you, we believed in you. When people drove you out, we gave you shelter. When you came to us helpless, we helped you.” If you say these things in reply, I will certainly say that you speak the truth. But, O Ansar, would you not be pleased that everyone else takes camels, goats, and so on, while you take Muhammad home with you? (Bukhari)

Observe the rises and falls of his words, the force of the speech sharpened by delicate emotion, and the eloquence of the address; then consider how the speaker instilled the desired inspiration in his listeners. The Ansar spontaneously cried out, “We want only Muhammad; we want nothing else.”

Besides the address delivered from Mount Safa at the beginning of the call, he addressed the Quraysh on several occasions. A passage from one of the speeches of that period is noteworthy:

“The guide of a caravan never gives the caravan false information. By Allah, even if I were willing to lie to everyone else, I would not lie to you. Even if I deceived everyone else, I would not deceive you. By the One besides whom no one is worthy of worship, I am Allah’s Messenger to you in particular and to all the people of the world as a whole. By Allah, just as you sleep and awaken from sleep, your death and resurrection after death are certain. You will certainly be held accountable for your deeds, and you must experience the good consequences of good deeds and the evil consequences of evil deeds. Then there is either Paradise forever or Hell forever.”

What a simple and fluent manner of expression, and what a rational and emotional appeal. The caller’s goodwill flows through every word. Every sentence is filled with faith and conviction. This brief speech also contains an example. The fundamental call to Tawhid, Risalah, and the Hereafter is fully included in it.

There are two more historical speeches of the Messenger. He delivered one after the conquest of Makkah and the other during the Farewell Hajj. These two speeches were entirely revolutionary in nature, and in them one can hear the echoes of faith, morality, and power. The speech of the Farewell Hajj was, so to speak, a proclamation inaugurating a new age.

Ordinary Social Relations

Generally, those who undertake great works do not have time to communicate with people of every class, nor can they give attention in all directions. Many people of high rank become fond of seclusion and develop a harsh temperament. Some become involved in arrogance and create a separate world for themselves. But the Messenger was an exception in this regard. Despite holding the highest position of honor and accomplishing deeds that changed the course of history, he maintained constant contact with people of every level. He maintained personal relationships with members of society. There was not the slightest trace of social isolation, arrogance, or harshness in him. Indeed, the fraternal system he established required the people to remain bound to one another by deep mutual ties, to benefit one another, and to know one another’s rights. The kind of culture and civilization emerging in today’s Western world is its complete opposite. In this culture, no one has any relationship with anyone else. This lack of connection has now become an instrument destructive to humanity. Therefore, today it has become necessary to transform this environment under the leadership of Muhammad. Come, let us observe the Messenger in the context of ordinary social relations.

His practice was to greet with Salam whoever he met on the road. If he wanted to send someone a message, he never forgot to send greetings along with it. If someone conveyed another person’s greeting to him, he greeted both the sender and the bearer separately. Once, while passing by a group of children, he greeted them. He also greeted women when approaching them. When entering and leaving the house, he greeted his family members. He shook hands and embraced his friends. After shaking hands, he would not withdraw his hand until the other person withdrew his.

When he went to gatherings, he did not like the Companions to stand up in his honor. He would sit at one side of the gathering. He did not enter by craning his neck over others. He said, ‘I sit and rise just as an ordinary servant of Allah sits and rises.’ —Narrated by Aisha.

He never sat with his knees extended ahead of those of his companions. When someone came to him, he would spread out his own cloak for the person to sit on. He would not leave the gathering until the visitor himself rose.

He did not introduce irrelevant matters for discussion in a gathering; rather, he participated in the matter being discussed. A gathering would be held after the Fajr congregation, and he would converse extensively with the noble Companions. If a story from the Age of Ignorance happened to come up, they would laugh about it. [Narrated by Jabir ibn Samurah (RA).] The Companions also recited poetry. He would change a subject when signs of annoyance and boredom appeared on the faces of those present. He gave attention to every person in the gathering so that no one would feel he was favoring anyone else over them. If someone raised an irrelevant question in the middle of a discussion, he would continue without paying attention to it, then turn his attention to that person after finishing the discussion. He would not turn his face away from the person speaking until that person turned away himself. If someone spoke quietly in his ear, he would keep his head inclined toward him until the person finished speaking and moved away. He did not interrupt anyone unless they were saying something plainly wrong. In that case, he would either point out the error, signs of displeasure would appear on his face, or he would rise and leave. He did not like discussing important matters while standing. He would either avoid unpleasant matters, or his usual way of objecting was not to mention the matter by name directly, but to allude to it generally or offer social advice. When an extremely embarrassing situation arose—which occurred only in matters relating to Islam—he used several methods to make his friends aware. If the person concerned came to him, he would either not return his Salam or would not pay attention to him. Even when an unwelcome person arrived, he would welcome him with a smiling face. Once, a man whom he considered the worst person of his tribe came to him, but he spoke to him graciously. When Aisha expressed surprise at this, he said, ‘By Allah, on the Day of Resurrection the worst person in Allah’s sight will be the one whose bad behavior causes people to stop associating with him out of fear.’ [Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, p. 291]

When visiting someone, he would stand to the right or left of the door, announce his presence, and offer Salam three times to seek permission to enter. If he received no reply, he would return without any annoyance. When visiting someone at night, he would offer Salam loudly enough for the person to hear if awake, but not so loudly as to disturb the person’s sleep if asleep.

If someone removed dust or bits of straw from his body or clothing, he would thank the person and say, ‘May Allah remove something unpleasant from you.’ He accepted gifts and remembered to give gifts in return. If someone was inadvertently hurt by him, he gave that person the right to seek retribution, and sometimes he would give the person a gift in compensation. If someone appeared before him wearing new clothes, he would say: ****** ‘Wonderful, wonderful; may you wear them for a long time and use them until they become old.’ He did not repay bad treatment with bad treatment. He forgave. When he forgave the offenses of others, he would sometimes send his turban as a token to make it known. Whenever someone called him, he would always respond, “Labbayk,” whether it was a member of his family or one of his Companions.

He visited the sick with great concern. Sitting beside the patient, he would ask, “How are you?” He would place his hand on the sick person’s forehead and temples. Sometimes he would affectionately stroke the person’s chest, abdomen, and face. He would ask what the patient had eaten. If the patient expressed a desire for something and it was not harmful, he would bring it. To offer comfort, he would say, ‘There is no reason to worry; if Allah wills, you will soon recover.’ He prayed for the patient’s recovery. He prayed three times for Sa’d. He also visited his polytheist uncles when they fell ill. He even visited a sick Jewish child. (The child later accepted faith.) No particular day or time was fixed for this duty. Whenever he received news and had the time, he would go to visit.

Once Jabir fell ill. The Messenger, accompanied by Abu Bakr, walked a long distance to visit him. (The settlements of Madinah were scattered.) Jabir was unconscious. After seeing him, the Messenger performed ablution, sprinkled water over him, and prayed. The patient’s condition began to improve. Jabir even began speaking and asked about the legal ruling concerning his property.

He was so compassionate toward humanity that he even visited the sick Abdullah ibn Ubayy, the leader of the hypocrites.

When someone died, he would go there. If he heard that someone was in the throes of death or was summoned, he would go and advise the person about Tawhid and turning attention toward Allah. He would offer condolences to the deceased’s relatives, advise them to be patient, and forbid them to wail. He urged that the deceased be shrouded in white cloth and instructed that the shrouding and burial be completed quickly. He accompanied the body when it was taken for burial. He himself led the funeral prayer for Muslims and prayed for forgiveness of their sins. If he saw a funeral procession, he would immediately stand, even if the deceased was a non-Muslim. (Some narrations state that the Messenger remained seated.) Others say that the practice of standing had later been abrogated. (Zad al-Ma’ad, p. 145.) He advised neighbors to send food to the bereaved family. (Nowadays the opposite occurs: a feast for others is arranged at the home of the deceased.) He strongly disliked formal mourning gatherings continuing for several days.

When someone returning from abroad wished to meet him, he would embrace that person and sometimes kiss the person’s forehead. When bidding farewell to someone leaving for abroad, he would request, ‘Remember us when you pray.’

Because of the abundance of affection and love, he became so friendly and informal with some people that he would shorten the names of those dear to him. For example, he would call Abu Hurairah “Abu Hur,” and sometimes call Aisha “Aish.”

The Messenger (peace be upon him) was extremely affectionate toward children. Whenever he saw a child, he would stroke the child’s head, show affection, pray for the child, and, if the child was very small, take the child into his arms. To amuse children, he would say startling things. For example, he would say, “Brother lizards, at night you strike mosquitoes in the eye with your teeth.” Once, while kissing an innocent child, he said, “Children are flowers from Allah’s garden.” He would give children names. Sometimes he would line them up and arrange races with prizes, saying, “Let us see who can touch me first.” The children would run toward him; some would fall against his stomach and others against his chest. He would joke and laugh with children. For example, he would sometimes affectionately say to Hazrat Anas, “O you with two ears.” When the pet bird of Hazrat Anas’s brother, Abu Umayr, died, he sat looking dejected. The Messenger (peace be upon him) came to their house and called out, “O Abu Umayr, where is your Nughayr (little bird)?” On another occasion, the mother of a child named Abdullah ibn Bashir sent grapes to the Messenger (peace be upon him) through him. Abdullah ate all the grapes on the way. When the matter later became known, the Messenger (peace be upon him) affectionately held Abdullah by the ear and said, “O little deceiver, o little deceiver.” On his way back from a journey, whenever he saw a child along the road, he would carry the child behind him on his mount. If the child was small, he would seat the child in front, and if older, behind him. When the first fruits of the season arrived, he would give a child the first taste, together with a prayer for blessing. He believed that this child would one day become a leader of the Islamic movement.ياغدرياغدر“O little deceiver, o little deceiver.”

He held elderly people in great respect. At the conquest of Makkah, when Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) brought his elderly blind father to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to accept Islam, he said, “Why did you cause him hardship? I would have gone to him myself.”

He displayed such an extreme degree of magnanimity that when a somewhat deranged woman of Madinah came and said, “I have something to tell you privately,” he replied, “Very well. Go and wait for me in such-and-such lane; I am coming.” He then went there, listened to her complaints and needs, and remedied them. [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, p. 295.] Adi ibn Hatim had also witnessed an incident of this kind and accepted the Messenger’s magnanimity as a sign of prophethood.

Hazrat Anas painted a wonderful picture of how gracious the Messenger (peace be upon him) was and how pleasant his conduct was in interpersonal relations. He said:

“I served the Messenger (peace be upon him) for ten years. He never expressed the slightest annoyance or anger. However I might have carried out a task, he never said, ‘Why did you do it this way?’ And if I did not do something, he never said, ‘Why did you not do this?’ He behaved similarly with his male and female servants. He never struck anyone.”

Hazrat Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) said that he never struck a wife or a male or female servant. He never took personal revenge on anyone. Of course, any action he took while striving in Allah’s path or enforcing punishment for an offense according to Allah’s law was an entirely separate matter.

Personal Life

Usually, those who wear an artificial cloak in their collective life but remove it as soon as they enter their private lives are called leaders. They display abundant grandeur and generosity outside, but upon returning home descend to the lowest level of vulgarity. They show the utmost simplicity and humility among people, yet become absorbed in luxury and comfort as soon as they return home. It seems that the greater the gap and distance between a person’s collective and private life, the greater his status. Yet the personal and collective lives of the Messenger (peace be upon him) were alike.

Someone asked Hazrat Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) what the Messenger (peace be upon him) did in domestic life. She replied: The Messenger was just like an ordinary person. He looked after his own clothes himself, that is, he kept watch to see whether insects had got into them. He milked the goats himself and performed his own necessary tasks. If a garment needed patching, he patched it himself; he repaired his shoes, carried burdens, and fed animals. If he had a servant, he helped with the servant’s work—for example, he would grind flour with him. Sometimes he worked alone and was never ashamed to go to the market. He bought provisions himself. He generally tied the necessary items in a piece of cloth and carried them home. Some people asked how the Messenger behaved in domestic life. Hazrat Aisha replied: He was extremely humble and cheerful, with a smiling manner. His humility can be understood from the fact that he never even rebuked a servant. [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, p. 293.] No one could equal the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) in kind treatment of his family. (Sahih Muslim)

Once, in answer to a question from Hazrat Imam Husayn, Hazrat Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) said: When the Messenger (peace be upon him) was at home, he divided his time among three kinds of activities. He spent some time in worship of Allah, some time with his family, and some time resting. From each of these three periods, he set aside a portion for those seeking an audience. Besides the regular gathering in the mosque, if a friend wished to meet him privately, a guest arrived, or someone came to present a need or complaint, he would give them some of his resting time. Thus, very little time remained for his own rest. [Shamā’il al-Tirmidhi, chapter on the Messenger’s humility and simplicity]

He himself had to provide maintenance and meet the various needs of his wives. He was also responsible for arranging their education and instruction. Thereafter, through them, the work of reforming women was kept active. Women would bring their various problems and seek solutions through the Mothers of the Believers. Even so, he neither allowed the atmosphere of his home to become dull and monotonous nor permitted artificiality there. His household was like any human household, and natural tides of emotion rose and fell within it. Tears were shed there, and gentle smiles also shone. At times, even excitement arising from jealousy would occur. Just as worry and restlessness were present, moments of happiness also came. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) came home, he came like the gentle breeze of dawn, bringing a wonderful wave of tranquility and joy. They would converse, and sometimes tell one another stories. Amusing jokes and playful banter also took place. Hazrat Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) related one such incident: Once I prepared khamira, a type of food made by cooking flour with minced meat. Hazrat Sawda (may Allah be pleased with her) was there. The Messenger (peace be upon him) sat between us, and an atmosphere of genuine warmth prevailed. I said to Sawda, “Eat.” She refused. I urged her again, but she still said, “I will not eat.” I insisted further, saying, “You must eat.” She still would not agree. I said, “If you do not eat, I will smear that khamira on your face.” Sawda persisted. I actually put my hand into the khamira, took a handful, and smeared it on Sawda’s face. The Messenger laughed heartily when he saw this. He said to Sawda, “You smear some on Aisha’s face too, so that you will be even.” Sawda immediately smeared some on Aisha’s face. The Messenger laughed again. [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, pp. 296–297]

Once Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) came and saw Aisha speaking loudly with the Messenger (peace be upon him). Abu Bakr became angry and moved to strike her. The Messenger calmed him and said that there had been no quarrel between them. Nevertheless, Hazrat Abu Bakr left still angry. After he had gone, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said to Hazrat Aisha in a teasing tone, “Did you see how I protected you?”

Some people consider these natural ups and downs of domestic life inferior to the Islamic ideal. In particular, they imagine the Messenger’s family life as though a number of superhuman beings lived there, having no emotions or desires. Yet that household too was a human household. All human emotions were present among its members. However, there was no disobedience to Allah or sin in that family. In this respect, it was an ideal family. At night, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) went to sleep, he would converse normally with his family, sometimes about household matters and sometimes about the problems of ordinary Muslims. He would even tell stories at times. Once he told Hazrat Aisha the story of Umm Zara. In this story, eleven women describe their husbands’ characters to one another. One of them was Umm Zara, who described the captivating character of her husband, Abu Zara. From a literary standpoint, it is a very entertaining story. At the end, the Messenger told Hazrat Aisha, “For you, I am like Abu Zara was for Umm Zara.” Similarly, on another occasion he told a story in a gathering. One of the women listeners exclaimed, “This is like the tale of Khurafa.” Khurafa was a historical Arab figure who, according to popular report, had written many astonishing tales. The Messenger asked the woman, “Do you know who Khurafa was?” He then told the story of this famous man named Khurafa as well. This man from the Banu Adhra tribe had been taken away by jinn and later returned. [Shamā’il al-Tirmidhi]

The Messenger (peace be upon him) had a lifelong habit of waking in the early part of the latter half of the night, performing ablution and using the miswak, and then praying Tahajjud. [Zad al-Ma‘ad] While reciting the Qur’an very slowly, he would sometimes stand so long in prayer that his feet became swollen. [Tirmidhi, narrated by Ibn al-Musayyab.] Seeing his hardship, the Companions would say, “Allah has forgiven all your earlier and later sins. Why do you still take such hardship upon yourself?” The Messenger replied, “Should I not, then, be a grateful servant of Allah?” [Zad al-Ma‘ad]

The Messenger’s view of the home and its furnishings was that worldly life should be spent like a traveler. He said, “I am like a traveler who rests for a while in the shade of a tree and then sets out toward his destination.” In other words, those who take the Hereafter as their destination, spend worldly life merely fulfilling duties or undergoing a trial, and must work here to attain the higher goal of Paradise have little opportunity to build huge, sky-reaching houses, fill them with furniture, and indulge fully in comfort and luxury. For this reason, neither he nor his Companions built grand houses. They did not accumulate furniture in them or increase their decoration and splendor. Their homes could be described as excellent travelers’ lodgings. [Zad al-Ma‘ad] Those homes provided good protection from cold and heat, safety from animals, and privacy. They also had provisions for maintaining health. The Messenger (peace be upon him) had small chambers adjoining the Prophet’s Mosque built for his wives. Apart from cleanliness, they had no decoration. The Messenger’s concern for cleanliness was so strong that he firmly instructed the Companions to keep the courtyards of their homes clean. [Tirmidhi]

Among his utensils, some were extremely plain, such as a glass cup with an iron band around it. It was widely used for drinking. Far from storing provisions, there was not even enough food to meet daily needs. His bed was a leather mattress filled with date-palm fiber. He also used a woven cot and a mat made of coarse material. This bedding was spread folded in two. Once it had been folded in four, and in the morning he asked everyone, “What was so comfortable about the bed last night that I slept deeply and missed Tahajjud?” When he learned what had happened, he said, “Return the bedding to its former twofold arrangement.” He also had the habit of sleeping on a mat spread on the ground. Once, when some Companions of the Messenger (Hazrat Umar and Abdullah ibn Masud) saw the marks of the cot’s wood on his body, they wept. [Shamā’il al-Tirmidhi]

On another occasion, Hazrat Umar’s eyes filled with tears when he saw marks on the Messenger’s body from sleeping on a bare cot. When the Messenger asked why his eyes had filled with tears, Hazrat Umar said, “The emperors of Rome and Persia are immersed in luxury, while this is your condition!” The Messenger said, “O Umar, are you not pleased that they take the world, while we gain the Hereafter?”

Food and Drink

The Messenger’s eating and drinking habits were extremely neat and refined. He was especially fond of meat. He preferred the meat of the back, thigh, and neck most of all. He was also particularly fond of the bones beside the meat. He greatly enjoyed tharid, a delicious Arab dish made by soaking pieces of bread in meat broth. Among his other favorite foods were honey, vinegar, and butter. He also liked eating dates with milk, which is an excellent nutritious food. Dates spread with butter were another delicacy he enjoyed. As food for the sick, he preferred calorie-rich foods and advised others to eat them as well. He often ate barley flour porridge. Once, when almond flour porridge was offered to him, he declined it, saying, “That is the food of the wealthy.” When curry was cooked at home, he would ask that a little extra be prepared for the neighbor.

Among beverages, his favorite was sweet water, which was specially brought from a distance of two days’ journey. He eagerly drank milk mixed with water and honey sherbet. He also liked non-intoxicating date infusion. Dates were soaked by pouring water over them in a leather water-skin or stone vessel, and he used the drink continuously throughout the day. But he would discard it for fear that, if kept too long, it might become intoxicating. According to Abu Malik al-Ashari’s narration, he also said, “Some of my Ummah will drink wine, but they will give it another name.” History bears witness that later rulers drank wine under the name of fruit essence.

He did not like people eating separately; he advised them to sit and eat together. He considered eating seated at a chair and table contrary to his humble nature. Similarly, he found it contrary to his taste to place food in small bowls and saucers on a dining cloth. He declared vessels of gold and silver entirely forbidden. He used vessels of glass, clay, copper, and wood. After washing his hands over the dining cloth, he would remove his shoes and sit down. He ate with his right hand, taking food from the area in front of him, and did not reach into the middle of the vessel. He did not habitually eat while reclining. Sometimes he sat with both knees raised and sometimes cross-legged. He recited Bismillah with every morsel he raised to his mouth. If he disliked a food, he simply left it without mentioning any fault in it. He did not eat food that was excessively hot. Sometimes he cut cooked food with a knife, but he regarded this as artificial and ostentatious and did not particularly like it. [Bukhari and Muslim, narrated by Amr ibn Umayyah; Abu Dawud and Bayhaqi, narrated by Hazrat Aisha.] He always picked up bread and similar foods with his fingers and did not allow curry or the like to soil them. Sometimes he ate fruit while standing or walking. He would also eat two fruits together, such as dates in one hand and melon in the other. He discarded date pits with his left hand. He never refused an invitation. If someone happened to be with him, whether because they were conversing or for another reason, he would take that person along, but would seek permission from the host on the person’s behalf. When he served a guest food, he repeatedly told the guest to eat heartily, without shyness or reserve. Out of courtesy, he rose last from the meal. If the others finished first, he would finish quickly and rise with them. At the end of the meal he always washed his hands, thanked Allah, and prayed for blessing upon the provision and the host. Whenever he received food as a gift, he would not fail to share it with the friends present and would set aside a portion for absent friends. He trained everyone to eat so carefully that not a single grain was wasted at the meal. When drinking water, he made no gulping sound and generally drank in three breaths, moving his mouth away each time. He began each time by saying Bismillah and ended by saying Alhamdulillah. He usually drank water sitting, though he sometimes drank while standing. When a drink was brought to a gathering, he generally began serving from the right. The next drink was served beginning where the previous service had ended. He gave priority to older people, but interrupted the sequence beginning from the right only after seeking permission from those entitled to precedence in that sequence. When he gave his companions something to drink, he drank last of all and said, “The one who gives others to drink drinks last.” He disliked blowing on or smelling food and drink. Since he disliked bad breath, he did not like eating raw onions and garlic. He instructed that food and drink always be covered. When a new food arrived, he would learn its name before eating it. After the incident in which he was given poisoned food, he developed the habit that, if an unknown person served him food, he would first have that person eat one or two mouthfuls.

Despite such refined tastes, he was afflicted most of the time by hunger and poverty. A detailed account of this will be given in its proper place. He said, “My eating and drinking are like those of an ordinary servant of Allah.”

Sitting and Sleeping

Sometimes he sat cross-legged; sometimes he sat clasping both thighs with both hands; and at other times he used a cloth, such as a shawl, instead of his hands. When reclining while seated, he generally leaned on his left hand. When thinking and reflecting on something, he would scratch the ground with a piece of wood. He generally slept lying on his right side, with his right cheek resting on the palm of his right hand. Sometimes he slept on his back with one foot placed over the other, while carefully observing the rules of modesty. He strongly disliked sleeping face down and prohibited everyone from doing so. He did not like sleeping in a dark room where no lamp had been lit. He did not consider it good to sleep on an open roof. He habitually performed ablution before sleeping and, in addition to various supplications, recited Surah al-Ikhlas, Surah al-Nas, and Surah al-Falaq, then blew over his body. While asleep, he made a soft snoring sound. If he answered nature’s call at night, he always washed his hands and face after purifying himself. He had a separate lungi for sleeping. He would remove his shirt and hang it up.

Human Needs

Since toilets were not customary in those days, he went into the open fields and wilderness to relieve himself. He usually went so far that he disappeared from sight, sometimes traveling as much as two miles. For this purpose, he looked for soft ground so that no splashes would reach him. At the place of relief, he first placed his left foot and then his right foot. When sitting, he removed his clothing only after coming very close to the ground. He sat behind a mound, tree, or other cover. He went out wearing shoes and with his head covered. He did not sit facing or turning his back toward the qiblah. When relieving himself, he removed his ring, because the names of Allah and the Messenger (peace be upon him) were engraved on it. He always cleaned himself with his left hand. When leaving the place, he first stepped out with his right foot and then his left.

He considered privacy essential when bathing. If he bathed at home, he hung up a cloth screen. If he bathed in the rain, he tied a lungi around his head. When sneezing, he made little sound and covered his mouth with his hand or a cloth.

Travel

He particularly preferred Thursday for setting out on a journey. He made his mount travel quickly. It was his habit to set out from a stopping place in the morning. During journeys, he always took part in whatever communal work had to be done. Once, preparations were being made for cooking. When his companions divided the tasks among themselves, he also took responsibility for gathering firewood. Everyone said, “You need not take this trouble; we are sufficient.” He replied, “I do not like to sit apart from you with a special status.” [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, p. 294.] During travel, he would take turns carrying some of his fellow travelers who were on foot upon his own mount. He did not like returning from a journey at night. When he did return, instead of going directly home, he would first go to the mosque and offer a voluntary prayer. He would go home only after news of his arrival had reached the household.

Emotions and Feelings

We cannot think about humanity while leaving emotions and feelings aside. Human feelings were also present in the Messenger (peace be upon him) at their highest level. He was a person of profound feeling. He rejoiced in happiness and was pained by sorrow and grief.

He was not among those so-called great men who are overwhelmed by the sorrows of the whole world but remain stony and unconcerned at the sorrows of their families. He sincerely loved his noble life-companions. He drank water from the same vessel as Hazrat Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her). He would call Ansari girls to play with his wives. Hazrat Aisha became so tired while watching the athletic performances of the Black Africans that she watched while leaning on the Messenger’s shoulder. Even then, when he asked her, “Are you satisfied now?” Hazrat Aisha replied, “No, I will watch more.” In this way he enjoyed the event for a long time. [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, p. 296.] To help Hazrat Safiyyah (may Allah be pleased with her) mount a camel, he extended his knee, and she mounted the camel by standing on it. Once, when the she-camel slipped and fell, the Messenger and Hazrat Safiyyah fell to the ground. Hazrat Abu Talhah was with them. When he hurried to the Messenger, the Messenger said, “First rescue the woman.” Once, when the caravan leader drove the camels too quickly, the Messenger said, “Be careful; glass vessels contain glass vessels. Go a little more slowly, be careful.” [Bukhari and Muslim; by glass vessels he meant women.] Because of this love, he once vowed not to eat honey. For this reason, the Qur’an reproached him, saying, “Do not declare lawful things unlawful.” [Western writers have attacked the Messenger’s pure and immaculate married life. Yet among the people produced by their civilization who are regarded as the most responsible and highly honored, many not only reached the level of depravity in their domestic lives but also led disgraceful and blemished lives beyond that sphere. The Messenger’s distinctive quality was that all his emotions, feelings, and desires were confined to his wives, and even these were adorned with purity and cleanliness. He fulfilled the demands of nature most properly within the bounds of decency and established a refined model of marital love.]

The Messenger’s affection and tenderness toward his own children were also extremely deep. He sent Hazrat Ibrahim to be nursed by a wet nurse from a blacksmith’s family on the outskirts of Madinah. He would walk a long distance to see him, sit in the smoke-filled room, and take his son into his arms affectionately. When Hazrat Fatimah (may Allah be pleased with her) came, he would stand to welcome her. Sometimes he would go to her himself. He would tell her about his condition and listen to hers. He loved his two grandsons, Imam Hasan and Imam Husayn (may Allah be pleased with them), immensely. He would take them into his arms, let them climb onto his neck, and carry them on his back while pretending to be a horse. He even allowed them to climb onto his back during prayer. Once, when Hazrat Aqra ibn Habis saw him kissing Hazrat Hasan, he was astonished and said, “I have ten sons, but I have never shown any of them such affection. Yet you kiss him.” The Messenger replied, “Whoever does not show mercy and affection will not receive mercy and affection.”

When his son Ibrahim died, his eyes filled with tears from grief. Another daughter also died in his presence. His servant Umm Ayman began to weep aloud. The Messenger (peace be upon him) forbade her. She said, “But you are also weeping.” The Messenger replied, “Weeping in this manner, silently or softly, is not forbidden. The tenderness and compassion of the heart from which these soft tears arise are a form of Allah’s mercy.” When he stood beside the grave of his daughter Umm Kulthum, tears were also flowing from his eyes. His eyes were tearful even before the body of Hazrat Uthman ibn Mazun, and he kissed his forehead. [Al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah, vol. 1, p. 297.] Describing the nature of his own weeping, he said, “The eyes are tearful and the heart is grieved, but even so we will not utter with our mouths anything that Allah does not like. In times of sorrow and grief, he would often recite a supplication.حسبنااللهونعمالوكيلHe never wept loudly; he merely sighed deeply, and a sound like something boiling in a pot would emerge from his chest.

When such a compassionate heart pleaded with Allah, even then tears would sparkle like pearls on his eyelids. Once he asked Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masud to recite the Quran. When he reached this verse from Surah al-Nisa: “How will it be when We bring a witness from every nation and make you a witness over them?” tears began to flow from the Messenger’s eyes. [Most of these accounts have been compiled from Shama’il al-Tirmidhi]

The source of the deep affection, tenderness, and compassion that the Messenger (peace be upon him) felt for all humanity, and especially for the members of the Muslim community, was this softness of his heart. Despite possessing such a tender heart and emotion-filled nature, the patience and steadfastness the Messenger (peace be upon him) displayed in the face of severe hardship and calamity are truly astonishing.

Humor

I have already said that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was always smiling. He said: “Even looking at your brother with a smile is a good deed.” It has also been reported about the Messenger (peace be upon him): “He was extremely cheerful and always joyful.”

One of the notable characteristics of people who accomplish great deeds in the world is that they make the burdens of life’s difficult responsibilities bearable with their smiles, and establish themselves deep in the hearts of their companions. He would engage in such genuine humor that deep love for him would become firmly rooted in the hearts of his companions. He would create a cheerful atmosphere in gatherings through jokes and humor. Yet balance was always maintained. The amount of humor in conversation was like the amount of salt in food. No wrongful or untruthful statement was made, no one was hurt by it, and no one burst into loud laughter. It produced only a slight smile, in which the teeth showed but the inside of the mouth or the throat could not be seen.

Once Hazrat Abu Hurairah said in surprise, “I see that you joke with us too!” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Yes, I do. But I do not say anything wrongful or untrue.”

Here we present some examples of the Messenger’s humor that have been preserved in the books of Hadith: [Most of these accounts have been compiled from Shama’il al-Tirmidhi]

A beggar once asked him for a riding camel. The Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “I will give you a female camel’s young one.” The beggar, astonished, said, “What will I do with that?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Every camel is the young of a female camel.”

An old woman came and said, “Pray for me so that Allah may grant me entry into Paradise.” The Messenger (peace be upon him), joking, said: “No old woman will enter Paradise.” The old woman began to leave, weeping. The Messenger (peace be upon him) told those present, “Tell her that Allah will admit her to Paradise not as an old woman, but as a young woman. Allah has said, ‘We will create the women of Paradise anew and make them virgins and of equal age, young.’” In short, Allah will grant the women who enter Paradise a new youth.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) was friendly with a Bedouin named Zaher or Zuhayr. He helped this Bedouin friend with matters related to the city, while the Bedouin helped the Messenger (peace be upon him) with matters related to the countryside. Sometimes the man would sincerely give him gifts. The Messenger (peace be upon him) would insist at length and pay him the price of those gifts. He would say, “Zaher is our representative in the village, and we are his representatives in the city.” One day Zaher was selling some of his goods in the marketplace. The Messenger (peace be upon him) quietly came from behind, covered his eyes, and said, “Tell me who I am.” At first the Bedouin was bewildered. Then, realizing who it was, he rubbed his head against the Messenger’s chest in delight. Thereupon the Messenger (peace be upon him), joking, said, “Who will buy this slave?” Zaher replied, “O Messenger of Allah, whoever buys an incapable slave like me will surely be cheated.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “In Allah’s sight, you are not incapable.”

Once dates were being eaten at a gathering. Joking, the Messenger (peace be upon him) removed the date stones and began placing them in front of Hazrat Ali. Finally, pointing to the pile of stones, he said, “I see that you have eaten many dates.” Hazrat Ali replied, “I did not eat the dates along with their stones.”

During the Battle of the Trench, an incident made the Messenger (peace be upon him) laugh so much that his molar teeth became visible. Sa‘d, the father of Amir, shot an arrow. A warrior from the enemy side was the target of the attack. He would cover his face very quickly with his shield, so Sa‘d’s arrow could not strike him. At last Sa‘d again prepared his bow and arrow and waited for an opportunity. As soon as the enemy soldier raised his head beyond the shield, there was no escape. Sa‘d’s arrow struck him directly in the forehead, and he fell, turning his head so forcefully that both his legs rose into the air.

People of later generations would be astonished when they heard about this kind of humor from him. For, on the one hand, religion was always associated with a sort of joyless life, and everyone knew that God-fearing people were expected to have tearful faces and stern, severe dispositions. Moreover, considering the Messenger’s constant devotion, God-consciousness, and extraordinary sense of responsibility, it was difficult to understand how such an exceptional person had created room for jokes and humor in his life. Hazrat Ibn Umar was asked whether the Messenger’s Companions used to laugh. He replied, “Yes, they laughed, even though their hearts contained faith greater and stronger than mountains.” (That is, jokes and humor are not contrary to faith and God-consciousness.) They would run about while training in archery and fall about laughing with one another. (Narrated by Qatadah)

I have mentioned earlier that a regular gathering was held after the dawn prayer. Discussions of the Age of Ignorance would arise there, and the Messenger (peace be upon him) would laugh heartily along with the Companions. I have also discussed earlier the jokes and humor he shared with children and his wives.

Recreation

Recreation (within lawful limits) is an inseparable part of a balanced life. If this aspect also disappears, like humor, life will become a burden. No society can endure for long a way of life that leaves no place for recreation. The Messenger (peace be upon him) enjoyed certain forms of recreation and arranged them within lawful limits.

Personally, he enjoyed visiting gardens. Sometimes he would go to a garden alone, and sometimes with his companions, and he would also hold gatherings there.

Swimming was also among his interests. From time to time he would swim in a pond with his friends. For this, they would form pairs of two. Each pair would swim toward each other from a distance. Once the Messenger (peace be upon him) chose Hazrat Abu Bakr as his swimming partner.

After a spell of dry weather, when it rained, he would tie up his lungi and bathe in the water flowing from the spring. Sometimes, for recreation, he would sit at the mouth of a well and dangle his feet inside. [Shama’il al-Tirmidhi]

He would organize running and archery competitions and take part himself with great enthusiasm. There would also be much laughter in such situations.

He liked drums to be played at festivals and young girls to sing. Once, on Eid day, two girls were singing at Hazrat Aisha’s home. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was lying nearby. Hazrat Abu Bakr came, saw the scene, and rebuked them, saying, “Why are these satanic activities taking place in the house of Allah’s Messenger?” Hearing this, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Let them sing.” [Muslim, narrated from Hazrat Aisha]

He also encouraged the playing of drums at weddings. (Narrated by Hazrat Aisha and Muhammad ibn Hatib al-Juhami.) Hazrat Aisha said, “An Ansari girl was staying with me. I arranged her marriage. At the wedding, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, ‘Aisha, did you not arrange singing? The Ansar like singing.’” Another narration, probably concerning this same incident, states that the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “You would have done well to send a singer with the bride. She would sing, ‘We have come to you, so be happy, and we too will be happy.’” At one such wedding ceremony, some young girls were singing. Hazrat Amir ibn Sa‘d objected to some of the listeners, saying, “O Companions of the Messenger, O warriors of Badr! These activities are taking place before you?” The Companions present replied, “If you wish, sit and listen; otherwise, leave. Allah’s Messenger has permitted us to do this.”

The Messenger (peace be upon him) also showed interest in poetry as a means of recreation. However, he avoided the way poetry was worshipped in Arabia. The powerful attraction of the melodious recitation of revelation left little opportunity to draw him toward poetry. Yet he was not entirely deprived of a taste for poetry. He greatly appreciated good poetry in terms of its message. Indeed, it may be said that in this respect the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave society a new taste and established a new standard of discernment. Hazrat Jabir ibn Samurah said, “I attended more than one hundred gatherings in the presence of the Messenger (peace be upon him). In these gatherings, stories of the Age of Ignorance were told, and the Companions also recited poetry. Once he praised the following two lines of the Arab poet Labid: (Arabic***********)

“Take heed: everything except Allah is perishable; all the blessings of this world will one day disappear.”

Once, while abroad, he asked Hazrat Sharid to recite one hundred poems by the poet Umayyah ibn Abi al-Salt. He then remarked, “This man had come close to accepting Islam.” At times he himself, especially on the battlefield, would spontaneously and unintentionally speak in a poetic manner. He had Hazrat Hassan and Ka‘b ibn Malik compose poems in response to the disparaging poetry that the enemies of Islam recited against Islam. Sometimes he would seat Hazrat Hassan on his pulpit and have him recite poetry, saying, “This poetry is harsher against the enemy than arrows.” He also said, “A believer wages jihad with his sword just as he wages jihad with his tongue.” Through a separate essay on poetry, literature, and other cultural matters, I wish to discuss in detail how the Messenger (peace be upon him) used people’s tastes for constructive purposes.

Some Excellent Preferences

At this point I wish to mention some of the Messenger’s ordinary habits and preferences that have not been included under any other heading.

He always used his right hand when giving or receiving anything. When having a letter written, he would have “Bismillah” written first. Then the sender’s name would appear, followed below by the name of the person to whom the letter was being written.

He was free from superstition and did not believe in any “good omen” or “bad omen.” However, he liked pleasant-sounding names with good meanings for people and places, and disliked bad names. In particular, when choosing a place to stop during a journey, he would select one whose name signified joy, blessing, or success. Similarly, he would not entrust a task to someone whose name signified quarrelling, fighting, or harm. He would assign responsibilities to those whose names conveyed joy, success, and the like. He changed many names.

Among riding animals, he liked horses most. He would say that goodness and blessing would remain in horses until the Day of Resurrection. He took special care of a horse’s eyes, face, and nose, and cleaned them with his own hands.

He disliked noise and commotion. He loved calmness, order, discipline, and punctuality in all matters. He even said concerning prayer, “Do not come running; come calmly and sedately.” When there was much noise and commotion on the Day of Arafah, he raised his staff and instructed people to remain calm and maintain order, saying, “There is no virtue in haste.” [Bukhari and Muslim]

Character and Conduct

It is not possible to describe the Messenger’s akhlaq, or character, conduct, and morality, under any single subheading, because his entire life was the very embodiment of good character. Hazrat Aisha said, “The Quran was his character.” Hazrat Anas ibn Malik said, “He was more just, generous, and brave than anyone.”

He was the most just in that throughout his life he never caused anyone harm (apart from what he inflicted in accordance with Allah’s command), nor did he take revenge for the wrongs done to him by others. He forgave everyone, including the perpetrators of the unprecedented persecution in Makkah and Taif, as well as all hypocrites and criminals. He was the most generous in that, as Hazrat Jabir said, the Messenger of Allah never refused whatever anyone asked him for. If he had something at hand, he gave it immediately; sometimes he borrowed from someone else in order to give it, and if he had nothing, he would ask the person to return later or remain silent. He was the bravest of all. For the present, it is enough to prove this by saying that he entered the field entirely alone with the true ideal and remained steadfast despite the opposition and persecution of the entire population. He never displayed fear or weakness even in the face of the most difficult battles. Whether in the cave of Mount Thawr or on the battlefields of Uhud and Hunayn, he demonstrated unwavering conviction and faith everywhere.

Chapter 3

The Friend of Humanity (peace be upon him) in the Meccan Period: Facing Fierce Opposition

This is an eternal truth.

Accept this truth and

become my companions. You will see

that through its strength, all Arabia will be yours.

It will unite in your clenched fist, and through its influence

the entire world will come under your control.

—The Friend of Humanity (peace be upon him)

Now let us examine the context of these events. Let us observe the rise of that flowering tree which blossomed in the barren desert and was welcomed with thorns spread all around it.

This Young Man

In the home of a fortunate couple of pure nature, belonging to a distinguished, noble, and traditional Arab family, an extraordinary child was born fatherless. He was nourished by the milk of a poor but virtuous wet nurse and was raised and grew up in the healthy, unspoiled environment of the countryside, in nature’s lap. Under special arrangements, he ran about in the desert, preparing to face the greatest dangers, hardships, and sorrows in life, while tending goats and sheep and receiving training to lead a worldwide nation. Before he had completed his entire childhood, this extraordinary child was deprived of his mother’s loving shade. Although his grandfather’s personality partly filled the emptiness left by his parents, before long this shelter too was taken from him. Finally, his uncle became his guardian. It was as though this were a period of preparation for carrying out life’s important responsibilities under the protection of the one true Master, without depending on any worldly shelter.

Until he entered youth, this extraordinary boy did not appear mischievous and unruly like other boys; rather, he displayed the gravity of an elder. When he reached youth, he was able to keep his youth unstained despite being raised in an extremely filthy environment. In a society where love, exchanging lustful glances, and adultery were matters of pride for young men, this extraordinary youth did not even allow his gaze to become polluted. In a society where wine-making shops stood on every street and taverns existed in every home, where every gathering featured lively sessions of openly courting other men’s women and reciting poetry about drinking, this young man did not take a single drop of wine. Where gambling had become a form of entertainment, this youth, pure from head to toe, did not even touch it. Where storytelling and music were inseparable parts of culture, this inhabitant of another world did not go near these corrupt practices. Even if he happened once or twice to have the opportunity to attend such entertainment, as soon as he arrived he would become so sleepy that he never had the chance to see or hear any of the proceedings. In a society where prostrating before idols had become a religious custom, this pure-natured young descendant of Hazrat Ibrahim bowed his head to no one besides Allah and entertained no polytheistic ideas. Once, when he was offered cooked meat from an animal sacrificed before an idol, he refused to eat it. While the Quraysh completed the Hajj without going to the plain of Arafat during the pilgrimage season, this exceptional Qurayshi youth directly rejected this fabricated rule. While the descendants of Hazrat Ibrahim distorted the Ibrahimic ideal and, among many other abuses, introduced the vile innovation of circumambulating the Kaaba Sharif naked, this modest young man did not accept that innovation even for a moment. In a country where war had become a game and bloodshed a spectacle, this standard-bearer of human dignity shed not a single drop of blood. In his youth, this young man had to take part in the great war known as Harb al-Fijar. Since participation in that war was considered justified for the Quraysh tribe, he joined it, but he himself did not strike anyone.

Is that all? Look also at the interests of this upright and truth-loving young man. At the age when boys generally go astray, he joined an organization called Hilf al-Fudul, devoted to reform, to help the poor and oppressed and eliminate the tyranny of oppressors. Those who joined it pledged to implement these aims.

After receiving prophethood, when recalling that organization, the Messenger (peace be upon him) would say:

“Even if someone offered me red camels in exchange for that pledge, I would not withdraw from it. Even today, if someone invited me to make a similar pact, I would be ready to do so.”

The extent of this young man’s qualities and competence can be understood from the fact that, when the Kaaba Sharif was being renovated, intense internal conflict arose among the Quraysh over replacing the Black Stone. Matters escalated so far that swords were drawn and battle seemed imminent. Fortunately, this young man gained the opportunity to settle the dispute. In the midst of extreme tension, this arbiter and standard-bearer of peace spread out a cloth and placed upon it the stone called the Black Stone. Then he invited representatives of all the branches of the Quraysh tribe to lift the cloth.

When the cloth bearing the stone had been lifted and brought to its proper place, the young man picked up the stone and set it in position. The conflict ended, and everyone’s face brightened with joy and delight.

When this young man entered the field of earning a livelihood, he chose a pure and honorable profession such as trade. The great capitalists of the country selected him to manage their capital and conduct trade. He must certainly have possessed qualities for which they chose him in particular. Sa’ib, Qays ibn Sa’ib, Hazrat Khadijah, and several others successively gained direct experience of this young man’s incomparable honesty, and all of them unanimously honored him with the title “Tajir Amin,” or “honest merchant.” The testimony of Abdullah ibn Abi al-Hamsa is preserved to this day. Before prophethood, he once spoke with this young honest merchant and said, “Wait here; I will return.” But later he forgot. Three days afterward, as Abdullah happened to pass that place, he saw the honest merchant still standing there, bound by the chains of his promise. He said to Abdullah, “You have caused me hardship. I have been standing here for three days.” —Abu Dawud

Then consider how, when choosing a life partner, this young man did not even glance at the lively young women of Makkah, but married a woman whose foremost qualities were that she was a chaste, devout, and virtuous woman from a very noble family. This choice reflected the depth of his mentality and character. Hazrat Khadijah sent the marriage proposal, having been impressed by this young man’s incomparable honesty and pure character. The young man accepted the proposal wholeheartedly.

Moreover, if a person’s character and mentality are to be assessed by looking at his friends and companions, let us see what kind of people were friends with this young man.

Perhaps his deepest friendship and most genuine relationship was with Hazrat Abu Bakr. They were not only of the same age, but also like-minded. Another friend of his was Hakim ibn Hizam, Hazrat Khadijah’s cousin. He was a servant of the Sacred Sanctuary. [He did not accept faith even until the eighth year after the Hijrah. Nevertheless, he maintained a deep friendship and affection with the Messenger (peace be upon him). Because of this friendship, he once bought an expensive garment for fifty ashrafis, came to Madinah, and presented it to the Messenger (peace be upon him). But the Messenger (peace be upon him) insisted repeatedly and paid him the price of the garment.] A physician named Dimad ibn Tha‘labah al-Azdi was also one of his close friends. Yet not a single base, despicable, ill-mannered, oppressive, or sinful person is to be found among this young man’s circle of friends!

Whenever this young man found some free time from worldly, commercial, and other worldly occupations, he did not spend it in amusement and recreation. He did not pass it wandering here and there, idling in gatherings, or sleeping lazily. Rather, withdrawing from all noise and bustle and setting aside all occupational activity, he would go to the secluded chamber of the Cave of Hira and worship the One and Only Allah, following the guidance of his pure and unstained innate consciousness and conscience. To grasp the hidden ultimate truth of the universe and learn the unseen mysteries of human life, he conducted reflection and investigation within his own being and into the unfathomable depths of nature. He would think about how to raise his countrymen and all humanity from immorality and baseness to the level of angels. Can human conscience, reason, and insight reach no conclusion about the elevated and pure character of a young man whose leisure during youth was spent in such devoted reflection and investigation?

Through such everyday events, the future Prophet of the world continued to be raised and nurtured in the bosom of Meccan society before the eyes of the Quraysh, gradually entered youth, and attained maturity. Did this picture of his life not declare that this young man was an extraordinary human being? Can anyone possibly hold the notion that a personality raised in this way could be a liar and impostor? Or that he could be an office-seeker, a selfish person, or a religious profiteer who used religion as capital to set up a business? Never. The Quraysh themselves acknowledged, repeatedly, that he was truthful, trustworthy, wise, pure-hearted, and noble in character. Even his enemies testified to the superiority of his intellect and morality, including during the fiercest conflicts and confrontations. The Quran itself presents the life of this great caller to truth as evidence and commanded him to say: [Arabic: ************]

“I had already spent a part of my life among you before this; will you not then understand?” (Yunus, 16)

But when this brilliant jewel of the nation assumed the office of prophethood and proclaimed the message of truth, their attitude suddenly changed. The value of his honesty, truthfulness, courtesy, greatness, and noble lineage all diminished. Until yesterday, he had been the apple of the nation’s eye; today he was branded an enemy, a rebel, and a disgrace to the nation. Until yesterday, even every child respected him; today he became the object of everyone’s anger. The man who had proved himself blameless for more than forty years became bad in the eyes of the Quraysh merely because he began proclaiming the oneness of Allah, truth, and justice! In reality, he was not bad. Rather, it was the eyes of those judging among the Quraysh that were crooked, and their standards were erroneous.

But were the eyes of the Quraysh truly so blind that they could not see such a luminous moon amid the surrounding darkness? Could they not recognize an upright leader in an assembly of the immoral? Could a necklace of pearls lying in a rubbish heap not attract their attention? In a society of uncivilized and base people, could this person adorned from head to toe with courtesy and propriety not receive his due honor and esteem? No, that was not the case. The Quraysh knew very well what kind of man Muhammad was. Yet, knowingly and deliberately, they had covered their eyes. Self-interest and hatred had made them blind despite having eyes. As the Qur’an says: ‘They have eyes, but they do not see with them.’ There is no calamity that those who are blind despite having eyes cannot cause, nor any disaster that cannot arise from them.

Reasons for the Quraysh’s Opposition

If we could somehow speak with the Quraysh of Mecca today, we would certainly ask them: What evil deed, essentially, did this beloved son of your tribe urge you to commit through the call he made? Did he call you to steal and commit robbery? Did he summon you to murder and plunder? Did he propose any plan for oppressing, persecuting, and exploiting orphans, widows, and the weak? Did he incite you to continue fighting one another and create discord between tribes? Did he seek to form an association for amassing wealth and acquiring land? What difficulty did you see in his call? What calamity did you perceive in his program? Why did you turn against him with such fierce determination?

What drove the Quraysh mad with the determination to preserve the erroneous system of jahiliyyah and resist change was neither any defect in the Messenger’s thought or character nor anything gravely harmful in his call. Nor was it because his movement appeared likely to lead the jahili society of that time toward backwardness. Rather, that thing was simply the Quraysh’s self-interest. In the Arab social structure formed over hundreds of years, the Quraysh had managed to seize a position of supreme leadership for themselves. All political and religious offices were in their control. Economically and commercially, their dominance was unassailable. In a word, they were the rulers and stewards of the entire Arab nation. Their undisputed leadership and dominance could function only within the religious, cultural, and social structure inherited from the Age of Ignorance. If they were compelled, consciously or unconsciously, to preserve their comprehensive leadership and authority, then they were equally compelled to protect their jahili social system from every kind of attack and decay.

While the Quraysh tribe was the social and political leader and administrator of the Arabs, it was also the priesthood of their idolatrous religion, the guardian and custodian of their religious sanctuaries, and the sole manager of all religious activities. This exclusive religious management and supreme authority also supported their political and social authority and constituted a major institution in its own right. Because of it, offerings and gifts came to them from every region of the Arabian Peninsula. Because of it, they were objects of profound reverence. People bowed and paid homage to them. When religion becomes the business of a class or group, its original inspiration, consciousness, and vitality disappear, and it takes the form of a crude, exhibitionist spectacle filled with varied rituals. No one remembers the principled demands of religion. Fabricated traditions and ceremonies then acquire fundamental importance. Knowledge and laws based on Allah’s revealed guidance disappear, and an innovative Sharia devised by religious profiteers develops. Rationality vanishes. Blind faith and imaginary notions spread everywhere. The practice of presenting arguments with evidence disappears. Emotion and excitement silence reason. Religion’s popular and democratic character is erased, and the dictatorship of religious profiteers mounts society’s shoulders. Genuine knowledge disappears, while baseless talk becomes popular. In place of simple faith and straightforward rules, convoluted restrictions are imposed at every turn. The right to hold dissenting opinions is completely taken away, and the despotic authority of one group operates unchecked. No trace of truth, honesty, courtesy, or God-consciousness remains, and religion assumes the form of a deceitful, shape-shifting enterprise. Whenever a religion has become distorted, it has happened through this very process. In Arabia’s jahili society, this distortion had reached its lowest point. The religious priesthood of the Quraysh tribe was established upon this distortion. To preserve this enormously profitable seat of power, it was essential to maintain that distorted religious atmosphere and structure. It was necessary to ensure that no objection, protest, or dissenting voice could be raised against it, and that no call for reform or correction could be made. Thus, it was entirely natural that the Quraysh tribe would flare up like oil on a fire at Islam’s call.

Moreover, the Quraysh culture was an extremely sinful culture. Drinking, adultery, gambling, usury, violence against women, burying infant girls alive, enslaving free people, and oppressing the weak were all features of Quraysh culture. This culture had been formed from a combination of ugly social customs that had accumulated over hundreds of years as bad habits and had taken on the form of glorious national traditions. It was not easy for the Quraysh to break out of this cultural iron cage of their own making and prepare to live in a new environment. They immediately understood that Muhammad’s call was the enemy of their traditional customs, habits, desires, fine arts—in short, of the culture they cherished. Therefore, stirred by intense emotion, they became determined to oppose that call.

Indeed, for all these reasons, the leaders of the established, distorted social order, the religious contractors, and the worshippers of their own desires have united and stood against the call to truth throughout history.

A Few Sparks of Fire in Profound Darkness

Before the Messenger received prophethood, restlessness had arisen in the minds of some gifted Arabs. On the basis of divine hints reflected in the natural signs present in the universe, they developed distrust and aversion toward the prevailing society, environment, and idolatrous religion. This state made their minds troubled and their spontaneous protests vocal. The souls of the few sensitive people whose names we mentioned earlier had likewise expressed a vague yearning for change.

One day, the Quraysh gathered around an idol to celebrate a festival. They were singing hymns to the stone deity, offering devotion, placing various offerings before it, and performing tawaf. At that very time, four men—Waraqa ibn Nawfal, Abdullah ibn Jahsh, Uthman ibn al-Huwayrith, and Zayd ibn Amr—disgusted by this meaningless festival, sat apart in a secluded place holding a secret meeting. After swearing to preserve the confidentiality of one another’s statements, they began their discussion. Their unanimous view was as follows: ‘Our people are following an utterly baseless ideology. They have abandoned the religion of their forefather Ibrahim. The stone idols being worshipped can neither see nor hear, benefit anyone nor harm anyone. Companions, ask your own consciences; by Allah, you will realize that you have no foundation. Travel through the lands of the world and find out whether there is anyone anywhere who truly follows the religion of Ibrahim.’ [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 242] Later, Waraqa ibn Nawfal became a Christian. Abdullah ibn Jahsh first became a Muslim out of restlessness, and later, again out of restlessness, became a Christian. Uthman went to the Roman emperor and accepted Christianity. Zayd became neither a Jew nor a Christian, but he also abandoned idolatry. He stopped eating the flesh of dead animals, blood, and animals sacrificed on altars, and began forbidding people from killing infant girls. He would say: ‘I worship the Lord of Ibrahim.’ [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 242] Asma, the daughter of Abu Bakr, said: ‘I saw the old tribal leader Zayd sitting and leaning against the Kaaba. He was saying, “O Quraysh, by Allah, none of you follows the religion of Ibrahim except me.”’ Then he said, ‘O Allah, if I knew which way pleased You, I would worship You in that way. But I do not know.’ Then he would place his palm on the ground and prostrate. [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, p. 242] When someone visited him, he would often recite this poem, whose meaning was: ‘Should the Lord be one, or thousands? When life’s affairs are divided among multiple lords, which lord shall I obey?’

‘I have abandoned Lat and Uzza, all of them. This is what resolute and patient people do.’

‘But yes, I shall certainly continue worshipping my Merciful Lord, so that the Forgiving Lord may forgive my sins.’

‘Therefore, continue adhering to the principle of fearing Allah alone; as long as you continue doing so, you will not be destroyed.’

Poor Zayd’s wife, Safiya bint al-Hadrami, constantly followed him and harassed him. At times Zayd wanted to leave Mecca in search of the true religion of Ibrahim. But his wife would inform Khattab ibn Nufayl in advance. Khattab would then severely rebuke him for abandoning the religion of his forefathers. Zayd was so devoted to his convictions that, as soon as he entered the precincts of the Kaaba, he would exclaim:

‘O True Lord! I have come to You to worship with sincerity and in a spirit of servitude.’ He would then also say, ‘Facing the Kaaba, I seek refuge with the One with whom Ibrahim sought refuge.’ [Sirat Ibn Hisham, p. 248]

Khattab ibn Nufayl tormented Zayd. At one point, he exiled him outside Mecca. Zayd stayed near Hira on the outskirts of Mecca. Khattab then appointed some young men and disreputable people of the Quraysh as guards and ordered them not to allow him to enter Mecca. Zayd would sometimes come to Mecca secretly. Whenever Khattab and his companions discovered him, they would drive him out again. They persecuted him with extreme hatred for allegedly corrupting the religion. Finally, fed up, he left the country and wandered through Mosul, Syria, and other places in search of the religion of Ibrahim. At last, in the Rowlaka area of Damascus, he found a learned ascetic and went to him seeking knowledge of the religion of Ibrahim. The ascetic said, ‘Today you will not find a single person following this religion. However, a prophet bearing the banner of this religion will soon appear, and he will appear in the very place from which you came. Go and meet him.’ Zayd had carefully examined Judaism and Christianity. Neither religion attracted him. Following the ascetic’s advice, he hurried toward Mecca. But on the way, people killed him at a place called Bilad Lakhm. [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, pp. 249–250]

After Islam appeared, Zayd’s son Sa’id and Umar asked the Messenger whether they could pray for Zayd’s sins to be forgiven. The Messenger said, ‘Yes, for he will rise on the Day of Resurrection as a distinct nation.’ In other words, having received whatever guidance a person could obtain from his pure nature, Zayd accepted it with complete sincerity; thereafter he made great efforts to attain the guidance of revelation. Finally, he had set out toward the Messenger, but he was martyred on this very path of seeking the truth.

This lengthy account shows that history had become restless to take a new turn and the human conscience had become agitated. Yet, apart from nature’s vague intimations, no guidance toward the light could be found. The environment of distorted religious practice and irrational ritual had strangled human individuality. People were imprisoned within the four walls of stagnation. Sensitive people either stopped at the station of Christianity, because the environment was favorable to it, or were compelled to leave their countries. But waging jihad against the prevailing deviation was extremely difficult. Rebellion arose in the four men mentioned above. Of them, only Zayd showed enough courage to call upon the One Allah while sitting in the Sacred Mosque and denounce idolatry before the Quraysh. Even he could do no more than express his restlessness and protest, because he had no clear and complete model before him that he could adopt as the basis of a call and movement. Nevertheless, Mecca refused to tolerate his existence.

Poets held a special status in jahili society. They also provided psychological leadership to the people. Their poetry was a philosophy of the mentality and thought of the society of that time. The imprint of society’s troubled conscience was reflected in the poetry of the jahili poets of the period immediately preceding the Messenger. In these poems, the human conscience often raised its voice over fundamental truths.

Among these poets was Umayya ibn Abi al-Salt, a prominent chief of Taif. He presented sound ideas about tawhid, the Resurrection, and the consequences of deeds. His poetry also contained quite a few moral counsels. He too rebelled against idolatrous thought. But he was not fortunate enough to accept the Messenger’s call. The Messenger liked his poetry and said that this man had come to the threshold of accepting Islam.

Observing the mental agitation of such conscious individuals, it seems that the environment had grown eager to receive a new, life-giving message.

The revolutionary force for which history had been waiting manifested itself through Muhammad at the appropriate time. He did not appear merely as a vocal opponent of falsehood, bringing only his personal disposition and noble character; rather, he appeared with an all-encompassing positive doctrine and ideology to bring about a radical transformation of the entire nation and the entire environment. How could the powerful forces of falsehood in Arabia at that time possibly tolerate this ‘crime’?

The First Era of the Call: Secret Preaching

As the beginning of prophethood approached, during his secluded meditation in preparation, the Messenger was shown various true dreams. At times he heard unseen voices. At times he saw angels. Finally, the first message came from the Throne of Allah. Gabriel came and addressed him: (Arabic********)

This was his first experience of receiving revelation. He felt as though a terrifying and enormous burden had settled upon his neck. Returning home, he informed his life companion of what had happened. She comforted him, saying that his Lord would never abandon him. Waraqa ibn Nawfal said, ‘This is the messenger of Allah who was sent down to Moses.’ He also said, ‘Your people will call you a liar, harass you, drive you from the country, and fight you. If I am alive on that day, I will support you in the work of Allah.’ Thereafter, he was formally appointed by Allah to the task of proclaiming the truth. A tremendous burden of responsibility was placed upon him. This call was first presented to Khadijah, and she earned the distinction of being the first person to believe in it. Then the work proceeded slowly and secretly. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was his childhood friend. Their temperaments and tastes were alike. When he received the call to truth, he accepted it immediately, as though his inner soul had been waiting for it all along. Zayd, the Messenger’s adopted son, also became his companion. He had already been influenced by the Messenger’s life and character.

The faith of these closest people in him was proof of his devotion, sincerity, and truthfulness. These people had been fully acquainted for several years with his personal and social life, and with his inner and outer self. No one could have known the Messenger’s life, character, thoughts, and mentality better than they did. By responding to his call at the very outset, these closest associates testified that the truthfulness and sincerity of the caller were beyond doubt.

As soon as Abu Bakr became a soldier in the Messenger’s movement, he began working vigorously among those under his influence. He made a number of important people, including Umar, Uthman, al-Zubayr, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, and Talhah, members of this revolutionary movement. With great caution, secrecy, and silence, they continued expanding this work. Among those who joined the ranks of the earliest Muslims during this secret and initial period of the Islamic movement were Ammar, Khabbab, al-Arqam, Sa’id ibn Zayd (the previously mentioned son of Zayd ibn Amr, who had been deeply influenced by his father), Abdullah ibn Masud, Uthman ibn مظun, Abu Ubaydah, Suhayb al-Rumi, and others.

When it was time for prayer, the Messenger would go to a mountain and secretly pray with his companions. He prayed only the Duha prayer in the precincts of the Kaaba, because that prayer was also practiced among the Quraysh. Once, the Messenger prayed with Ali in a mountain pass. At that time, his uncle Abu Talib saw them. Stunned by this new form of prayer, he watched it with deep attention. After the prayer, he asked, ‘What religion have you adopted?’ The Messenger replied, ‘This is the religion of our forefather Ibrahim.’

Having heard this, Abu Talib said, ‘It is not possible for me to accept this religion. However, I give you permission. No one will be able to stop you.’ [Sirat al-Nabi, Shibli Numani, vol. 1, p. 192]

Abu Dharr also embraced faith during this secret period of the Islamic movement. According to Allama Shibli Numani, he was the sixth or seventh in rank. He too was among those who suffered from restlessness and, abandoning idol worship, worshipped Allah and remembered Him solely in response to their own pure nature and conscience. By some means, he learned of the Messenger’s call. He then sent his brother to obtain accurate information. His brother met the Messenger, heard him recite the Qur’an, and returned to tell him, ‘I have met this caller. People call him an apostate [see the strange form of the distorted social order: the very man who came to teach faith to the people of the entire world was supposedly an apostate! Religious profiteers of every age issue such verdicts]. But he teaches noble moral qualities and recites a wondrous message utterly unlike human poetry. His conduct resembles yours.’ Then Abu Dharr himself came and accepted Islam.

This incident proves that, despite the secrecy maintained, the fragrance of truth was riding the wind and rushing from horizon to horizon. At this time, various insulting epithets had also begun to be applied to the Messenger. Nevertheless, the environment remained generally peaceful and normal, because the Quraysh leaders had not yet grasped the seriousness of the impending danger.

Notice another important point: not one of the leading figures of the first rank of the Islamic movement held a high national or religious office. As a result, they were free from every bond of self-interest. Throughout history, it is independent-minded young people of this kind who take their place in the front ranks to initiate great changes. None of the leaders or officials contributed to this work.

The Quraysh leaders did not consider this secret Islamic movement worthy of any attention at all. They thought it was merely the madness of a few young men. They talked nonsense. After a few days, they would come to their senses on their own. Who had the courage to rebel against us? Thus, the people seated on the thrones of power were so bewildered by pride in their authority that, beneath the shadow of those thrones and without their knowledge, the seedlings of truth gradually grew into historic giants. The Quraysh also believed that, since they worshipped and revered deities such as Lat, Manat, and Uzza so deeply, those deities would protect their honor and idolatrous religion. Their spiritual curse would put an end to the impiety of this handful of monotheists.

The Public Call

Three years passed in this way. But it is not Allah’s practice to allow a situation to remain unchanged forever. His established practice is to bring truth forward to resist falsehood and to set the two against each other. As Allah says: ‘Rather, We hurl the truth against falsehood, and it strikes it, whereupon falsehood vanishes.’ —Surah al-Anbiya

In accordance with this established practice of Allah, the command was issued: ‘Proclaim openly what you have been commanded.’

Gathering all his courage and preparing himself for the possible conflict ahead, the Messenger one day stood atop Mount Safa. Then, in accordance with a special Arab custom, he called out to the Quraysh. In moments of danger, it was customary to summon the people with a particular signal cry so that they could provide assistance. He adopted that method. The people came running. A huge crowd gathered. Everyone listened breathlessly, eager to know what had happened.

The Messenger first asked: ‘If I told you that an invading army was rushing to attack you from the other side of this mountain, would you believe me?’

Everyone cried out in unison: ‘Yes, why would we not? We have always known you to speak the truth.’

‘Then, O descendants of Abd al-Muttalib, O descendants of Abd Manaf, O descendants of Zuhrah, O children of Tamim, O children of Makhzum, O descendants of Asad, listen: I say to you, accept Allah alone as your Lord and God, or a severe punishment will descend upon you.’ With these words, he presented the public call for the first time, in a very concise form.

As soon as his uncle Abu Lahab heard this, he flared up furiously and said, ‘Perish, you wretched man, today itself! Is this why you called us here?’ Abu Lahab and the other prominent leaders departed, extremely angered and enraged.

It is noteworthy that Abu Lahab’s reaction was to treat the Messenger’s call as entirely insignificant and unworthy of attention. No other reaction had yet appeared. The only complaint was: You have troubled us for no reason and wasted our time.

The second step in the public proclamation of the da‘wah was that the Messenger (peace be upon him) arranged a feast for the members of the family of ‘Abdul-Muttalib. Important figures such as his uncles Hamzah, Abu Talib, and ‘Abbas also attended this feast. After the meal, he delivered a brief speech. He said, “The way of life I have brought is beneficial for both this world and the Hereafter. Who among you is ready to become my companion in this work?” This shows that, from the very beginning of the da‘wah, he was conscious that he had not come with a religion cut off from worldly life, but with a religion capable of making the world prosperous and beautiful.

Silence began to prevail among those gathered in response to his appeal. Suddenly, a thirteen-year-old boy broke the silence and stood up. He said, “Although I suffer from an eye ailment, my legs are weak, and I am only a boy, I will still be your companion.” This was Hazrat ‘Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). Later, he proved to be one of the pillars of this movement.

No one except a boy responded. Seeing this, the assembled crowd burst into loud laughter. Through this laughter, the descendants of ‘Abdul-Muttalib effectively said: What great revolution could this da‘wah, its preacher, and the boy who responded possibly bring about together? This is nothing but a joke and madness. A mocking burst of laughter was enough to answer this call.

The atmosphere did not lose its calm even during this second incident. But when the third step was taken, agitation arose in society and gradually grew more intense.

Before discussing this third step, it seems necessary to relate another incident. I have already mentioned that, because of the hostile environment, prayers were performed secretly; the Messenger (peace be upon him) and his companions would go outside the city to pray in the high and low areas of the mountains or on the plains. One day, while Hazrat Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas was praying with some other Companions at a mountainous outpost, the polytheists noticed them. During the prayer, the polytheists began making obscene remarks and mocking every act of the prayer. When no reply came from the other side, they became angry and launched a terrorist attack. In this clash, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas (may Allah be pleased with him) was injured by the sword of a polytheist. This was the first incident of bloodshed in the path of Allah on the soil of Makkah. It was the first frenzied, violent reaction of the Age of Ignorance. This reaction indicated that opposition had begun to take the path of violence.

Creating an Atmosphere of Provocation and Agitation

The Islamic movement gradually gained forty companions. In this way, the Islamic organization became a real force. The instruction to proclaim the word of truth publicly had already been given. To carry out this instruction, the Messenger (peace be upon him) once stood in the courtyard of the Ka‘bah and proclaimed the Oneness of Allah. But when religious consciousness becomes distorted, religious values are trampled underfoot. Thus, speaking of the Oneness of Allah in the courtyard of the Sacred House that had once been established as a center for proclaiming the message of tawhid was identified as an insult to that center. How astonishing that the installation of so many idols did not dishonor the Ka‘bah, nor did rubbing one’s forehead before idols; performing tawaf naked, shouting ritual cries, and clapping did not defile its sanctity either. Sacrificing animals in the name of gods and collecting taxes for priesthood and custodianship did not insult the Ka‘bah. It was insulted only when the name of its true Owner was mentioned.

A cry arose: “The Ka‘bah has been insulted; the honor of the Sacred Sanctuary has been violated.” What a terrible matter! What a provocative act, enough to make the blood rush to one’s head! The polytheists, overwhelmed by intense excitement and blinded by emotion, rushed from all directions upon hearing the declaration of tawhid. Disorder broke out. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was surrounded. Hearing the uproar, Harith ibn Ubay rushed to protect the Messenger (peace be upon him). But he was martyred by a sword blow. In the conflict between Islam and the Age of Ignorance in Arabia, this was the first martyrdom in defense of Islam.

Instead of considering the da‘wah presented in an extremely peaceful and rational manner, reaching a decision, and answering arguments with arguments, it was answered with blind emotion and frenzied violence. The Messenger (peace be upon him) did not force anyone to accept the word of truth at sword point. But the opposing force came against him with swords in hand. The defining trait of the selfish leaders of a false system is that they respond to argument with provocation and agitation, and to evidence with violence and terror. The opponents did not possess even enough tolerance to spend at least a few weeks, a few days, or a few minutes thinking about the proclamation made in the courtyard of the Ka‘bah. They could have acknowledged that Muhammad (peace be upon him), like them, had the right to hold some religion, ideology, philosophy, or ‘aqidah, to speak accordingly, and to oppose someone else’s religion, views, or beliefs. They could at least have admitted the possibility that there might be some errors among them and that the ideology preached by Muhammad (peace be upon him) might contain a means of correcting those errors. In fact, tolerance for opposing views completely disappears among the leaders of a false system, and their capacity for thought, reflection, and judgment is destroyed.

Try to imagine what that environment was like, in which our beloved Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was carrying out his duty, risking his life and completely unarmed and without resources, for the welfare of us all in this world and the Hereafter.

Malicious Propaganda

Although the murder of an innocent man by the people of Makkah inside the Sacred Sanctuary—the symbol of the pure emotions, inspiration, hopes, and aspirations of Hazrat Ibrahim and Hazrat Isma‘il—gave an indication of what the future would bring, it did not mark the beginning of the actual age of violence.

The first stage of opposition always passes through mockery, ridicule, derision, and sophistry, and gradually takes the form of terror and hooliganism.

Alongside the vile indecency of abuse intended to diminish the importance of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) da‘wah, the skilled practitioners of malicious propaganda also began inventing various epithets for him.

For example, someone would say, “Do not listen to what this man says, because he is an ‘apostate.’ He has abandoned the age-old religion of our forefathers and invented a bizarre religion of his own.” They paid no attention to any argument. Whoever wished simply issued a verdict of unbelief. Sometimes it was said that he had become a ‘Sabian’—a worshipper of the stars or nature. Since becoming a Sabian was regarded as undesirable and disgraceful in the polytheistic society of that time, calling someone a Sabian was considered an insult, much as calling a Muslim a Jew, Kharijite, or atheist is today. Negative propaganda is the only resource of those unable to speak against the truth with reason and evidence. One weapon of such propaganda is to give people bad names and epithets. In every alley and at every gathering, Makkah’s propagandists would proclaim: “They have become Sabians, have abandoned the religion, have forsaken the religion of their forefathers, and are presenting new beliefs,” and so on. When storms of such propaganda arose, one shudders even to imagine how oppressive and suffocating the atmosphere became for ordinary people, and how difficult it was to find the right path. It is probably not easy even to imagine the crisis faced by that small caravan of truth in such an environment. Yet however dangerous the circumstances and environment may be, they cannot block the path of resolute and determined people. Allah says:

“Whatever favor Allah opens for people, no one can withhold.” (Surah Fatir)

Whenever abuse is hurled in response to arguments and evidence, it always happens that the arguments and evidence remain firmly in place, whereas the abuse, resting on emotion, may last for a few days but soon becomes dull and faded, and people’s hearts grow annoyed and disgusted with it. Therefore, the principle of those experienced in this work is that they must keep inventing new forms of abuse.

Following this principle, another new insult was invented for the Messenger (peace be upon him): “Ibn Abi Kabsha.” ‘Abi Kabsha’ was the name of a notorious man in Arabia. In opposition to the religious outlook of all Arabia, he worshipped a star called Sha‘ra. The epithet “Ibn Abi Kabsha” was derived from the name of that Abi Kabsha. It meant the son or follower of Abi Kabsha. God forbid. To satisfy their resentment, the emotional people of Makkah invented all sorts of things!

When the central and principal figure of a da‘wah or movement is made the target of such vile attacks, the real aim is not merely to hurt that individual. Rather, the real aim is to belittle and damage the image of the doctrine, ideology, and movement whose growing spread frightens the opponents. But how can a fiercely flowing current be stopped with a sand barrier? The mockers of Makkah could clearly see that whatever barriers they built out of filth and refuse were being swept away like straw by the force of this da‘wah, which advanced a little farther every morning and evening. So they adopted a new tactic of malicious propaganda. They invented a new epithet for the Messenger (peace be upon him) and began saying that the man had actually gone mad. God forbid. His mind had been deranged by the curse of the gods. The things he said were neither fit for any sane person nor the product of subtle judgment and thought. He was a man suffering from some mental illness or hysteria. When the illness intensified, he sometimes saw angels. Sometimes he dreamed of Paradise and Hell; sometimes he felt that revelation or some strange speech was reaching him from the unseen world. He was really a mentally deranged man. No attention should be paid to what he said. Everyone should remain steadfast in his own customary religious beliefs. Calling the callers to truth mad and insane, or foolish and stupid, in order to blunt the force of their arguments is an age-old practice of the followers of falsehood. Those who habitually drift with the current of society’s customs to increase worldly comfort and prosperity and satisfy their greed, desires, and passions are regarded as intelligent and discerning. On the other hand, in the vocabulary of worldly worshippers, there is no suitable word other than foolish and insane for those who adopt programs to reform and correct society and cast their own lives into danger.

These abuses were not uttered only in his absence; they were also spoken to his face:

ياايهاالذىنزلعليهالذكرانكلمجنون

“O you who claim to have received revelation, you are nothing but a madman.” (Surah al-Hijr, 6)

In fact, if an insult cannot be delivered to someone’s face, one cannot truly enjoy the pleasure of insulting him.

But one matter deserves reflection: is there any example of people ever organizing themselves for a movement under the leadership of a madman? Has a healthy-minded, upright, and conscious young society ever accepted the leadership of foolish people? Have sane and intelligent people ever responded to the call of some deranged madman? To answer this question, the polytheists of Makkah prepared another excuse. [Westerners coined the term Fanatics, or religious fanatics, for devout people in precisely this sense: people who are emotionally unbalanced. When irreligious people in our society call those who love Islam ‘mullahs,’ they mean that they are naïve, ignorant of the needs of the age, and blind devotees of ideas from the past. Descending another step, opponents call religious people ignorant and foolish regarding politics.] They said, “This claimant to prophethood is also skilled in magic. Whenever anyone comes to meet him, he says a few words and hypnotizes him, displaying the height of magical skill. This is why even very intelligent people are gradually falling into his trap.”

But one cannot help asking: has any magician ever led a religious or cultural movement? Has any magician or astrologer ever used magic to teach the worship of Allah, tawhid, honesty, and justice? Is there any example in history of a person with the mentality of a magician ever using his magical power to build a revolutionary movement to change the prevailing social and political systems? Is there any example anywhere of magic changing people’s minds, characters, and inner selves? And what kind of magician was he, who, instead of earning a few pennies by performing magical tricks, endured the oppression and persecution of the people of an entire country, selected the finest people in society, and prepared them to lead a great collective campaign? Was this some kind of trickery? In fact, this was a stock accusation. In every age, this accusation has been leveled against those engaged in da‘wah and tabligh. Through it, attempts have been made to make the people believe that this da‘wah has no connection with truth and therefore contains nothing capable of naturally attracting people to it. The preacher’s arguments have no force with which he could win people’s hearts; rather, the whole matter is based on fraud and magical manipulation. That is why even very intelligent people are being influenced by the da‘wah and losing their balance.

Some people may have presented before the leaders of Quraysh the revelations received by the Messenger (peace be upon him), particularly the verses of the Qur’an, pointing out that they contained highly ornate language. The literary experts of that time may have discussed and critically examined that language, and may have recognized that these revealed words were miraculous and extraordinarily influential. Therefore, to refute the idea of the miraculous nature of these words, they began saying, “What is miraculous about them? They are merely a kind of poetry, an artistic exercise in language, and literary eloquence. Muhammad (peace be upon him) is a highly gifted orator. Through his eloquence, some young people with immature minds are being led astray.”

But the question is: how many poets have appeared in the world? Has any poet ever appeared possessing the unprecedented and flawless character possessed by Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his companions? Could those who merely warmed gatherings with poetry ever have accomplished the kind of religious activity that took place before the eyes of Quraysh?

This question also troubled Quraysh. In response, they spread another slander against the Messenger (peace be upon him), accusing him of practicing astrology. Astrologers followed certain religious mannerisms. They created an atmosphere of mystery. Their lives passed through forty-day periods of meditation, seclusion, incantations, austerities, and spells. They gathered various kinds of unusual information by abnormal means and expressed it in mysterious, technical language. Among ordinary people, they moved about as extraordinary persons. Such somewhat unbalanced people were called kahins. By applying that name to the Messenger (peace be upon him), they intended to suggest that he too had opened the same fraudulent business, so that people would come and become his disciples and his livelihood problems would also be solved. (God forbid.)

But the Qur’an gave a crushing reply to all this malicious propaganda, saying:

(Arabic*********)

“He is not a poet. Rather, you yourselves have barred the door to faith and belief. He is not an astrologer. But you do not reflect.” (Surah al-Haqqah)

The Qur’an’s very brief assessment of the havoc caused by their unruliness was as follows:

(Arabic********)

“Look at the kinds of sayings, examples, terms, and epithets these people apply to you.” Regarding how they suddenly went astray after doing all this, the Qur’an says: (Arabic*****) “They have deluded themselves.”

Now consider another attempt to spread confusion. Those claiming to follow the religion of Hazrat Ibrahim said that a jinn came to Muhammad (peace be upon him) and taught him strange things. Sometimes the name of a certain Roman Christian slave in Makkah—Jaber, Jabra, or Jarb—was mentioned, and it was said that this slave secretly went and wrote these speeches for Muhammad. Yet he only went occasionally to listen to the Messenger (peace be upon him) speak. Once, a group of Quraysh leaders said to the Messenger (peace be upon him): “We have heard that a man named Rahman of Yamamah teaches you these things. By Allah, we will never believe in that Rahman.” [Sirat Ibn Hisham, (Arabic), vol. 1, p. 317] The purpose of all this baseless propaganda was to make people believe that these things were the work of some foreign evil force or person. Muhammad (peace be upon him), they claimed, had become a pawn of those evil forces and, in collusion with them, plotted to destroy our religion and social system. At the same time, an attempt was made to suggest that these captivating, ornate words were neither a mark of Muhammad’s genius nor a gift from Allah. Rather, through them some third external force was trying to exert influence over them. Moreover, this accused the Messenger (peace be upon him) of falsely attributing these things to Allah. The Qur’an gave a detailed reply, defeating these sinister designs. But its most decisive and irrefutable challenge was: “Bring a surah or several verses like the Qur’an, if you can, even with the combined efforts of jinn and human beings.”

Incidentally, this also implied that Muhammad (peace be upon him) was saying nothing new and had displayed no rare achievement. In reality, it was claimed, he was collecting various elements from old tales and presenting them anew in forceful language. This was a kind of storytelling art. Just as storytellers enliven gatherings by telling stories, Muhammad was winning his listeners’ hearts by telling amusing tales. Calling the Islamic da‘wah ancient tales contained the pointed suggestion: how could the problems of this age be solved with those outdated stories? Times had changed greatly. Ancient fairy tales were of no benefit to people in the present age.

The interesting thing was that, on the one hand, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was accused of preaching a new religion completely opposed to the religion of his forefathers. On the other hand, the very message presented by that Messenger (peace be upon him) was condemned as ancient tales. It is the established habit of scheming conspirators to seize upon a flaw from one angle without thinking things through, then attack from another angle and raise the exact opposite objection. Yet they do not even realize that by doing so they are acting contradictorily.

At this stage, a front was opened through the poets. Abu Sufyan ibn Harith, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, and ‘Abdullah ibn al-Ziba‘ri were assigned the task of composing and spreading intensely condemnatory poetry against the Messenger (peace be upon him). It is worth noting that poets wielded enormous influence in the Age of Ignorance in Arabia. In effect, they served as psychological trainers and guides for the people. Every word that came from their mouths left a deep impression on people’s hearts, and it was memorized and circulated. It may be assumed that poets of that era occupied a position much like that of journalists today. Just as a skilled journalist today can cause great harm to someone by pursuing him with the power of his pen and newspaper, and can create mountains of problems for a da‘wah, movement, or organization through crooked and cutting comments, indecent mockery, offensive letters, suppressing or distorting news, and misleading headlines, so too did the poets of Arabia. Several poets were engaged in spreading the disgrace and slander of Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his movement through every alley, and in poisoning the atmosphere with rhymed abuse and condemnatory slogans. The scene created around Muhammad (peace be upon him) was exactly like that produced when dogs are set upon a respectable passerby. But the message and character of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the friend of humanity, completely neutralized and nullified the enchanting effect of the poets’ propaganda.

It should be noted that this entire campaign of malicious propaganda was not conducted because of any misunderstanding; rather, it was carried out as part of a carefully considered and well-planned conspiracy. They unanimously and collectively decided that: (Arabic*******)

“Do not listen to this Qur’an. Instead, make noise while it is being recited, so that perhaps you may prevail in this way.” (Ha-Mim al-Sajdah, verse 26)

In other words, do not listen at all to what the preacher says, and do not even try to understand it. Otherwise, your way of thinking may change and your existing beliefs may be destroyed. Make noise to obstruct its propagation and turn it into an object of laughter and mockery. Then the Qur’an’s power will be crushed, and final victory will be yours. This verse allows us to infer the mentality of the forces opposed to Islam. They do not want to listen or understand, nor do they want others to listen or understand. For this reason, they want to create obstruction by causing a commotion. Our beloved leader’s turn had come to deal with precisely such people!

‘As ibn Wa’il al-Sahmi’s poisonous attempt to damage the image of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) da‘wah and movement took this form: “Let Muhammad do what he is doing. He is childless. He has no sons. When he dies, no one will even remember him, and you will be free of him forever.” This crooked remark was made because the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) sons had not remained alive. In Arabia, the remark was not entirely meaningless. But, like the people before them, they failed to understand that the true children of history-making figures such as the prophets are their extraordinary and historic achievements. New civilizations emerge from their minds. Their companions and followers advance in groups to carry on the legacy of their da‘wah and teachings and revive their memory. The immense good that results in this way is far greater in strength and value than countless sons. It was in response to this cutting remark that Surah al-Kawthar was revealed. In that surah, ‘As and his associates were told that Allah had granted His Prophet al-Kawthar, made it a source of abundant goodness for him, given him the supreme blessing of the Qur’an, given him a vast community of believers obedient to Allah and the Messenger and working to establish and propagate Islam, and prepared to grant him in the Hereafter a pond called al-Kawthar. Whoever is permitted to drink from that pond once will never thirst again for all eternity. Then Allah said: O Prophet, it is actually your enemies who are childless. In reality, no one will remember them. No one will even think of them and ask who so-and-so was. They will have no place in history.

It would perhaps not be irrelevant to list here the most vile men of Makkah who were foremost in mockery. They were al-Aswad ibn al-Muttalib of the Banu Asad, al-Aswad ibn ‘Abd Yaghuth of the Banu Zuhrah, al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah of the Banu Makhzum, ‘As ibn Wa’il of the Banu Sahm, and al-Harith ibn Talatilah of the Banu Khuza‘ah.

Sophistry

Alongside sarcasm, mockery, abuse, and the use of indecent epithets, the phase of sophistry had also begun. Those who refused to accept an obvious truth would create various forms of sophistry between themselves and the one conveying the message, making futile attempts to create obstacles. When one such effort failed, another would be launched with renewed energy. The entire lives of those engaged in such futile efforts are wasted in this way, yet they can neither benefit themselves nor offer any constructive service to others. Questions and objections raised sincerely have one character, while those raised conspiratorially to obstruct the path of the one conveying the message have an entirely different character. Raising questions and objections of the latter kind is called sophistry. Sophistry is always a symbol of dishonesty, ill intent, and conspiracy. The characteristic of sophists is that they do not want to learn anything from the message; rather, they artificially seek some kind of distortion in it. This condition is described in the Quran: “They seek distortion.” (Surah Hud: 19)

On the one hand, these zealous and uncompromising supporters of their forefathers’ religion repeatedly asked the Messenger whether, if he was truly a prophet, he had not brought with him some undeniable sign or proof of his prophethood, such that no one could help but acknowledge it upon seeing it.

At other times, pretending to be utterly simple-minded, they would say: “Why has no sign been sent down to us directly, or why could it not be that we might see our Lord directly?” (Surah Al-Furqan, verse 31)

In other words, what need is there for lengthy discussion or argument? It would have been enough for angels to descend from the sky in groups and move about before us. And instead of Allah sending us reports through you and establishing His divinity, He could simply appear before us Himself. We could see that this is our Allah. Then there would be no argument left.

They would also sometimes say, “If what you say truly comes from Allah, it would be better if a written book came to us before our very eyes. Better still, you yourself should descend from the sky by a ladder, holding the book in your hand. Then we would accept, with bowed heads, that you truly are a prophet.” The question was also raised: Why is the Quran revealed in separate portions in this way? Why is the entire Book not revealed all at once? Yet detailed answers to each of these questions were repeatedly given in the Quran. They were angered precisely because these answers exposed and defeated their conspiracies.

Another piece of sophistry they advanced was this: You are a human being made of flesh and blood just like us. You feel hunger, are compelled to earn a living, go to the market, live a life of hardship, and suffer all kinds of oppression without anyone helping you. In these circumstances, how can we believe that you are a beloved servant of Allah and that you have been entrusted with reforming and correcting the people of the world? If you were such an eminent and extraordinary person, a group of angels would walk ahead of you as guards, shouting at people to move aside from the road. If anyone did you the slightest disrespect, let alone oppress you, those angels would beat him with sticks and split his head open. If that were the case, everyone would readily accept that you were Allah’s beloved servant and prophet. Treasures should have been sent down from the sky for you. You should have lived in royal splendor, had a palace made of gold to reside in, a canal constructed especially for you, and a large fruit garden from which enough income would be earned for you to live comfortably. If you had claimed prophethood with such splendor and grandeur, we would certainly have accepted it. Yet we are far wealthier and more numerous than you. You and your companions are the poorest and lowest class of people in society. You have no superiority over us whatsoever. So, Muhammad, tell us yourself: on what grounds should we accept you as a prophet?

For this reason, whenever the Messenger passed along a road, people would immediately say, “Is this the person whom Allah has supposedly sent as a messenger?” Waving their fingers and gesturing, the ruffians and terrorists of Mecca would say, “Look, Allah could find no one but this penniless man to make a prophet and messenger. What a wonderful choice!” Likewise, pointing at the leaders and workers of the Islamic movement, they would say, “So these are the distinguished people whom Allah has selected and preferred over us.”

They would also say, “Why don’t you bring the punishment with which you are threatening us and trying to become our leader? Go on, let us see you bring down a portion of the sky upon disbelievers like us!” They would even pray to Allah Himself: “If this message is true, then, O Allah, destroy us with punishment.”

These claimants to an exclusive right to their forefathers’ religion would sometimes also say: “Muhammad, when you say that Allah is Almighty, why does He not use His power to lead us onto the path of Islam? If He wants to see us as monotheists and righteous people, why does He not make us monotheists and righteous? He can prevent us from worshipping idols. He can restrain us from holding false beliefs. Since He does not do so, our present conduct must surely be pleasing to Him. In that case, why do you condemn and criticize our conduct and customs? Who are you, anyway?”

They also mocked the Day of Resurrection. In a highly theatrical manner they would ask, “Tell us, when will this event take place? Has no date been fixed for the Day of Resurrection?”

These examples have been collected from works of the Quran, Hadith, and history. They give an idea of the degraded environment that the world’s greatest benefactor and humanity’s greatest well-wisher had to face. People of the vilest character surrounded him from every side, singing his condemnation and slander. They kept inventing and raising all kinds of questions in the tone of debate. Meanwhile, the Messenger presented arguments for his message with an exceptionally calm and composed mind and in an extremely courteous and dignified manner. He did not respond with condemnation or reproach. He showed no interest in disputation. He did not become angry. Yet he never retreated for even a moment from conveying the message and presenting arguments in its support.

The Quran contains a complete picture of the mental persecution and suffering endured by the Messenger as he advanced through this onslaught of mockery and sophistry.

Allah Himself consoled and comforted the Messenger and instructed him to pass through this stage with patience. He said: “Adopt the policy of forgiveness, enjoin what is right, and turn away from the ignorant.” (Surah Al-A’raf: 199)

That is, during that era of oppression and persecution, the Messenger was instructed to do three things: pay no heed to slander and abuse, continue speaking the truth under all circumstances, and not pursue ill-mannered and foolish people.

Both the Quran and history testify that the Messenger passed through the entire era of oppression and persecution by following those three instructions to the letter. Despite suffering the greatest anguish, he allowed no change in his language, permitted no decline in his excellent character as one conveying the message, and allowed not the slightest dulling of the sharpness of his reasoning.

May Allah send mercy and blessings upon his pure soul and his companions. Whenever those sophists presented some seemingly sharp argument, he immediately refuted it completely under the direction of revelation, no matter how base it was.

Arguments

In their mockery, slander, and sophistry, the Quraysh leaders occasionally presented one or two seemingly sharp arguments, though they were very few. A few examples are given below:

Sometimes they presented an argument like this: We never consider the idols greater than Allah. We only say that the great people whose souls these idols represent can intercede for us before Allah. By prostrating before these idols and offering sacrifices, we can attain nearness to Allah.

They would also say: In our view, worldly life is the only life; there will be no other life for us, nor will we be resurrected after death. So how can we accept a religion that, by introducing the idea of another world, seeks to deprive us of the interests, happiness, and peace of this worldly life?

They also argued that if we accepted Muhammad’s message, allowed the present religious and social system to be abolished, and allowed our dominance over it to be diminished, we would have to be driven out of the country.

These two or three examples show that amid their sophistry and trickery, they did offer some arguments. But the Quran also gave crushing answers to all those arguments.

Terrorism and Hooliganism

Alongside mockery, abuse, and campaigns of slander, the Quraysh’s frenzied opposition gradually took the form of hooliganism, terrorism, and violence. When the masterminds of the negative conspiracy saw their mockery and slander failing, hooliganism and terrorism became their next step. The people of Mecca behaved so vilely in harassing the Messenger that any other preacher, no matter how brave and energetic, would have lost his enthusiasm and encouragement and sat down in despair. But the Messenger’s courtesy and gravity continued moving forward, ignoring all violence and hooliganism.

One practice that had become entirely routine was for the prominent leaders and tribal chiefs living in his neighborhood to regularly scatter thorns in his path, mock and make a commotion while he prayed, throw the entrails of slaughtered animals onto his back while he prostrated, wrap a cloak around his neck and strangle him, incite the neighborhood’s boys and girls to clap and run about making a din, and abuse him, the Quran, and Allah while he recited the Quran.

Abu Lahab and his wife were the foremost in this wrongdoing. For several consecutive years, the woman would throw garbage and thorns in his path. The Messenger would clear the way each day with great difficulty. This wretched woman harassed him so severely that, to comfort him, Allah separately revealed Surah Al-Lahab and informed him that the abode of that wicked couple would be Hell.

Once, the Messenger was praying in the courtyard of the Sacred Kaaba. At that time, Uqbah ibn Abi Mu’ayt wrapped a cloak around the Messenger’s neck and tightened it so severely that he fell unconscious. This same evildoer once threw entrails onto his back while he was praying.

Once, while he was walking along the road, a wicked man threw dirt onto his head. He quietly returned home in that condition. As the young Fatimah washed his head, she kept crying in sorrow and anger. He comforted his young daughter, saying, “My dear, do not cry. Allah will protect your father.”

On another occasion, while he was praying in the Sacred Mosque, Abu Jahl and several other Quraysh chiefs noticed him. At Abu Jahl’s command, Uqbah ibn Abi Mu’ayt went and brought entrails, then threw them over the Messenger, and everyone burst into loud laughter. That day too, his young daughter Fatimah washed and cleaned his body and cursed Uqbah.

The resistance to this sound counsel—“Worship the One Allah, follow honesty and justice, and help the orphan and the traveler”—was expressed in attempts to block the path of the Islamic movement by scattering thorns. Garbage was thrown in a futile attempt to uproot completely the pure message of monotheism and good conduct. By placing a burden of entrails on the Messenger’s back, they imagined that truth would never again raise its head. By strangling the Messenger, the ignorant criminals thought that the voice of revelation would now be silenced. The one welcomed with thorns kept showering flowers. The one whose body was pelted with garbage continued distributing fragrance and roses to the people. The one burdened with entrails lifted the specter of falsehood from the shoulders of humanity. The one who was strangled removed the chains of false customs and practices from the throat of civilization. Hooliganism could not obstruct the path of courtesy for even a moment. If the standard-bearers of courtesy and decency are truly determined, then terrorism and hooliganism, which oppose the eternal law of human history, must be eradicated forever through such decisive punishment.

Attempts to Deprive the Islamic Movement of Support

When opponents of the Islamic message see the flood rising over their heads, they lose control and attempt to deprive the movement, or its leaders and workers, of every kind of effective support and patronage from society. Even when they cannot do so directly, they seek to render the soldiers of the revolution inactive by applying indirect pressure.

The people of Mecca wanted to eliminate the Messenger altogether. But they feared that the fire of tribal vengeance and retaliation would flare up so fiercely that no one would be able to stop the chain of bloodshed. A disastrous war in the recent past had left them so battered that they were by no means ready to risk another similar war immediately. There was another complication as well. There was an old feud and rivalry between Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyah. The leaders of Banu Umayyah, especially Abu Lahab, could not tolerate the idea that a prophet should arise in any family of the Banu Hashim clan and that, as a result, that family should gain social recognition. Banu Hashim had once or twice resolved among themselves: “What harm is there in openly supporting Muhammad? He is one of our own. If he rises and his religion spreads, that will bring benefit and prosperity to us.” But the leaders of Banu Umayyah never allowed them to implement that decision. Although Banu Hashim could not do anything effective, it was not easy to lay hands on one of their members unless they expelled him from the tribe. Meanwhile, the Messenger was under the guardianship of his uncle Abu Talib. As long as this guardianship continued, practically the entire Banu Hashim clan was his protector. His enemies therefore exerted every effort to deprive the Messenger of that patronage. For this reason, pressure on Abu Talib continued for a long time, but they failed every time.

Once, a powerful delegation of leading figures—including Utbah and Shaybah, the two sons of Rabi’ah; Abu Sufyan ibn Harb; Abu al-Bukhtari; Aswad ibn Abd al-Muttalib; Abu Jahl; Walid ibn al-Mughirah; Nabih and Munabbih, the two sons of Hajjaj ibn Amir; and As ibn Wa’il—came to Abu Talib and said:

“Abu Talib, your nephew insults our gods and idols, finds fault with our religion, and calls our forefathers fools and misguided. Our request to you now is either to restrain him from exceeding all bounds against us, or else hand him over to us. For in matters of belief, you belong to our group and oppose him. If you cannot control him, we certainly can.”

Abu Talib listened calmly to everything they said, then persuaded the delegation and sent them away. The Messenger continued his work as usual, while the Quraysh burned with rage. Read the delegation’s statement carefully. You will see how deeply charged it was with emotion. An extremely forceful appeal had been made. This statement shows that the enemies of Islam had made special preparations to incite the people. They had raised slogans and accusations such that, upon hearing them, the public would erupt in anger and become violently enraged and agitated against the Messenger. History bears witness that whenever a war has been organized against Islam, some kind of misleading information has invariably been disseminated to incite the people.

One such misleading claim was that your religious sentiments were being hurt and your gods were being insulted.

The second was that faults were being found with the customary and ancestral religion.

The third was that the forefathers were being dishonored.

The polytheists of Mecca had gathered these provocative materials. Although the revelation sent down to the Messenger did not insult the Quraysh’s gods—in fact, Muslims were forbidden to insult them—they nevertheless tried to enrage the people by labeling the arguments and proofs presented against these gods as insults. He had not dishonored their forefathers; he had merely said that it was not at all wise to hold on to something simply on the excuse that it had been passed down through generations. Yet even this statement was treated as an insult to their forefathers. Similarly, everything the Messenger said to prove the rationality of monotheism and the irrationality of polytheism, as well as his critique of the prevailing religion in response to the polytheists’ own questions, was classified as fault-finding with the customary religion.

Another delegation came on another occasion. They too repeated the same allegations and said:

“Abu Talib, you are older than us and superior and honored in rank and prestige. We asked you to save us from the oppression of your nephew, but you did nothing. By Allah, the way our forefathers are being insulted, our ancestors called fools, and our gods criticized is unbearable to us. If you do not restrain him, we will deal with him, and we will deal with you as well. Either we will remain alive, or Muhammad and his supporters will remain alive. [The Life of Ibn Hisham, volume one, p. 108]”

Abu Talib then summoned the Messenger and informed him of everything that had been said. He then pleaded with him: “Nephew, do not place upon me a burden that I cannot bear.” At this point, he faced a situation in which even his only refuge seemed to be wavering. Outwardly, the most dangerous moment for the Islamic movement had arrived. But observe the profound sincerity and unwavering resolve that inspired him to say:

“Uncle, by Allah, even if they were to offer me the sun in my right hand and the moon in my left and ask me to abandon this work, I would still be unable to abandon it. My work will end only on the day Allah grants me victory in it, or else I will perish while striving and struggling in its cause.”

Through this statement of the Messenger, we hear the clear voice of that true power which overturns history, crushes every resistance and conspiracy, and reaches its goal. Sadly, the Quraysh did not sense the presence of this power. Abu Talib, influenced by its wondrous effect, said: “Go, nephew, convey the message you desire. I will never leave you helpless under any circumstances.”

After some time, another delegation arrived, bringing with them Amarah ibn al-Walid. This time they came with an unusual plan. They said to Abu Talib: “Look, this is the strongest and most handsome young man of the Quraysh clan. Take him. His intelligence and strength will be of great use to you. Make him your own son, and in exchange hand Muhammad over to us. For he has rebelled against the religion of you and your fourteen forefathers, created division and disorder among the people of your country, and deemed their forefathers fools. We want to kill him. We are giving you one man in exchange for another. [Ibn Hisham, volume one, p. 279]”

Consider the way these people thought. A personality as sublime as Muhammad was treated as a commercial commodity. And Abu Talib was treated as though he were not his uncle but a businessman! The delegates’ words deeply wounded Abu Talib’s feelings. He said: “You want me to raise your son with affection and care, while you take my nephew and slaughter him. This can never happen!” In the end, the matter concluded with an exchange of heated words. Even within the delegation itself, disagreement arose.

The Quraysh now began inciting every tribe that had Muslims among them to persecute the Messenger’s companions. Severe persecution was launched to turn them away from Islam. Allah protected only the Messenger under Abu Talib’s patronage. Seeing the Quraysh’s attitude, Abu Talib became restless and appealed to Banu Hashim and Banu Abd al-Muttalib to ensure the Messenger’s safety. The people gathered and prepared to protect Muhammad. But because of Abu Lahab’s strong opposition, no final decision could be reached.

Later, when two influential men from among the enemies, Hamzah and Umar, joined the Islamic movement, intense resentment again arose in the enemy camp. It became clear that the movement led by Muhammad had begun entering every household. Something had to be done. Abu Talib was then bedridden. They went to him. This time their plan was to make an agreement with the Messenger: he would not interfere in their affairs, and they would not interfere in his; he would have no connection with their religion, and they would have no connection with his religion. The Messenger was summoned. After hearing the Quraysh’s demands, he said:

(Arabic: *********)

“O leaders of the Quraysh, accept this one statement of mine, and you will see the entire human race, Arabs and non-Arabs alike, become obedient to you.”

Imagine for a moment what a life-and-death environment this was. What a terrifying situation, ravaged by the poison of conspiracy and opposition. Yet how deep and unwavering was the Messenger’s confidence in the inherent power and potential of his message. It was as though he stood in the profound darkness of night and said with complete certainty, “The sun will rise any moment.” Not only that, observe how clearly both the social and political dimensions of his ideal, not merely its religious dimension, shone before him.

Abu Jahl exclaimed sharply: “Yes, by your father, not just one—we will accept ten statements.”

Another man said: “By Allah, it does not seem that this man will accept anything according to your wishes.”

Then they left in disappointment. However, several matters became clear from the delegation’s conversation. First, they had been compelled to accept the Islamic movement as a force, and that finding some means of compromise and coexistence was far better than making a futile attempt to eliminate it. Second, despite all their persecution, oppression, and conspiracies, the Quraysh had begun to realize their own helplessness.

This was the situation of the Messenger himself, peace be upon him. On the other hand, efforts were also being made to deprive those among his Companions who were living under the protection of one guardian or another of that protection.

For example, Abu Salamah was also under the protection of Abu Talib. Members of his clan, Banu Makhzum, came and said, “Abu Talib, you have not handed your nephew over to us. But what right do you have to stop us from dealing with a member of our clan?” Abu Talib replied, “He is my nephew, and he has sought protection from me. You were persecuting him. By Allah, either you will desist from persecuting him, or I will do whatever is necessary to protect him.”

Similarly, after the migration to Abyssinia had begun, Hazrat Abu Bakr once became exasperated with the suffocating conditions in Makkah and set out to leave it. After he had gone some distance, he met a man named Ibn al-Dughunnah. When the man learned that he too was emigrating, he said, “Men like you should not leave their homeland in this way. You help your relatives in times of hardship, feed the hungry, and clothe the naked. You do good yourself and encourage others to do good. ” Ibn al-Dughunnah therefore brought Hazrat Abu Bakr back under his personal guarantee of protection and announced before the Quraysh that Abu Bakr was under his protection. At home, Abu Bakr would sit in his prayer place and recite the Qur’an in a melodious voice. Tears would stream from his eyes as he recited. Consequently, everyone who heard his recitation was moved. Gradually, the matter reached the ears of the Quraysh. They came to Ibn al-Dughunnah and said, “By giving Abu Bakr protection, you have brought ruin upon us. He recites the Qur’an in a melodious voice, and our women and children are being influenced when they hear it. You need not protect him. Send Abu Bakr to his own house; let him do whatever he wishes there. We will not interfere.” Reluctantly, Ibn al-Dughunnah sent Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, to his home. (Ibn Hisham)

The Negative Front

The enemies of Islam were engaged in all kinds of conspiracies to thwart the greatest service to humanity in which the finest of men, Muhammad, peace be upon him, was engaged. Despite all this, his work of calling people to Islam continued, and some benefit was being achieved from it. In these circumstances, an active cell for hostile propaganda was formed. Under this cell, several leading figures of Makkah began staying close to the Messenger, peace be upon him. Their main problem was that Makkah was the center of the whole of Arabia. Caravans came and went through it from every direction, creating constant new opportunities to convey the call to truth. The deception practiced by the leaders of Makkah on the people of Makkah themselves did not work on outsiders. Moreover, many intelligent people with pure consciences were among the newcomers. They could judge a call solely on the basis of reason and assess its proclaimer only by his conduct and character, reaching an entirely independent decision uninfluenced by hatred or any historical event. They had no jealousy or hostility in their hearts toward Muhammad’s call and movement, nor any reason to develop such feelings. In these circumstances, protecting Makkah alone from the influence of Muhammad’s call would have been useless if the Arab society outside Makkah continued to be influenced by it. The Qur’an foretold the matter in these words:

(Arabic*******)

“Do they not see that We are gradually reducing their sphere of influence from all sides?” The most troubling time for them in this respect was the pilgrimage season. People from the various tribes of Arabia would gather in Makkah in groups, led by their chiefs. At that time, the Messenger, peace be upon him, would visit the members and leaders of those groups from tent to tent and invite them to Islam. The leaders of the reactionary negative movement would burn with rage when they saw this. Once the pilgrimage season approached, the Quraysh leaders gathered at the house of Walid ibn al-Mughirah and began deliberating deeply. Walid presented the problem as follows:

“O assembly of Quraysh, the pilgrimage season is approaching. People will come to you in groups from all over Arabia. They have all learned about this man of ours, Muhammad, so they will come eager to learn the matter properly. Therefore, reach a decision on this matter now. Do not fall into disagreement with one another. It must not happen that one of you declares another’s statement false and keeps refuting it.”

Those present said, “You tell us. Set a course of action, and we will act accordingly.”

But Walid insisted, “You discuss it; I will listen.”

So the discussion began.

One group said, “We think Muhammad is a soothsayer. This is what we should tell the people coming for the pilgrimage.”

Walid: “No, by Allah, Muhammad is not a soothsayer. We have seen many soothsayers. Muhammad does not speak in the rhymed, metrical verse characteristic of soothsayers.”

They said, “Then we will say that he is possessed by a jinn.”

Walid: “No, he is not possessed either. A possessed person’s voice becomes constricted, his limbs tremble, and his thoughts become confused. Muhammad shows none of these signs.”

The people said, “Then we will say that he is a poet.”

Walid: “No, I do not think he is a poet either. We know poetry in all kinds of meters. By those standards, he is not a poet either.”

The people said, “Then we will say that he is a magician.”

Walid: “No, he is not a magician either. We have seen many magicians and their magic. Muhammad, peace be upon him, does not practice the blowing and amulet rituals associated with magic.”

The people said, “Then, O Abu Abd al-Shams, you tell us: what shall we say in conducting a propaganda campaign against Muhammad?”

Walid: “By Allah, his speech is extraordinarily sweet. The roots of his words reach very far, and many fruits grow on their branches. This call will surely prevail. It cannot be defeated. This call will overcome everything else. Whatever you say will become meaningless and futile. Yet among all the things you have said, the last one is somewhat suitable. You should say that he is a magician, that there is magic in his words, and that through his speech he causes division and separation between fathers and sons, husbands and wives, brothers, individuals and tribes, and tribe and tribe. (This was said with reference to the call of Islam, because two groups had emerged in society on its basis. Yet the real cause was the conspiracy of the enemies of Islam.) You should say that it is because of his magic that people have boycotted him. (Sirat Ibn Hisham and Sirat al-Mustafa, Idris Kandhlawi)”

Observe how a conspiracy is devised to spread false propaganda against a man. A scheme is made to force into circulation precisely the claim that conscience cannot accept. At that very gathering, it was decided that groups would sit at the entrance of every road leading to Makkah. They would warn every delegation about Muhammad, peace be upon him, and his call. The plan was carried out accordingly. But the result was the opposite. All information concerning the Messenger, peace be upon him, reached every corner of Arabia. Even those who knew nothing about it learned that a call to a new religion had begun in Arabia and that Muhammad, peace be upon him, was its standard-bearer.

Now let us observe on the stage of history the activities of the caller to Islam and those conducting the negative movement against him.

Rabi‘ah ibn ‘Ubadah narrates: “I was a young man at the time and lived with my father at Mina. I would see the Messenger, peace be upon him, going from tent to tent among the various tribes of Arabia and saying, ‘O people of such-and-such a tribe, I am Allah’s Messenger sent to you. My call to you is that you worship Allah alone and associate no one with Him. Abandon all the idols that you worship. Believe in me, support me, and guarantee my protection. Then I will explain in detail all that Allah has sent me to proclaim.’”

The narrator of the incident says: “A man wearing an Adani garment was following behind the Messenger, peace be upon him. Whenever the Messenger finished speaking, that man would immediately shout, ‘O guests of such-and-such a tribe, this man wants to turn you away from Lat and Uzza and lead you toward a new religion and misguidance. Do not listen to him or obey him.’”

Seeing this, the young man asked his father, “Who is the man running behind the caller and refuting every word he says?”

His father replied, “He is that man’s uncle, Abu Lahab.”

The Messenger, peace be upon him, also attended various fairs, as he did the pilgrimage, so that he might gain some benefit from these social gatherings. Once, at a fair called Dhu al-Majaz, he invited the people to the Kalimah Tayyibah. Abu Jahl was pursuing him. He sank to such a low level of insolence that he took dust in his hands, threw it at the Messenger’s face, and said, “Do not listen to him. He wants you to stop worshipping Lat and Uzza.” (Sirat al-Nabi, Shibli Nomani)

Hearing reports of this vigorous campaign of hostile propaganda, Abu Talib became concerned that the people of Arabia might begin opposing Muhammad in an organized manner. He therefore composed a long poem and hung it on the door of the Ka‘bah. In it, on the one hand, he declared that he himself had not accepted Muhammad’s call. On the other hand, he announced that under no circumstances could he abandon Muhammad. If necessary, he would even sacrifice his own life for him. Most of the poems compiled under Abu Talib’s name are historically weak. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that some portions of them are authentic. (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

Adverse Reaction

Whenever an important person came to Makkah, the enemies of Islam would immediately surround him and do everything possible to protect him from the influence of the Messenger, peace be upon him. But most of the time the result was the opposite. It seems necessary to mention several such incidents.

Tufayl ibn ‘Amr al-Dawsi was a nobleman and a renowned poet. Once, when he came to Makkah for a visit, several leading Quraysh figures went to meet him. They said, “Sir, Tufayl, we are delighted that you have come to our city. But while you remain here, be a little cautious. Muhammad’s activities have become unbearable to us. This man has destroyed our unity and ruined our interests. His speech is like magic. He causes separation between fathers and sons, brothers and brothers, and husbands and wives. We are concerned about you and your tribe, lest you fall victim to his deception. Therefore, it would be best for you neither to speak to Muhammad at all nor to listen to anything he says.”

Tufayl said: “They would not leave me alone until I promised not to speak to Muhammad or listen to anything he said. So whenever I went to the Sacred Mosque, I would put cotton in my ears. Then one day I suddenly saw the Messenger, peace be upon him, standing near the Ka‘bah and praying. I stood very close to him as well. I heard the exceedingly sweet words he was reciting. I said to myself, ‘Am I a nursing infant? By Allah, I am a sensible man. I am a poet, and I can distinguish good from bad. Who, then, can prevent me from listening to what Muhammad says? If what he calls to is good, I will accept it; and if it is bad, I will reject it.’”

Some time passed in this reflection. After the prayer, the Messenger, peace be upon him, set out for home. Tufayl followed him. On the way, he told him everything: what kind of false propaganda had been spread to him about the Messenger and how he had been kept away from him. When they reached the house, he asked to learn in detail what the Messenger’s call was. The Messenger explained the significance of Islam to him and recited the Qur’an for him. Tufayl said, “By Allah, I have never heard such beautiful words, nor encountered such a truthful and sound call. I accept Islam.” He then went to his own tribe and preached Islam to them, and his entire tribe accepted Islam.

Tufayl became so passionately devoted to preaching that, as soon as he reached home and met his elderly father, he said, “You are no longer of me, nor am I of you.” His father said, “What is this? What has happened to you, my son?” Tufayl replied, “I have now accepted the religion of Muhammad, peace be upon him, and adopted the path of obedience to him.” His father said, “My son, whatever your religion is, mine will be the same.” He immediately bathed and accepted Islam. Tufayl invited his wife in the same manner, and she too accepted Islam. After that, the whole tribe responded. Later, he came to the Messenger, peace be upon him, related the entire incident, and, mentioning the various moral faults of his tribe, asked the Messenger to pray for punishment upon them. But the Messenger prayed for their guidance and reform, and firmly instructed Tufayl to continue working patiently for the reform of his tribe and to treat them gently. (His tendency to use force in propagating Islam was not consistent with Islamic principles of action.) [Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 1, pp. 407–409]

Consider another incident. Al-A‘sha ibn Qays was also a distinguished poet. After hearing much about the Messenger, peace be upon him, he set out for Makkah intending to accept Islam. He had even composed a poem praising the Messenger. As soon as Al-A‘sha entered the boundaries of Makkah, a Qurayshi polytheist (according to Ibn Hisham, Abu Jahl) came and intercepted him, questioning him about his purpose. Al-A‘sha said, “I want to go to Muhammad, peace be upon him, and accept Islam.” They had a lengthy conversation about this. To test Al-A‘sha’s attitude, the scheming polytheist said, “Look, Muhammad forbids adultery.” When this did not deter Al-A‘sha, he said, “Muhammad also forbids drinking wine.” By saying one thing and then another, he weakened Al-A‘sha’s resolve. Finally, he persuaded him to agree to leave for the time being and return the following year to accept Islam. Al-A‘sha went back, but the unfortunate man died before he could return to Makkah the next year.

The most amusing incident concerned ‘Urwah al-‘Arashi. The poor man came to Makkah with a camel. He and Abu Jahl had finalized a deal for the sale of the camel, but Abu Jahl kept delaying payment. Compelled by this, he went to various Quraysh leaders and repeatedly pleaded with them to help him recover the price of the camel. A meeting of the Quraysh was taking place in the courtyard of the Sacred Ka‘bah. Al-‘Arashi appealed to the leaders present, saying, “Will one of you collect what Abu Jahl owes me? I am a foreigner, and I am being wronged.” None of those at the meeting dared go to Abu Jahl and secure the foreigner’s rightful due. So they pointed and said, “See that man sitting there—Muhammad, peace be upon him. Go to him; he will recover it for you.” In fact, this was merely a joke, since everyone knew how bitter Abu Jahl’s enmity toward Muhammad, peace be upon him, was. Al-‘Arashi came to the Messenger, peace be upon him, and told him the whole story. The Messenger immediately rose and said, “Come with me.” Everyone waited to see what would happen. The Messenger left the Sacred Precinct, went straight to Abu Jahl’s house, and knocked on the door. A voice came from inside: “Who is it?” He replied, “Muhammad. Come outside. I have something urgent to discuss.”

Abu Jahl came out, his face pale with fear. The Messenger said, “Pay this man what is owed to him.” Without a word, Abu Jahl paid the debt in full. Al-‘Arashi happily went to the people meeting in the Sacred Precinct and told them the whole story.

This incident occurred because of the influence of Muhammad’s pure character, peace be upon him. Abu Jahl himself acknowledged this and told the Quraysh leaders who were meeting there. He said, “Muhammad came and knocked on the door. As soon as I heard his voice, I became frightened for some reason.” (Ibn Hisham)

The effect this incident must have had on Al-‘Arashi himself and on the people of Makkah can easily be imagined.

Through the efforts of those new Muslims who had migrated to Abyssinia, the call of Islam had reached that region. Twenty Christians from there came to Makkah. They met the Messenger, peace be upon him, in the Sacred Precinct. He spoke with them, answered their questions, recited the Qur’an to them, and presented the call of Islam. Tears came to their eyes, and they believed without hesitation. When they rose to leave, the Quraysh were gathered outside the mosque. Abu Jahl said to the Abyssinian delegation, “How foolish you are! You have abandoned your own religion!” The delegation replied, “We offer you peace. We do not wish to quarrel or dispute with you. Our path is different, and your path is different. We do not wish to be deprived of a blessing.”

Fearing that the schemers of Makkah would mount fierce opposition, the entire event of the Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah was conducted in strict secrecy in the deep darkness of night. When the delegation from Madinah had completed the pledge and reached their lodging, the Quraysh leaders went there and met them. The Quraysh intelligence network was so effective that they had learned the entire affair of the pledge. They said to the delegation, “You intend to take Muhammad, peace be upon him, away from here, and by placing your hands in his you have sworn to fight us. Listen carefully: if you provoke a war between us and the Arabs, no one will be more hateful in our eyes than you.” The Ansar tried to conceal the matter. Thus, for the moment, it went no further, and the Ansar set out for Madinah. But the Quraysh continued their espionage and learned all the details. They pursued the Ansari caravan and captured Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah and Mundhir ibn ‘Amr. Both had pledged to preach Islam among their own tribes. The Quraysh tied them with their hands behind their backs and beat them severely.

Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah narrated: “While we were in this miserable condition, a tall and handsome Qurayshi man came. I thought to myself, ‘If there is any good man in this tribe, it is probably this one, and perhaps I can hope for some kindness from him.’ But as soon as he came near, he struck me a powerful slap. Then I realized that no kindness could be expected from them. Finally, one of them asked me, ‘Is there no one among the Quraysh with whom you have some prior acquaintance, friendship, or agreement?’ I mentioned the names of al-Zubayr ibn Mut‘im and al-Harith ibn Harb. He advised me to call them by name. I did so, and they both came and freed us.”

These incidents show how active the opponents of the Islamic call were.

The Front of Literature and Music

Nadr ibn al-Harith was another leader of the campaign against Islam. He frequently traveled to Persia for business purposes. From there, he brought back historical and literary tales about non-Arab kings and rulers. Then, in Makkah, he organized gatherings featuring entertainment literature imported from the non-Arab world to counter the revolutionary literature of the Qur’an. At these gatherings he began inviting people by saying, “What will you gain by listening to the stale tales of ‘Ad and Thamud from Muhammad, peace be upon him? Come to me, and I will tell you fascinating stories from the lands of Rustam and Isfandiyar.” The Qur’an identified Nadr ibn al-Harith as a distinct human character and said:

“Among the people are those who purchase distracting tales in order to mislead people from Allah’s way without knowledge and to make a mockery of it.” (Surah Luqman: 6)

Once, at a gathering in the presence of Abu Jahl, this same Nadr ibn al-Harith delivered the following speech about the Messenger’s call and movement:

“O assembly of Quraysh, today you face something against which none of your strategies will succeed in the future. Muhammad, peace be upon him, was once a beloved young man to all of you. He was more truthful than all of you and more trustworthy and faithful than all of you. But as soon as he reached maturity and presented his call, you began saying that he was a magician; you began saying that he was a soothsayer; you began saying that he was insane. In fact, none of this is correct. O assembly of Quraysh, think a little more about your policy, because, by Allah, an important matter has appeared before you.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

Nadr ibn al-Harith’s speech shows that he regarded the Messenger’s call, peace be upon him, as something extraordinary and was also conscious of his moral greatness. Yet he trampled upon his own awakened conscience and devised cunning, satanic conspiracies to oppose the Messenger’s call. He understood very well that, against the sincere appeal of a movement founded on a positive and noble purpose, entertaining literature and cultural activities could contain more attractive elements for ordinary people. For this reason, he established gatherings of entertainment and aesthetic literature. Nadr ibn al-Harith would say, “I can tell stories more captivating and amusing than Muhammad’s.” Then, when he told foreign tales, he would say, “In what way are Muhammad’s stories better than mine?” On the other hand, he mocked the Qur’anic stories as tales of ancient times.

Nor did it end there: he also bought a female slave skilled in singing and music. He would invite people to a meal and, after they had eaten, have the slave sing and play music for them. Whenever he learned of a young man who had become interested in Islam, he would take the singer to him and instruct the slave, “Feed this young man, give him drink, and satisfy him by making him listen to music.” After arranging such exhibitions of art and culture, he would proudly say, “Is the call Muhammad, peace be upon him, makes more enjoyable, or is what I have arranged more enjoyable?” (Sirat al-Mustafa, Maulana Idris Kandhlawi, vol. 1, p. 188)

In reality, the core vitality of Islam is obedience to Allah and morality. That vitality dies in an environment of unrestricted mixing between men and women and obscenity. An environment in which all attention is focused on eating and drinking, music, entertainment, fine arts, and sexuality cannot be suitable for Islamic da’wah. For this reason, Nadr ibn al-Harith began presenting entertaining tales on the one hand, while on the other creating gatherings of music, the mingling of men and women, and obscenity.

But entertaining literature cannot succeed in resisting a constructive da’wah and a movement founded on good intentions, nor can fine arts such as music serve any purpose. There was some noise and commotion for a few days. Then everything fell silent.

After Nadr ibn al-Harith’s conspiracy failed, he went, on the advice of the Quraysh leaders, to the Jewish religious scholars in Madinah. He asked them, “You are learned people, while we are uneducated fools. Tell us how we can stop the Islamic movement and how we can resist Muhammad (peace be upon him).” The Jewish scholars taught them to ask Muhammad (peace be upon him) about Dhul-Qarnayn and the People of the Cave, and to ask what the soul was. They put these three questions to the Messenger (peace be upon him) at the appointed time, and through the help of revelation he gave satisfactory answers. But how could the obstinacy of the unbelievers be resisted? (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

The Attempt at Compromise

After the initial stage of secrecy had been passed and the Islamic movement began to spread rapidly, and after the various efforts of slander and violence subsequently failed and proved fruitless, the opponents began to feel that the Islamic movement was an invincible force and would soon bring about a great change in the country. Therefore, fresh initiatives, arrangements, and efforts began once again to find a path toward compromise and reconciliation and to end this conflict on the basis of an exchange between the two sides. But an idealistic movement has no room for such extensive laxity that a middle path can be found through bargaining and makeshift compromises. Nevertheless, the forum’s leaders thoroughly tested this strategy as well, hoping perhaps to secure some advantage from one direction or another.

For example, one of their compromise proposals was that the Messenger (peace be upon him) should not condemn or criticize their gods and idols, nor interfere with their religion. Apart from that, he could give as many sermons, admonitions, and moral teachings as he wished, and no objection would be raised. In other words, he would withdraw from the fundamental da’wah declaration the statement rejecting falsehood. That is, there would be room to mention Allah, but it would not be permissible to say, “There is no deity except Allah” (La ilaha illallah). The false ideas on which the existing civilization stood could not be challenged. The bad environment and harmful elements existing in society would have to remain exactly as they were. Truth and justice would have to be presented in such a way that they did not open the way to revolution, and all revolutionary inspiration would have to be removed from them. Islam’s political discourse would have to be rendered inactive. Spiritual reform of society would have to continue under the existing social system, which would remain intact. The implication was that the Quraysh’s class superiority and aristocracy, political and economic privileges and leadership, religious leadership and nobility, vested interests, and acquired status and advantages would all have to remain in place. After that, do whatever you wish. But if the Islamic movement had accepted these conditions, it would have disappeared on its own.

They also imposed the condition that this Qur’an be discarded and another Qur’an brought in its place, or that changes be made to it so that our demands and claims would be fully satisfied.

ائْتِبِقُرْآنٍغَيْرِهَٰذَاأَوْ

“Bring another Qur’an instead of this one, or alter it.” (Surah Yunus: 15)

The answer given by the Messenger (peace be upon him) in the language of revelation was: “It is not within my power to alter this Qur’an according to my own wishes. I can follow nothing except what is revealed to me. If I disobey my Lord, I may have to suffer the punishment of the terrible Day of Resurrection. Who is a greater wrongdoer than one who attempts to pass off his own fabricated words as those of Allah?”

To find a path to compromise and reconciliation, the opponents of the Islamic movement also demanded that he remove the lower-class people from around him. “If you remove those who were our slaves until yesterday, we can come and sit with you and listen to your advice. Otherwise, in the present circumstances we cannot come to you or listen to your words. These lowly people are blocking our path, yet they have settled in around you as major leaders.” Regarding these people they mockingly said, “They are supposedly going to inherit the thrones of the Roman and Persian empires!” It was not that the polytheists’ hearts had become eager to serve the Islamic movement. Rather, their aim was to break the enthusiasm of those fresh young lives who were rushing about like mad, raising the banner of truth and justice, sacrificing all their interests, cheerfully accepting every danger and calamity, and dedicating every breath to achieving this sacred goal, so that the Islamic movement would be deprived of their sincere service.

Before this deceptive compromise proposal could have any effect on the Messenger’s mind, the Qur’an warned him that it was an age-old trick of the enemies of Islam. This trick had been used against all the earlier prophets. Surah Hud, verse 27, states that an identical proposal had also been made to Noah (peace be upon him). In Surah al-An’am, verse 52, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was advised not to drive away from his company, merely to please the enemies of Islam morning and evening, his devoted companions who constantly invoked Allah’s name. Surah al-Shu’ara, verse 215, says that he should continue to care for these devoted followers affectionately. Indeed, in the first ten verses of Surah Abasa, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was reproached solely because, while speaking with an influential unbeliever, he disliked being interrupted by a question from one of his blind Companions.

On one occasion, the hard-line Quraysh leaders were discussing this matter at a meeting. At that time, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was sitting alone at some distance away. Utbah ibn Rabi’ah said to the Quraysh leaders present at the meeting, “If you agree, I will go and speak with Muhammad. I will put several alternative proposals before him, one of which he may accept. If we accept it, perhaps he will no longer wish to quarrel and conflict with us.” This was clearly an initiative for compromise. The Quraysh had probably reached this point because Hamzah had accepted Islam and the Islamic movement was spreading rapidly. With everyone’s agreement, Utbah went and spoke to the Messenger (peace be upon him) as follows:

“Nephew, you know how highly we regard you. You hold a high position among the entire tribe, and by lineage you are entitled to distinction.” After giving this flattering but deliberately calculated introduction, Utbah said in a mildly reproachful tone, “You have plunged your people into great anxiety. You have shattered their unity. You call their leaders fools and idiots. You find fault with their religion and their gods. You declare their past forefathers unbelievers. Now listen to me. Consider the proposals I am making; perhaps one of them will be acceptable to you.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “All right. Go ahead. I will listen.” Utbah then presented the following alternative proposals one by one:

“If your aim is to acquire wealth, we will collect so much wealth for you that you will become richer than all of us.”

“And if you seek leadership and power through this, we are prepared to appoint you as our leader and chief. We will not make any decision without consulting your opinion.”

“If you want to become king in the land, we are also prepared to make you king.”

“And if the reason is that you are under the influence of some jinn or other spirit, and those unseen beings have overcome you, we will collect contributions to arrange treatment for you. If you recover, that is well; otherwise, our inability will have been proven.”

These compromise proposals reflected various attitudes and ideas. The opponents of the Islamic movement generally held such notions. It becomes clear from these proposals that, in their view, there were two possibilities. First, perhaps the Messenger (peace be upon him) was not consciously and deliberately undertaking such a major confrontation with the ignorant social order, but was doing so under the influence of ghosts and spirits or in an unconscious state. Second, if he was undertaking all these initiatives consciously and while fully aware, then surely his aim was to gain kingship or power. In any case, after hearing all the proposals, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “O father of Walid, have you finished speaking?” He replied, “Yes.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Now listen to what I have to say.” Utbah said, “All right, speak; I am listening.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) set all the proposals aside and began reciting from the beginning of Surah Ha-Mim Sajdah:

“Ha-Mim. This is a revelation sent down by the Most Compassionate, Most Merciful. It is a well-composed Book whose verses are clear. It is a Qur’an in the Arabic language—for people who understand. It is good news for the believers and a warning for the unbelievers. Yet most of them turn away and do not listen. They say, ‘Our hearts are veiled from what you call us to, our ears are plugged, and there is a barrier between us and you. So carry on with your work, and we will carry on with ours.’ (Verses 1–5)

As long as the Messenger (peace be upon him) continued reciting, Utbah listened silently and attentively, leaning back on his hands behind him. When he reached the prostration verse, he stopped reciting and prostrated. Then he said, “O father of Walid, you have heard it, have you not? Now do whatever you think best.”

Then Utbah got up and went to his companions. As soon as they saw his face, they said, “Utbah’s face has changed. It is no longer as it was when he left.” In concerned voices they asked, “What is the matter?”

Utbah said:

“The matter is that I have just heard words the like of which I have never heard in my life. By Allah, they are neither poetry, magic, nor the words of a soothsayer. O Quraysh, listen to me. I say this with full responsibility: leave Muhammad as he is and do not pursue him. By Allah, the words I heard will surely produce a great result. If the Arabs kill Muhammad, you will be rid of him through others. And if he becomes king of Arabia, then his kingdom will be your kingdom and his power your power. Through him, you will then become the most fortunate nation. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 1, pp. 313–314)

Several important points can be learned from Utbah’s statement. First, the great orators, poets, and literary figures of Arabia in that era were compelled to bow before the superiority and eloquence of the Qur’an’s language. Second, as long as the opponents did not hear the fundamental message of Islam directly from the mouth of its caller, they were influenced by various poisonous rumors and remained firm in their opposition. But whenever anyone had the opportunity to hear part of the true message directly, his heart immediately accepted it. Third, every intelligent person in the polytheistic society believed regarding the message of revelation that some great revolution would inevitably be organized on its basis. They could see behind it a complete revolution and assumed that an empire and a social, political, and economic system would inevitably be established on the basis of this declaration.

But after hearing Utbah, mockery and ridicule began in the Quraysh assembly, and many said, “Father of Walid, it seems Muhammad has bewitched you too.” Utbah said, “I have told you my opinion of him. Now do whatever you think best.”

Some time later, another attempt was made concerning this matter. One day after sunset, all the leading chiefs of the Quraysh gathered in the courtyard of the Ka’bah. They included Utbah ibn Rabi’ah, Shaybah ibn Rabi’ah, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Nadr ibn al-Harith, Qandah, Abu al-Bukhtari, al-Aswad ibn al-Muttalib, Zam’ah ibn al-Aswad, al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah, Abu Jahl ibn Hisham, Abdullah ibn Umayyah, al-As ibn Wa’il, Nubayh and Munabbih ibn al-Hajjaj (Banu Sahm), and Umayyah ibn Khalaf. They sent for the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Messenger (peace be upon him) came to them with renewed hope, but they said nothing new. They repeated the proposal previously made through Utbah ibn Rabi’ah. On hearing it, the Messenger (peace be upon him) replied as follows: “What you are saying is completely different from my matter. The purpose of the da’wah I have brought to you is not to acquire wealth, gain leadership or chieftainship, or establish a kingdom. Allah has sent me to you as a prophet and messenger. He has revealed the Book to me and commanded me to be a warner and bearer of good news for you. Accordingly, I have conveyed Allah’s instructions to you and fulfilled the duty of wishing you well. If you accept what I have brought, it will ensure your welfare in this world and the Hereafter. But if you reject it, I will patiently await Allah’s further command until Allah issues His judgment between me and you. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 1, p. 315)

When they saw from this answer that there was no way to move forward, they began making various sophistical arguments. For example, they said, “You know that our land is extremely confined. Water is scarce here, and life is very difficult. Ask Allah to remove those mountains, expand our land, and create rivers upon it like those of Iraq and Syria. Ask Him to bring our forefathers back to life, especially Qusayy ibn Kilab. He was very truthful, and we will ask him whether your message is true or false. If our forefathers are brought back one by one and testify that your message is true, and you demonstrate everything we demand, then we will accept that you are Allah’s Messenger. But if you do not, then bring down punishment upon us.” In reply to these impossible demands, the Messenger (peace be upon him) repeatedly said, “I was not sent for these things.” Finally, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) turned toward home, his cousin Abdullah ibn Abi Umayyah followed him. He said, “Your tribesmen wanted to grant you certain privileges, but you accepted none of them. By Allah, I will never believe in you—not even if I see you attach a ladder to the sky and climb it. And even if I see you descend from the sky with four angels accompanying you to testify to your truthfulness, still I will not believe. By Allah, even if I did believe, I do not think I would truly become your supporter.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

Afterward, the Messenger (peace be upon him) returned home deeply grieved.

Another incident of this kind occurred after the journey to Ta’if. At that time, the Messenger (peace be upon him) left Makkah and began conveying and proclaiming the da’wah among the neighboring Banu Qays, Banu Hanifah, and other tribes. When he went to preach to the Banu Amir, he met Buḥayrah ibn Firas, the chief of that tribe. Buḥayrah listened to the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) da’wah. Then he said to his supporters, “By Allah, if I could get hold of this young man from the Quraysh, I would conquer all Arabia through him.” Then he asked the Messenger (peace be upon him), “If we accept this da’wah and you prevail over your opponents, will all authority over Islam pass into my hands after you?”

It is worth considering that as soon as this man heard the initial brief da’wah, he conceived the idea that it was a revolutionary message. It had the possibility of victory, and if victorious it could also help him achieve his own interests. These ideas caused Buḥayrah to adopt a merchant-like attitude. But the Messenger (peace be upon him) was simply a caller to the da’wah; he had not opened a political business. Therefore, he replied:

“This is subject to Allah’s will. After me, He will appoint whomever He wishes.”

Buḥayrah said:

“Very well! Today we will fight all the Arabs. Then, as soon as your interests are secured, others will seize the benefits. Go on your way. We have no interest in this matter.” (Rahmatul-lil-‘Alamin, Vol. 1, p. 89)

If the Messenger (peace be upon him) had been a non-political preacher, or if he had devoted himself to the moral purification of society in the manner of Sufism or the pir-murid system, he would have replied plainly, “My friend, what are you dreaming about? This is merely the reformative work of the people of Allah. How do questions of personal interest and advantage arise in it? How could there be any talk of succession, leadership, or chieftainship?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) knew how far-reaching his movement was and how great its political potential was. Likewise, the person with whom he spoke could also sense where this da’wah was ultimately headed.

The advantage the opposing forces wanted to gain from all these varied attempts at compromise was this: if the Messenger (peace be upon him) agreed to compromise in order to find a safe way for the movement to advance or to save his Companions from persecution, the power of his da’wah as an idealistic movement would be crushed. And if he showed uncompromising firmness, propaganda could be spread saying, “People of the country, see how many concessions we offered and how many ways we found to settle the dispute, yet this man is so obstinate that he accepted no solution.” In reality, the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) position was extremely sensitive. Therefore, in confronting all these compromise formulas, the Qur’an

continued to issue warnings to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to remain steadfast. Indeed, in one place, he was instructed in extremely strong language to protect himself from this deception by the opponents, and was also assured of Allah’s protection in this matter.

In verses 74 and 75 of Surah Bani Isra’il, Allah says:

“Had We not strengthened you, it was likely that you might have inclined toward them a little. Had you done so, We would have made you taste double punishment in this world and in the Hereafter. Then you would have found no one to help you against Us.”

In short, through extraordinary wisdom, skill, patience, and forbearance, the Messenger (peace be upon him) protected the movement from these bargains.

The Extreme Form of Violence

The enemies of Islam have always been dishonest in their objectives and bankrupt and unsound in their reasoning. Their real problem has been selfishness and an addiction to power. Whenever anyone enters the field with Islam’s da’wah, they rise against him with all their strength and answer arguments and evidence with violence, terror, and thuggery. The Islamic movement works through human conscience, intellect, and thought. But the opponents of Islam try to halt its progress through anger, vengeance, emotion, and agitation. If any force makes even the slightest effort to change the prevailing social and state systems, it must suffer at the hands of those who uphold those systems. But because Islam’s da’wah calls for far-reaching and comprehensive change, the leaders of the existing state and society become seized by a kind of intense frenzy in response. This was what happened in Makkah. Although violence had begun with the very start of the public da’wah, the ferocity of ignorance and the degree of persecution of Muslims gradually increased. Within five or six years, Makkah became a blazing furnace for those who accepted Islam. After the deaths of Khadijah and Abu Talib, the burning power of this furnace assumed an even more intense and terrifying form. To a greater or lesser degree, no one escaped being scorched in this furnace. Burned, heated, and melted in it, they became pure gold. Although Muhammad (peace be upon him), the leader of the movement, bore the greatest share of its heat, his Companions suffered no less. We learn very little from history about the terrible persecution inflicted on the noble Companions. Yet even what history tells us is hair-raising. Here I give a brief account of some of the persecution inflicted by the enemies of Islam.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) himself was subjected to various forms of oppression every moment. But the suffering inflicted on his Companions also pierced his sensitive heart indirectly, blow after blow. Now observe what persecution was inflicted on whom.

Khabbab ibn al-Aratt al-Tamimi was sold as a slave during the Age of Ignorance. A woman named Umm Numara bought him. When the house of al-Arqam was the center of the Islamic movement and the Messenger (peace be upon him) conducted all organizational activities from there, Khabbab accepted Islam. The Quraysh would spread burning coals, lay him on this bed of fire, and immediately have a man stand on his chest so that Khabbab could not turn onto his side. Eventually, the coals would go out beneath his back. Later, when Khabbab (may Allah be pleased with him) once showed his back to Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), he saw white spots resembling leprosy. Khabbab was a blacksmith by profession. After accepting Islam, when he asked various people to pay what they owed him, they replied that he would not receive even a penny until he severed his connection with Muhammad (peace be upon him). Thus economic oppression was inflicted upon him. But this soldier of truth replied, “That is never possible for me.”

Bilal, a Black African, was the slave of Umayyah ibn Khalaf. When the sun stood directly overhead, he would be laid on the hot desert sand of Arabia with a heavy stone placed on his chest so that he could not turn onto his side. Umayyah would tell him, “Renounce Islam, or you will be finished like this.” In reply, Bilal (may Allah be pleased with him) would cry out only, “Ahad! Ahad!” (Allah is One, Allah is One). This made Umayyah even angrier. He would tie a rope around his neck and set the unruly boys of the city upon him. They would drag him through the streets and alleys. Yet even in that condition, this devoted lover of Allah continued to proclaim “Ahad! Ahad!” in a loud voice. Sometimes he was wrapped in oxhide, and at other times dressed in iron armor and left sitting under the scorching sun. Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) bought and freed him in exchange for another slave.

Ammar ibn Yasir was descended from the Qahtan tribe. His father, Yasir, had come to the Hijaz from Yemen with his two brothers in search of another brother who had gone missing. The two brothers later returned to Yemen, but Yasir remained in Makkah after forming an alliance with Abu Hudhayfa al-Makhzumi, and married there. Yasir and his entire family later embraced Islam. Since Ammar ibn Yasir had no relatives in Makkah to support him, he was subjected to severe torture. As punishment for accepting Islam, he too was made to lie on scorching sand. The Quraysh would beat him until he became unconscious. His parents were subjected to similar physical torture. He was immersed in water and made to lie on burning embers. The Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, would lovingly stroke his head, pray for him, and give him the glad tidings of Paradise. According to Ali’s account, the Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, said, “Ammar is filled with faith from head to toe.” Ammar’s mother, Sumayyah, may Allah be pleased with her, was killed for accepting Islam.

Abu Jahl himself killed her in an extremely brutal manner by striking her with a spear. This was the first martyrdom in Islam. Ammar’s father, Yasir, was also martyred as a result of the torture.

Suhayb embraced Islam along with Ammar. He was beaten so mercilessly that he would lose his mental balance. At the time of the Hijrah, the Quraysh allowed him to emigrate on the condition that he leave all his possessions with them. Suhayb, may Allah be pleased with him, gladly accepted this condition and went to Madinah empty-handed.

Abu Fukayhah al-Sulami was the slave of Safwan ibn Umayyah. He embraced Islam around the same time as Bilal. Once, such a heavy stone was placed on his chest that his tongue protruded. At times he was chained in iron and made to lie face down on the scorching sand. Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, bought and freed him.

Before Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, embraced Islam, there was a slave woman named Lubaynah in his household. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, would beat her so brutally that he would become exhausted. Then he would say, “I have not released you out of pity; I have released you only because I am tired.”

Another slave woman in Umar’s household was Zunayrah. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, also used to beat her mercilessly for accepting Islam. Once, Abu Jahl beat her until she lost her sight. However, according to one report, Allah soon restored her eyesight through the blessing of faith. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, also bought and freed her.

Two slave women named Nahdiyyah and Umm Ubayس also endured severe torture for accepting Islam.

Uthman, may Allah be pleased with him, was advanced in age and honor and possessed great wealth and status. Yet when he embraced Islam, his own uncle tied him with a rope and beat him.

As soon as Abu Dharr, may Allah be pleased with him, embraced Islam, he went to the Ka’bah and proclaimed it. The Quraysh terrorists immediately fell upon him and beat him until he was brought down.

As punishment for accepting Islam, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam’s uncle would wrap him in a mat and blow smoke into his nose. But he would say with complete firmness, “Under no circumstances will I return to disbelief.”

When Umar’s own cousin, Sa’id ibn Zayd, embraced Islam, Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, tied him with a rope.

Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas also endured unbearable torture.

After accepting Islam, Abdullah ibn Mas’ud was the first to stand in the courtyard of the Ka’bah and recite the Qur’an aloud. As soon as he began reciting Surah al-Rahman, the disbelievers rushed upon him and repeatedly punched him in the face. Even then, he continued reciting and returned home with his face injured.

Uthman ibn مظ’un was initially safe because he was under the protection of al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah. But when he saw the terrible oppression and persecution inflicted on the Messenger’s companions, he thought, “When my companions are suffering such persecution, why should I live safely under the protection of a polytheist?” He told al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah, “I withdraw your protection.” Al-Walid tried to persuade him, saying, “Nephew, I fear that someone may mistreat you.” He replied, “No, I shall remain under Allah’s protection. I do not desire anyone’s protection besides His.” He went to the Ka’bah and announced that he was returning al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah’s protection. Then he sat in the Quraysh assembly. The poet Labid was reciting poetry he had composed. When he recited, “Everything besides Allah is false,” Uthman said, “You have spoken the truth.” But when Labid recited the next line, “All blessings are destined to perish,” Uthman said, “You are mistaken in this. The blessings of Paradise will never perish.” Labid became furious. He looked around, searching for the person who had dared to point out his error. Labid said, “O Quraysh, who has shown such insolence to your allied poet?” Someone replied, “He is a foolish renegade. Pay no attention to what he says.” Uthman could not remain silent. He gave an appropriate answer. The man then rose and slapped Uthman so hard that he lost the sight of one eye. Seeing this, al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah said, “Had you remained under my protection, you would not have lost your eye like this today.” Uthman replied, “I am willing to lose even my remaining sound eye. The One whose protection I have is mightier and more powerful than you.”

After embracing Islam, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, may Allah be pleased with him, became inspired by revolutionary fervor, went straight to the Sacred Mosque, and loudly proclaimed his new creed and beliefs there. The Quraysh, blazing with rage, said, “Beat this apostate!” A beating immediately began. Their intention was to kill him. But the Messenger’s uncle, Abbas, happened to be passing by. He said, “Why, this man belongs to the Ghifar tribe. You have to pass through their territory for your trade. Be careful what you do.” Consequently, the Quraysh restrained themselves. The next day he again proclaimed his Islamic creed and beliefs, and was again subjected to a mass beating.

When Umm Shurayk embraced Islam, her relatives made her stand in the scorching sun. During that time, they gave her bread with honey to eat but did not allow her to drink water, so that she would feel the heat more intensely and suffer double punishment. Three consecutive days passed in this condition. When, amid extreme suffering, she was told to renounce Islam, her senses had become numb. She could not even understand what she was being asked to do. Finally, the tyrants pointed toward the sky and said, “Reject the oneness of Allah.” Understanding their demand this time, she said, “I remain firm in my creed and beliefs, and I will remain so.”

After Khalid ibn al-As embraced Islam, his father beat him and split open his head. In addition, he was punished with hunger.

In short, there was no one who did not face a severe trial by fire. Like Uthman, Abu Bakr and Talhah were also tied with ropes. Walid ibn Walid, Ayyash ibn Abi Rabi’ah, and Salamah ibn Hisham were severely persecuted and prevented from emigrating. The persecution Umar inflicted on his sister and brother-in-law was also inhuman. Its details will be given later.

On the one hand, observe this terrible persecution, and on the other, observe the steadfastness of the standard-bearers of the Islamic movement. Whoever—man or woman, slave or bondwoman—accepted this call even once never turned back. No oppression or persecution could force a single person to renounce Islam. We see that a truly revolutionary inspiration had permeated their very bones and marrow. Their unparalleled patience completely defeated the oppressive tyranny of the Quraysh. Whoever responded even once to Islam’s call was transformed within into an entirely new person, and new strength was infused into his heart.

The Migration to Abyssinia

Every hardship and calamity has a limit to what can be endured. The standard-bearers of the Islamic movement were facing a severe trial by fire, and the example of patience they set in it will certainly remain unforgettable forever. But there was no sign that the oppression and persecution would abate. On the contrary, they were growing steadily more intense. The Messenger, peace be upon him, was distressed when he saw the plight of his companions, but he was powerless to do anything. Their only supports were trust in Allah, unwavering faith in the Hereafter, firm hope in the ultimate victory of truth, and heartfelt supplication. The Messenger, peace be upon him, consoled his companions by saying that Allah would certainly make a way out somehow. Outwardly, the situation in Makkah was becoming hopeless, and there was no sign that any fruit would grow on the sacred tree of the Islamic movement in that barren land. It seemed quite clear from the circumstances that there was no prospect of establishing an Islamic state in Makkah; perhaps this good fortune was destined for another land. The chapter of migration had already been included in the history of the Islamic movement. It was therefore anticipated that the Messenger, peace be upon him, and his companions might also have to leave their homeland. Although a comprehensive ideology for human welfare begins within a particular country and among a particular people, it stands above the narrowness of nationalism and regionalism and is not confined to any country or nation. If the people of a particular region prove unfit, it chooses another community for this purpose. Yet it is not the practice of the prophets to abandon the central land of the call until clear permission or instruction comes from Allah. Nevertheless, the Messenger, peace be upon him, saw the conflict between oppression and patience moving toward a stage at which the human capacity for endurance might be exhausted. The Muslims were anxiously waiting for Allah’s help to arrive. In such circumstances, he advised his companions, “Go to some country in the world. Allah will soon gather you together somewhere.” They asked, “Which country should we go to?” The Messenger, peace be upon him, pointed toward Abyssinia. He knew that its king was comparatively just and a follower of the example of Jesus, peace be upon him. He believed that this country was suitable for migration. Regarding Abyssinia, he said, “It is a land of honesty and justice.” (The Sirah of Ibn Hisham)

In the fifth year of prophethood, a caravan of eleven men and four women from the Messenger’s revolutionary group set out under the leadership of Uthman ibn Affan for Abyssinia under cover of night. Uthman’s noble wife, Ruqayyah—the daughter of the Messenger, peace be upon him—also accompanied him on this first journey of migration. Regarding this great couple, the Messenger, peace be upon him, remarked: “After Lot and Abraham, this is the first couple to leave their homeland in the path of Allah.” (Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, Rahmatul-lil-Alamin)

When the Quraysh learned that this caravan had left, they immediately sent men to pursue it. But when they reached the port of Jeddah, they learned that the emigrants had found a boat at once and were now out of reach. These emigrants stayed in Abyssinia for only a short time, from Rajab to Shawwal. They heard a rumor that the Quraysh had embraced Islam, so they returned to Makkah. But as soon as they reached the vicinity of Makkah, they learned that the rumor was false. A difficult problem now arose. Some entered the city secretly, while others entered with the assistance of various individuals. As an inevitable consequence of returning in this way, they were subjected to persecution even more severe than before.

Afterward, another large caravan migrated to Abyssinia. This caravan consisted of eighty-five men and seventeen women. In Abyssinia they found a secure environment and began living an Islamic life in peace.

Now observe how far-reaching the fury of the enemies of Islam can be. They met in an assembly and discussed the entire matter. They decided to send Abdullah ibn Rabi’ah and Amr ibn al-As as envoys to the king of Abyssinia. The two envoys would confer with the king and bring back the emigrants. For this purpose, valuable gifts were prepared for the Negus and his courtiers, and the two envoys set out with great pomp. On reaching Abyssinia, they entered into a conspiracy with the courtiers and priests and bribed them. They explained to them, “A few unruly people have created a religious disturbance in our country. They are just as dangerous to your religion as they are to our ancestral religion. After we expelled them from our country, they came and sought refuge here. They should not be allowed to remain here. Help us for this purpose.” They tried to prevent the whole matter from being discussed at court, to ensure that the emigrants would have no opportunity to speak at all, and to have the king hand them over to the two Quraysh envoys after hearing only their one-sided account. Bribery and secret collusion were employed for this purpose. After secretly suborning the courtiers, they appeared before the Negus with their gifts. They explained the purpose of their visit as follows: “The leading people of Makkah have sent us to submit this request before your court: send our people back with us.” The courtiers and priests immediately supported their request. But the Negus refused to act on the basis of a one-sided claim. He stated unequivocally, “I cannot hand them over to you without hearing the emigrants’ account.”

The next day both parties were summoned to the court. When the Muslims received the Negus’s summons, they consulted one another. They discussed the fact that the king was a Christian, while they differed from him in creed, beliefs, and practices. What should they say to him in such circumstances? After discussion, they decided, “We will say exactly what the Messenger, peace be upon him, taught us. We will not deviate from it by even a hair’s breadth, whatever the outcome may be.” Consider how strong their faith was. Remaining steadfast upon truth and honesty even in difficult circumstances is Allah’s command. When the emigrants arrived at the court, they did not prostrate before the Negus as was customary. The courtiers objected and asked, “Why did you not prostrate?” Ja’far, the spokesman for the emigrants, replied, “We prostrate before no one except Allah. Even the Messenger himself, peace be upon him, we simply greet with salam.” Observe the delicate circumstances in which this bold expression of true monotheism was made. Before the very power in whose presence their opponents concealed their true identities and resorted to cunning, they fearlessly demonstrated ideological devotion and single-minded commitment.

The two envoys from Makkah now presented their claim: “These emigrants are fugitives from our country. They have invented a new religion, and a disastrous upheaval has resulted from it. Therefore, they should be handed over to us.” The Negus asked the Muslims, “What is your position? Have you adopted a third religion besides Christianity and paganism?”

Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him, stood as the Muslims’ spokesman and requested the Negus to allow him first to ask the two envoys from Makkah several questions. He was granted permission, and he questioned them as follows:

Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him: Were we slaves belonging to anyone in Makkah who had fled from our masters? If that were so, then we should certainly be sent back.

Amr ibn al-As: No, you are not slaves; you are free and noble.

Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him: Did we unjustly kill anyone and flee? If so, then we should certainly be sent back to the heirs or guardians of the person who was killed.

Amr ibn al-As: No, you have not shed a single drop of blood.

Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him: Did we steal anyone’s wealth and flee? If so, we are ready to repay what is owed.

Amr ibn al-As: No, you owe no one even a penny.

When this interrogation had made the Muslims’ moral condition and character clear, Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him, delivered the following speech:

“O King, we were an ignorant and uninformed people. We worshipped idols, ate the flesh of dead animals, committed adultery, harmed our neighbors, oppressed one another, and our strong exploited and persecuted our weak. In these circumstances, a man arose among us whose honesty, justice, truthfulness, and courtesy we had long known and trusted. He invited us to Islam and taught us to abandon the worship of stones, speak the truth, refrain from bloodshed, not consume the property of orphans, serve and benefit our neighbors, not slander chaste women, establish prayer, fast, and give charity. We believed in him, abandoned paganism, and renounced every evil deed. For this offense, our entire nation became our enemy. They used force to return us to our former error. In these circumstances, we fled to your kingdom to protect our faith and our lives. If our people had allowed us to remain in our homeland, we would not have come. This is our true condition.”

When words are true and the speaker delivers them with sincerity and devotion, they cannot fail to affect the listener’s heart. The God-fearing king, the Negus, was deeply moved. He said, “Let me hear some of the Book that has been revealed to you.” Ja’far recited some verses from the beginning of Surah Maryam. Hearing these verses of Allah, the king’s heart softened further and tears came to his eyes. He spontaneously exclaimed, “By Allah, this message and the Gospel have come from the same source.” He also said, “Muhammad, peace be upon him, is indeed the Messenger whose coming Jesus, peace be upon him, foretold. Praise be to Allah that I have lived to see the era of that Messenger, peace be upon him.” He immediately ruled that the emigrants could not be returned. Thus the proceedings at the court ended, and the two envoys returned defeated. Later, the two of them decided to try once more. The Negus was a Christian. If the Muslims’ beliefs regarding Jesus, peace be upon him, were presented at court, it was not unlikely that the fire of religious hostility would flare up in the king.”

The next day Amr ibn al-As appeared at the court again. To incite the Negus, he accused the emigrants of holding very offensive beliefs about Jesus, peace be upon him. The Negus summoned the Muslims again. When they learned the situation, they became uncertain: who knew how the Negus would react if they denied that Jesus, peace be upon him, was “the son of Allah”?

But once again, the steadfastness of the believers instructed them to state the truth unambiguously. Ja’far, may Allah be pleased with him, said in his speech:

“Our Prophet said: Jesus, peace be upon him, is Allah’s servant, Allah’s sign, and Allah’s Messenger.”

Hearing this, the Negus picked up a piece of grass from the ground and said, “Jesus, peace be upon him, is no more than what you have said—not even by the amount of this blade of grass.” The priests who had been ensnared in the conspiracy and suborned with bribes and gifts fidgeted inwardly. At one point, strange sounds came from their noses. But the Negus paid no attention to them. He clearly ordered that all the gifts be returned. The two representatives from Makkah returned utterly defeated.

Umar’s Acceptance of Islam

One story in this chapter of violence is especially moving and important. It is the story of Umar’s rage. When the Messenger, peace be upon him, received prophethood, Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, was twenty-seven years old. Islam spread very rapidly through his family. His brother-in-law, Sa’id, was the first to embrace Islam. Influenced by him, his sister Fatimah also became Muslim. Another influential member of Umar’s family, Nuaim ibn Abdullah, also sought refuge under Islam’s protection. At first, Umar did not know that Islam was spreading in his family in this way. As soon as he learned of it, he became agitated with anger and enraged against those who had accepted Islam. Because Lubaynah, a slave woman in his household, had accepted Islam, he would beat her until he became exhausted. After resting, he would beat her again with renewed effort.

Eventually, one day he made the most terrifying decision of all: the principal caller to this movement had to be eliminated. According to various sources, Abu Jahl had at that time announced a reward of two hundred camels for whoever could kill the Messenger, peace be upon him, and obtaining that reward was one of the motives behind this decision. But being driven by such greed was inconsistent with Umar’s temperament. It seems that he wanted to do this because he regarded it as service to his ancestral religion. In any case, he set out with his sword. On the way, he met Nuaim ibn Abdullah and was stopped. Nuaim said, “First find out what is happening with your sister and brother-in-law; then go wherever else you wish.” Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, immediately turned back and headed toward his sister’s house. When he arrived, his sister Fatimah was reciting the Qur’an. As soon as she heard footsteps, she fell silent and hid the pages of the Qur’an. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, entered the house and asked, “What were you reciting?” His sister remained silent. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, said, “I have found out that you have both renounced the religion. Now you will see what happens.” Saying this, he lunged at his brother-in-law. When his sister came forward to protect her husband, he beat her as well. Her body became covered in blood. But looking at her brother with tear-filled eyes, Fatimah said in a resolute voice:

“Umar! Do whatever you wish, but we cannot renounce Islam.”

A woman stood before him with an injured body, bloodstained clothes, tear-filled eyes, and a heart brimming with emotion. Not merely a woman, but his own sister. And such fiery words came from her lips! Consider how Islam had instilled a new inspiration even in a defenseless woman. Faced with such a heart-rending scene, even Umar’s formidable strength gave way. The iron grip of his adamant resolve loosened halfway and became a knot that had slipped. He said, “All right, let me hear a little of what you were reciting.” Fatimah went and brought out the hidden pages of the Qur’an. As she read, when these words appeared, “************,” he spontaneously exclaimed, “I bear witness that there is no deity except Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and Messenger.” After embracing faith, he set out toward the house of Arqam, the center of the Islamic movement. There he pledged allegiance to the Messenger, peace be upon him. On this occasion, the Muslims present there shouted “Allahu Akbar” with such overwhelming joy that the entire atmosphere of Makkah echoed with it. The standard-bearers of the Islamic movement emerged from there and spread throughout the city of Makkah. They felt that their strength had increased. Immediately after Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, embraced faith, congregational prayer began to be performed publicly for the first time at the Ka’bah.

Hazrat Umar (RA) held a position of special honor among the young men of Makkah because of his intelligence and emotional fervor. His conduct was filled with sincerity and devotion. The hostility he showed toward Islam in the Age of Ignorance was not driven by any personal interest; rather, he opposed it sincerely because he considered it justified. Then, when the true reality was unveiled to him and the veil was lifted from his conscience, he raised the banner of Islam with complete devotion and sincerity. Although his opposition had been excessively fierce and impassioned, his sharp intellect and pure conscience had always been gradually receiving the light of truth. Every event taking place in Makkah continued to influence and stir his soul and prepare him to accept Islam. On the one hand, news of Islam’s call continually reached his ears. On the other, the base and vile mentality of its opponents became increasingly clear to him. He continued to observe, on one side, the pure and upright character of the Messenger (SAW) and his Companions, and on the other, the corrupt and dark aspects of the character of Islam’s opponents. This continual comparative observation increasingly influenced and stirred this young man of Makkah, whose conscience was aware and alert. Besides these two generally contrasting scenes, however, several specific incidents also produced a strong reaction in him.

For example, Umm Abdullah bint Abi Hashma was preparing to migrate to Abyssinia. One day at that time, Hazrat Umar came to them and said, “Umm Abdullah, it seems you are preparing to leave Makkah for somewhere.” Umm Abdullah said, “Yes, that is what we are doing. You have caused us much suffering and persecuted us greatly. Now Allah has opened a way for us to save ourselves.” Umar said, “May Allah accompany you.” Umm Abdullah said that she had never seen Umar as grief-stricken as he appeared then. Seeing us preparing to go into exile caused him profound anguish. When Umm Abdullah told her husband, Amir ibn Rabi‘ah, of Umar’s distress, Amir asked, “After seeing this change in Umar, do you hope that he will accept Islam?” Umm Abdullah said, “Yes.” Amir said, “When the man you saw accepts Islam, even Khattab’s donkey will accept Islam” (Khattab was the name of Hazrat Umar’s father). Umm Abdullah said that Umar’s cruelty and brutality concerning Islam had given rise to such despair. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Volume One)

But who can say that this incident did not strike a powerful blow against Hazrat Umar’s conscience? Similarly, another report tells us that his heart was influenced when he heard the Messenger (SAW) reciting the Qur’an. His own account of this is as follows:

“I was very far from Islam. During the Age of Ignorance, I was addicted to wine and drank a great deal. Our drinking parties were held at Hazwarah [at that time it was a marketplace in Makkah; today this land is included within the Sacred Mosque], where Qurayshi friends would gather. One night, attracted by my companions, I went to that gathering. I searched extensively for them there, but found no one. Later I remembered a wine seller and thought I would go there and drink. But I could not find him either. Then I thought I would go to the Noble Ka‘bah and perform sixty or seventy circumambulations there. When I arrived, I saw the Messenger (SAW) praying. He was standing between the Black Stone and the Yemeni Corner, facing Bayt al-Maqdis. Suddenly I felt like listening to what this man was reciting. I entered beneath the covering of the Ka‘bah and gradually came very close and listened. Between me and the Messenger (SAW) there was nothing but the covering of the Ka‘bah. When I heard the Qur’an, my heart melted and my eyes filled with tears. At that very moment, Islam entered my heart. [Sirat Ibn Hisham, Volume One, pp. 368–369]”

The remainder of this account says that Umar (RA) immediately went away with the Messenger (SAW) and accepted Islam. In reality, however, the earlier account is the correct one concerning his acceptance of Islam. It was seeing his sister’s faith, patience, and steadfastness that finally drove his mind and heart toward accepting Islam. This part of Umar’s (RA) own account is highly significant: he went to listen to the Qur’an from the Messenger (SAW), and the verses he heard with his own ears planted the seed of faith in his heart. Against the backdrop of a conflict that had continued uninterrupted for years, such an event was entirely natural. How could a man of Umar’s stature make a decision without hearing Islam’s call with his own ears?

Many others engaged in opposing the Qur’an, even prominent leaders, would secretly hurry out of curiosity to hear this sweet melody descending from the heavens. Yet in public gatherings they would say, “Our ears are deaf.” Once, when the Messenger (SAW) was reciting the Qur’an in his house late at night, Abu Sufyan, Abu Jahl, and Akhnas ibn Shuraiq secretly gathered around his house and listened. Later, while returning home, they happened to come face to face. They began reprimanding one another, saying that this should not be done; otherwise, if simple-minded common people saw them, it would adversely affect them. Saying this, they departed. The next day they came again, and the same exchange of reprimands and advice took place. The same thing happened on the third night, and finally they made a very firm pledge never to do such a thing again. Yet they also questioned one another about their opinions of what they had heard from Muhammad (SAW). Each said something. Finally, Abu Jahl said in an agitated voice, “We have always competed with Banu Abd Manaf. When they showed hospitality, we did too; when they paid blood money, we did too; when they practiced generosity, we did too. Thus we became their equals and fell behind them in nothing. Suddenly they have begun claiming that a prophet has arisen among their clan. How can we accept that? In this matter we cannot claim equality with them. So, by Allah, we can neither believe in him nor support him.” [Sirat Ibn Hisham, Volume One, pp. 337–338]

At that time, widespread curiosity and eagerness to investigate Islam had arisen in the minds of the general public, and this sometimes drew Hazrat Umar to the Messenger (SAW) to hear Allah’s word with his own ears. I have mentioned this incident here to help explain that.

Another Step Forward

In short, Hazrat Umar’s (RA) acceptance of Islam was a momentous event. Many causes were active behind it. Another reason for its importance was that this truth-seeking man came forward precisely when the one-sided violence against Islam had reached its peak. The opposing forces were persecuting people in order to keep them away from Islam. Yet, completely contrary to their intention, this persecution was melting people’s hearts and making them sympathetic toward the persecuted. One of the irrefutable proofs that Islam is the truth is that the more violent and aggressive the resistance became, the more people of outstanding intellect and character embraced Islam. In the period after the migration to Abyssinia, Makkah’s precious jewels began gathering around Islam.

How could it be that a man of Umar’s stature accepted Islam and no new upheaval followed? He decided that he would challenge the entire society at least once. Abdullah ibn Umar was still only a boy. He said, “After my father Umar (RA) attained faith, he sought to find which man among the Quraysh was best at spreading news. He found a man named Jamil ibn Muammar al-Jumahi. He went to him early in the morning. I went with him to see what he would do there. He said to Jamil, ‘O Jamil, do you know that I have accepted Islam and joined Muhammad (SAW) and his party?’ Without saying a word, Jamil draped his cloak around his neck and went straight to the door of the Sacred Mosque. Then he began announcing in a thunderous voice, ‘O Quraysh, listen! Umar, son of Khattab, has become a Sabi (apostate).’ Hazrat Umar also arrived behind him and shouted, ‘Jamil is wrong. I am not a Sabi; I have become a Muslim. I declare that there is no deity except Allah, and that Muhammad (SAW) is His servant and Messenger.’ The Quraysh fell upon him. He even fought fiercely with his own father. They grappled until the sun was overhead. At that point an elderly Qurayshi leader arrived and asked what was happening. After hearing the whole story, he said, ‘This man has chosen a belief and path for himself. What do you intend to do now? Consider this: will Banu Adi (the name of Hazrat Umar’s clan) leave one of their own helpless in your hands like this? Let him go.’ The leader’s name was As ibn Wa’il al-Sahmi. He took Hazrat Umar under his protection. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Volume One, pp. 370–371)”

At the same time, Hazrat Umar found another way to express his enthusiasm and fervor for faith. On the very first night after accepting faith, he wondered who was the most vehement and extreme opponent of the Messenger (SAW). He realized that no one was more vehement and extreme than Abu Jahl. He rose at dawn and went to Abu Jahl’s house. When he knocked, Abu Jahl came out. He welcomed him and asked the purpose of his visit. Umar (RA) said, “I have come to inform you that I have believed in Muhammad (SAW) and acknowledged as true everything he says.” Abu Jahl said, “May Allah curse you and this news of yours,” and immediately slammed the door shut.

On the other hand, Umar (RA) advanced the Islamic movement one step forward. Despite being beaten, he initiated the practice of praying publicly in the courtyard of the Ka‘bah. Hazrat Abdullah ibn Mas‘ud said, “Before Hazrat Umar accepted Islam, we could not pray openly in front of the Noble Ka‘bah. When Umar (RA) accepted Islam, he fought the Quraysh and prayed at the Ka‘bah, and we prayed with him.”

Thus, even amid intense violence, the finest people from among the opponents continued entering Islam.

Hazrat Hamzah Accepts Islam

The story of Hazrat Hamzah was almost similar. This young man of Makkah was at once intelligent, brave, and influential. Among the Messenger’s (SAW) uncles, after Abu Talib, he was the only one who loved the Messenger (SAW) despite holding a different opinion. He was only two or three years older. Because they were close in age, uncle and nephew had been extremely close since childhood.

The incident was as follows. Near Mount Safa, Abu Jahl insulted the Messenger (SAW) and abused him with obscene language. The Messenger (SAW) remained patient and took no revenge for the insult. By chance, a female slave witnessed the incident. Hazrat Hamzah had gone hunting. As soon as he returned with his bow in hand, the slave told him what had happened and said, “Alas, if only you had seen with your own eyes what happened to your nephew.” Hearing the account aroused Hamzah’s intense sense of honor. He went straight to Abu Jahl in the Quraysh assembly. Striking Abu Jahl’s head with his bow, he asked, “Did you insult Muhammad? If you did, then know that I too have joined his religion, and I say what he says. If you have the courage, come and face me.” A man from Banu Makhzum rose in support of Abu Jahl. But Abu Jahl stopped him and said, “Leave it. I have indeed hurled extremely obscene abuse at Hamzah’s nephew.” After this, Hazrat Hamzah stood firmly committed to Islam. The Quraysh realized that the Messenger’s strength had increased further. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Volume One)

The Boycott and Confinement

The enemies of Islam became bewildered when they saw all their plots failing, Islam advancing, and prominent influential people accepting Islam. In Muharram of the seventh year of prophethood, all the clans of Makkah united and drew up an agreement to boycott Banu Hashim. It was agreed that no one would maintain kinship with them, marry into them, conduct business or social relations with them, or allow any food or drink to reach them until Banu Hashim handed Muhammad (SAW) over to them and granted them the right to kill him. Even after speaking with Abu Talib several times, Abu Talib was not prepared to withdraw the Messenger (SAW) from his protection. Because of this, Banu Hashim also could not sever relations with him. Frustrated, they drew up that agreement. Under the tribal system, this was an extremely grave and final step. The entire clan of Banu Hashim was helplessly confined in a valley called Shi‘b Abi Talib. This confinement lasted nearly three years. Reading of the hardships they endured during that time would melt even a stone. The people of Banu Hashim ate even tree leaves and boiled or roasted dry leather over the fire. Matters reached such a point that when the innocent children of Banu Hashim cried from hunger, their heart-rending voices could be heard from far away. The Quraysh would become ecstatic with delight upon hearing those cries. The entire clan of Banu Hashim was cast into such captivity solely because of the leader of the Islamic movement. The boycott was so strict that once Hakim ibn Hizam, the nephew of Hazrat Khadijah, sent some wheat through his servant. Abu Jahl saw it on the way and tried to seize the wheat. Just then Abul Bukhtari arrived, and a little human sympathy arose in him. He said to Abu Jahl, “Come on, let it go.” In addition, Hisham ibn Amr would secretly send some wheat as well.

This Hisham ibn Amr became the first initiator of the movement to repeal this oppressive agreement. He went to Zuhayr ibn Umayyah and said, “Are you pleased that you eat, drink, dress, and marry while your maternal uncles are in such a condition that they can neither buy nor sell nor marry? If this concerned the maternal uncles of Abu al-Hakam ibn Hisham (Abu Jahl), and you called upon him to make such an agreement, he would never accept your call.” Hearing this, Zuhayr said, “What can I do? I am only one man. By Allah, if someone else were with me, I would undertake to annul this agreement and would not rest until it was annulled.” Hisham said, “You have already found the second person.” Zuhayr asked, “Who is he?” Hisham said, “I myself.” Then Hisham went to Mut‘im ibn Adi and persuaded him in the same way. He too replied like Zuhayr, “What can I do alone?” Hisham also told him, “I am with you.” Mut‘im said, “Then find a third person.” Hisham said, “I have already found the third person.” He asked who it was, and Hisham said, “Zuhayr ibn Abi Umayyah.” Mut‘im said, “Now we need to find a fourth.” Then Hisham went to Abul Bukhtari and Zamrah ibn al-Aswad and spoke with them.

When the movement to annul the boycott agreement had advanced effectively behind the scenes, they all met and decided on their next course of action. It was planned that Hisham would raise the matter publicly. Accordingly, Hisham circumambulated the Noble Ka‘bah seven times. Then he went to the people and said, “O people of Makkah, is it right that we eat food and wear clothes while Banu Hashim writhe in hunger and cannot even buy anything?” Then he announced his intention as follows:

“By Allah, I will not rest until I tear this oppressive, kinship-severing agreement to pieces.”

Abu Jahl shouted, “You are a liar. You will never tear it up.”

Zam‘ah ibn al-Aswad replied to Abu Jahl, “By Allah, you are the greatest liar. We do not approve of this agreement as it was written.” Abul Bukhtari also exclaimed, “Zam‘ah is right. We do not approve of this agreement, nor do we accept it.” Mut‘im supported them, saying, “You two are right. Whoever says otherwise is wrong.” As most of the people continued speaking this way, Abu Jahl sat there with a crestfallen face, and the agreement was torn up. When the people took it down from the wall of the Ka‘bah, they were astonished to see that termites had eaten the entire document, leaving only the words, “Bismika Allahumma.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

The Year of Grief

When the confinement ended, the Messenger (SAW) once again emerged with his family into an open environment. But now an even more difficult period began. It was the tenth year of prophethood. The first tragic event that occurred that year was the death of Abu Talib, the father of Hazrat Ali. The final refuge that had lovingly protected the Messenger (SAW) from his enemies until then, and that had resisted every plot to the very end without yielding to any pressure or provocation, was thus lost.

The second blow the Messenger (SAW) suffered that year was the death of Hazrat Khadijah (RA). Hazrat Khadijah (RA) was not only the Messenger’s wife; she was also one of the fortunate group who were the first to believe. Even before prophethood, she had spared no effort in showing him sympathy and compassion. From the descent of the first revelation until the moment before her death, she fulfilled the role of the Messenger’s (SAW) true life companion on the path of truth. She spent a great deal of money in support of the Islamic movement. She offered counsel at every step and cooperated with sincere devotion. For this reason, some have remarked that she was the Messenger’s (SAW) minister. Indeed, this comment is accurate and appropriate.

On the one hand, the Messenger (SAW) had to endure these two successive blows. On the other, with these two sources of external support gone, opposition grew even more intense. The opposition, persecution, and oppression now seemed to surpass all previous records. But perhaps Allah’s will was that Islam should protect itself, create its own path, and learn to stand on its own feet. Had these worldly supports not been removed in this way, the vitality of the truth might not have become fully visible. It was because of the emergence of this sorrowful and unbearable situation that the year came to be known as the Year of Grief.

The Quraysh now began behaving with extreme barbarity. They set hooligan youths upon him. They would make noise and clap their hands when the Messenger (SAW) prayed. Filth was thrown at him as he walked along the road. Thorns were spread before his door. At times a noose was put around his neck. Sometimes they even laid hands on him and openly abused him. Dirt was thrown in his face. Some beasts even committed the most despicable insolence of spitting on his radiant face. Once, Abu Lahab’s wife, Umm Jamil, came all the way to the Sacred Mosque carrying a stone and searching for the Messenger (SAW). She intended to kill him with a single blow. The Messenger (SAW) was present before her in the Sacred Mosque, but Allah kept him hidden from her eyes in such a way that she could not see him. Finally, she returned after venting her anger before Hazrat Abu Bakr and recited the following poem: “We have rejected obedience to the condemned man, disobeyed his commands, and harbored hostility toward his religion.” In reality, distorting names and using foul words are signs of moral baseness and degradation. When an enemy descends to the lowest level of vulgarity, such filthy weapons are used.

Hearing such words, the Messenger (SAW) would say, “Allah has protected me from their abuse. They insult Muzammam (the condemned one), but I am Muhammad. Therefore, their abuse does not touch me.”

Similarly, once Abu Jahl approached him intending to strike him with a stone and kill him. But Allah suddenly made Abu Jahl so frightened and terrified that he could do nothing.

Once, the enemies attacked the Messenger (SAW) in a group and subjected him to inhuman persecution. The background to this tragic incident was as follows: The enemies of Islam were sitting together at one of their gatherings and saying, “We have shown this man (Muhammad, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) far too much tolerance. There is no precedent for such tolerance.” As it happened, the Messenger (SAW) arrived there at that very moment. The enemies asked, “Do you say all these things?” With complete moral firmness, the Messenger (SAW) replied, “Yes, I am the one who says all these things.” That was enough. They attacked him from all sides. Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-As relates, “I had never before seen such excesses by the Quraysh against the Messenger (SAW).”

When the attackers stopped after a while, the Messenger (SAW), with that superhuman courage once again, warned them: “I have brought you a message that you will be slaughtered.” In other words, the knife of oppression and persecution that you are applying to my throat—Allah’s law, the eternal law of history, will ultimately slaughter you with that very knife. Your reign of oppression will come to an absolute end.

It is difficult to determine the exact time of all these incidents. It is assumed, however, that they occurred when the violence had reached its extreme. It is certain that these events took place after the death of Abu Talib.

Hazrat Uthman ibn Affan relates that once the Messenger (SAW) was circumambulating the Holy Ka‘bah. The Quraysh leaders Uqbah ibn Abi Mu‘ayt, Abu Jahl, and Umayyah ibn Khalaf were sitting in the Hatim of the Ka‘bah at that time. Whenever the Messenger (SAW) passed before them, they hurled obscene abuse at him. This happened three times. Finally, the Messenger (SAW), his face changed, said, “By Allah, you will not desist until Allah’s punishment descends upon you immediately.” Hazrat Uthman said that as soon as he said this, such terror seized them that each began to tremble with fear. After saying this, the Messenger (SAW) set off toward home. Hazrat Uthman and others went with him. At that time, the Messenger (SAW) addressed his Companions:

“Receive the good news: Allah will surely make His religion victorious, complete His word, and aid His religion. Soon Allah will have these people slaughtered at your hands.”

Consider that this good news was given in an apparently chaotic situation. Yet how quickly and magnificently it was proven true. The Islamic movement seemed to make the impossible possible.

The Call to Islam in Ta’if

It is difficult to say with certainty exactly when this incident occurred. Some have mentioned it as the context for the revelation of Surah al-Muddaththir. If this is accepted, the incident must be placed in the early period. But judging from the nature of the event, it appears to belong to the later part of the Makkan period.

One day, the Messenger (SAW) left his home at dawn. He went through the various lanes and streets of Makkah, calling people to Islam. But even after the entire day had passed, he did not find a single person who would listen to his message. The new policy adopted by the opponents of Islam at that time was for everyone to slip away as soon as they saw the Messenger (SAW) approaching. They did so because hearing his words created complications; opposing him or engaging in debate caused the message to spread even further. This policy proved quite successful. Even when he met one or two people, they responded with mockery or hooliganism. Since the entire day had been fruitless, he returned home filled with deep disappointment and dejection. When someone comes forward to benefit a person and wish him well, but that person attempts to kill the very benefactor and well-wisher, the benefactor’s heart is weighed down with unbearable pain. The state of the Messenger’s (SAW) heart was exactly the same.

From the experience of that special day, the Messenger (peace be upon him) began to form the idea that the soil of Makkah was becoming barren for the propagation of Islam, and that whatever crop could have grown there had already been harvested. As conditions continued to deteriorate, this idea proved correct. By then, the last promising people had gathered around the Messenger (peace be upon him). Perhaps from that very day, the thought grew stronger in his mind that he should now work outside Makkah. In fact, it is natural for a discerning and wise propagator to think this way. When he has carried out so much propagation in his initial center that all the people there capable of responding have accepted the message, and none remain except obstinate and reckless people, he does not continue wasting his strength there. Rather, he searches for a new field and gains fresh experience by changing his environment.

It was in such circumstances that the Messenger (peace be upon him) decided to work in the areas surrounding Makkah. He chose Ta’if as a new field for propagation and took Zayd ibn Harithah with him. One day, he set out from Makkah on foot with Zayd ibn Harithah. Along the way, he invited the people of every tribal settlement he saw to the religion of Allah. The journey there and back took him nearly a month.

Ta’if was a densely wooded, well-watered, fertile place, full of gardens and fields, with a relatively cool climate. Its inhabitants were prosperous and happy, immersed in excessive luxury and comfort. When people possess financial prosperity and abundance, they generally forget Allah and devote themselves to satisfying the desires of their lower selves. This was the condition of the people of Ta’if. Among the people of Makkah, at least some moral restraint was naturally maintained because of their religious custodianship and responsibility for governing the country. But the people of Ta’if were utterly reckless. Moreover, their humanity had been completely extinguished by usury. Thus, traveling to such a place meant that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was going to a place even worse than Makkah.

Muhammad (peace be upon him), the greatest friend of humanity, reached Ta’if and first met the chiefs of the Thaqif tribe. They were three brothers: Abd Yalil, Masud, and Habib. Each of them had a wife from the Quraysh-descended Banu Jumah clan. For that reason, he hoped they might behave with some courtesy. The Messenger (peace be upon him) went and sat with them, invited them toward Allah in the finest language, discussed the matter by explaining the message in detail, and sought their help and cooperation in establishing Allah’s true religion. But see what reply these three men gave:

One brother said: “If Allah truly sent you, then it must mean that He wishes to dishonor the covering of the Kaaba.”

The second brother said: “How astonishing! Did Allah find no one more suitable than you to make His Messenger?”

The third brother said: “By Allah, I will not speak to you at all. For if you are truly Allah’s Messenger, as you claim, then replying to a person like you would be extreme insolence. And if you have falsely attributed this to Allah, then you are not worthy of being spoken to.”

Every one of these words began piercing the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) heart like poison-tipped arrows. He listened to the wounding words with the utmost patience and repeatedly requested that they keep such remarks among themselves and not incite the general public by telling them.

But they did exactly the opposite. They set the worst hooligan youths of their city, along with servants and slaves, upon the Messenger and told them, “Go and drive this man out of the settlement.” A huge band of hooligan youths followed him, abusing him from front and behind, making a commotion, and throwing stones. They repeatedly aimed stones at his knees so that he would suffer greater pain. With each blow, he would sometimes collapse and sit down, unable to move. But the thugs of Ta’if would pull him up by the arms, then pelt his knees with stones again, clap their hands, and burst into raucous laughter. Blood flowed continuously from his wounds. In this way, the inside and outside of his shoes became stained with blood. Crowds gathered to watch this extraordinary spectacle. The thugs drove him out of the city and brought him to a vineyard. The vineyard belonged to Utbah and Shaybah, the sons of Rabiah. Completely exhausted, the Messenger (peace be upon him) leaned against a grapevine and sat down. The owners of the vineyard were watching him and had also witnessed some of the abuse inflicted upon him earlier.

There he offered two units of prayer and made the following moving supplication:

“O Allah! I complain only to You of my weakness, my lack of resources, and my helplessness before the people. You are the Lord of the poor and the helpless. You are my Lord. To whom are You entrusting me? To a hostile rival who frowns upon me, or to an enemy? Yet if You are not displeased with me, I care for nothing. But well-being and security from You are more expansive for me. I seek refuge in the light and beauty of Your countenance from falling under Your wrath or being afflicted by Your punishment—the light through which all darkness is dispelled and every problem of this world and the Hereafter is resolved. I seek nothing except Your pleasure. There is no power to be found anywhere except through You.”

Meanwhile, the owner of the vineyard arrived. His heart was filled with sympathy. He called his Christian slave, Addas, and sent grapes on a tray through him. Addas brought the grapes and sat before the Messenger (peace be upon him). When the Messenger (peace be upon him) said “Bismillah” and reached for the grapes, Addas said, “By Allah, the people of this city never say such words.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) asked, “Which city are you from, and what is your religion?” He replied, “I am a Christian and I am from Nineveh.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “You are from the city of the righteous servant of Allah, Yunus ibn Matta.” Addas, astonished, said, “How do you know Yunus ibn Matta?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) replied, “He is my brother. He was a prophet, and I am also a prophet.” As soon as he heard this, Addas began kissing the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) hands and feet. One of Rabiah’s sons became inwardly angry when he saw this. When Addas returned, he rebuked him, saying, “What were you doing? You were about to abandon your religion.” Addas said with deep emotion, “O my master, there is nothing better than this man on earth. He has told me something that no one except a prophet could know.”

In fact, after the death of his uncle Abu Talib, the Messenger (peace be upon him) had become outwardly completely helpless and without protection in Makkah. The strength and influence of his enemies had increased greatly. Therefore, he had thought that perhaps he would find some servants of Allah in Ta’if who would stand with him. Yet such a situation arose there. From there he went to Nakhlah and stayed there. Then, returning from there, he reached the Cave of Hira. From there he sent a message to Mut‘im ibn Adi, one of the initiators of the abrogation of the boycott agreement: “Can you grant me protection?” A traditional feature of the Arab character was that when anyone sought protection, it was granted, even if he was an enemy. Mut‘im accepted the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) request. He instructed his sons to patrol the courtyard of the Kaaba while armed and ensure Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) safety. He himself went, brought the Messenger (peace be upon him) to Makkah, and, sitting on a camel, announced, “I have granted Muhammad protection.” Mut‘im’s sons escorted the Messenger (peace be upon him), guarding him with drawn swords, into the Sacred Mosque and then to his home.

History has not been able to give us a complete account of the distress suffered by the Messenger (peace be upon him) in Ta’if. Once, Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) asked, “O Messenger of Allah, have you ever faced a day harder than Uhud?” He replied: “Whatever suffering your people may have inflicted upon me, the most difficult day for me was the day in Ta’if when I invited Abd Yalil. He rejected it and caused me so much pain that I barely managed to escape after reaching a place called Qarn al-Tha‘alib.” (Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 56)

Zayd ibn Harithah, who had carried the Messenger (peace be upon him) out of the city on his shoulders after he became exhausted and unconscious from the abuse, said with a distressed heart, “Pray to Allah against them.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Why should I pray against them? Even if they do not believe in Allah, it may be hoped that their descendants will worship Allah alone.”

During this journey, Gabriel came and said, “The angels assigned to the mountains are present before you. If you indicate, they will join together the two mountains between which Makkah and Ta’if lie. Both cities will thereby be crushed and destroyed.” But the great Prophet, the friend of humanity, did not agree to this.

In this extremely discouraging situation, the jinn came, listened to the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) recitation of the Quran, and believed before him. Through this, Allah Most High informed the Messenger (peace be upon him) that even if all the people of the world rejected the call to Islam, there were many beings in His created world ready to support him.

Signs of a Blessed Future

The experience of Ta’if was so tragic that, in passing through it, the Messenger (peace be upon him) reached the utmost limit of grief and suffering. It was only after reaching this limit that Allah opened the door to human success. The society of the time had apparently reduced the Messenger (peace be upon him) to the lowest level. As an inevitable result, however, his status was raised to the highest level in Allah’s presence.

Whenever Allah Most High sent His prophets and set truth against falsehood, He placed that conflict under a specific rule. The rule was that when falsehood reaches the utmost limit of oppression, persecution, and force against the soldiers of truth; when the persecuted strivers pass through every level of oppression and persecution one by one with extreme patience and endurance; and when they have crossed even the final, life-threatening ordeal—only then does the time of Allah’s unseen help arrive. The roads leading to Paradise are full of thorns. The Quran describes when the glad tidings of success come to those who walk this path as follows:

“Calamities, afflictions, and hardships befell them, and they became utterly bewildered. Even the Messenger and the believers with him cried out, ‘When will Allah’s help come?’ (At this stage they were given the glad tidings:) ‘Listen, Allah’s help is near.’” (Al-Baqarah: 214)

After the experience of Ta’if, the Messenger (peace be upon him) had apparently passed this final test. In accordance with Allah’s decree, the beginning of a new era was now imminent, and the time for announcing the glad tidings concerning it had also drawn near. It was for the purpose of conveying these glad tidings that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was honored with the Mi‘raj.

In reality, the significance of the Mi‘raj is that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was raised to the highest degree of nearness and proximity to Almighty Allah. The Sovereign of the universe whom the Messenger (peace be upon him) represented had made him endure various sorrows, hardships, and calamities for several years and had made him spend those years waging ideological and intellectual battle against various evil forces. That Almighty Allah summoned His messenger to His own presence to adorn him with His finest title. The heroic warrior who had entered the struggle to inspire his people to accept the fundamental truths concerning life and the universe, and who had endured blow after blow from every direction, was given the opportunity through the Mi‘raj to see those truths at close range. The final Prophet, engaged in the utmost effort to achieve the overall welfare of humanity, was granted the rare honor of reaching a great and ancient center of this movement, Bayt al-Maqdis, and then ascending from there to the heavenly realm to meet the former leaders of this movement.

Earlier prophets were given the opportunity to receive special favor by witnessing unseen truths and attaining close proximity to Allah. The Quran says, on the one hand, regarding Abraham (peace be upon him), that he was shown the kingdom of the heavens and the earth. On the other hand, Moses (peace be upon him) was summoned to Mount Tur. There Allah Most High spoke with him from behind a luminous tree, declaring, “I am Allah.” On another occasion, it was in a similarly intimate setting that he was given the laws of the Shariah. In short, all the great prophets received the opportunity of a Mi‘raj in one way or another. However, the Mi‘raj of the Messenger (peace be upon him) was complete.

Between the events of Ta’if and the Hijrah, no event occurred that was more important or distinctive than the Mi‘raj. When he announced the news of this event, an uproar broke out in Makkah. He openly described everything he had seen that night and gave a complete account of the appearance of Bayt al-Maqdis. He also described certain definite signs along the way, which were later proved accurate.

The special revelation sent down during that blessed moment of close proximity is preserved for us in the form of Surah Bani Isra’il. That surah begins with the event of the Mi‘raj, and the entire surah is imbued with its inspiration. The following statements from that surah deserve particular attention:

1—Using the instructive history of the Children of Israel as a reference, it has been explained that Allah’s law brings even powerful individuals and groups before the bar of accountability, and when they go astray, they are made to suffer at the hands of another obedient individual or group. At the same time, it has also been taught that when they reach an age of victory and success, they must not begin behaving like the Children of Israel.

2—In the most adverse environment, it was declared in an unequivocal voice: “Truth has come and falsehood has been vanquished” (verse 89). In other words, darkness will then disappear and dawn will emerge.

3—Allah Most High also informed him that the people of Makkah would now undertake to expel him from Makkah. But after expelling him, they would not be able to remain at peace for long (verse 76). The wording of the supplication Allah taught for the Hijrah was as follows: “My Lord, admit me through the gate of truth and bring me out through the gate of truth (from my present environment), and grant me authority as assistance from Your presence.” (Verse 80) By including a prayer for authority in this supplication, glad tidings were implicitly given that the period after the Hijrah would be an era of dominance and rule.

4—Verses 22 to 29 set out, in succession, the basic principles of the Islamic way of life, so that a new society and a new civilization could be built upon those principles.

When the Messenger (peace be upon him) looked toward the future while holding these statements of the revelation preceding the Mi‘raj in his heart, he probably saw a vast stream of light descending from the heavens. If another materialist leader had been in his place in this frightening environment of Makkah, he might have become despairing and abandoned all his programs and activities. But even while surrounded by the darkness of an extremely adverse and discouraging environment, the Messenger (peace be upon him) remained firmly convinced that dawn was coming. A gust of that dawn breeze seemed to whisper into the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) ear that the sunrise of the new dawn would take place nowhere but Madinah. For the young people there had begun to enter the Islamic movement with profound satisfaction and sincerity.

At the end of the Makkan period, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went to ask Ta’if, “Can you carry the torch of truth?” Ta’if replied, “I am even less qualified than Makkah for this task.” Hearing this discouraging reply, while the Messenger (peace be upon him) was absorbed in considering his next course of action, Yathrib said, “I am ready to become Madinatun Nabi (the City of the Prophet). I will raise the torch of truth and illuminate the whole world. The law of truth and justice will be nurtured upon my breast. A new history will develop in my lap.” Ta’if, though near, moved away. Yathrib, though far away, drew near.

In the eleventh year of prophethood, Yathrib came even closer on the day when six revolutionaries from Yathrib pledged allegiance to the Messenger (peace be upon him). After detailed discussion, the oath they took to follow Islam’s monotheism and moral laws came to be called the First Pledge of Aqabah. Then, during the Hajj season, another large group came from Madinah. They too completed the Second Pledge of Aqabah in a secret meeting in the darkness of night. This was an agreement entirely inspired by political consciousness. It established that the Messenger (peace be upon him) would migrate to Madinah, and reflected such an all-embracing spirit of sacrifice that the Ansar of Madinah declared their readiness to fight the entire world for the Messenger (peace be upon him).

Surah Yusuf was probably revealed during the period between the journey to Ta’if and the Hijrah. By narrating the life story of another prophet, Joseph, this surah gave the Messenger (peace be upon him) glad tidings and warned his enemies about their inhuman acts of persecution, informing them of their miserable fate.

Farewell, O Makkah!

The final weapon of an unstable and sinking social order is violence, terror, persecution, and oppression. If even these fail to suppress the opposing side, the opponents of reform resolve to kill the principal leader of the revolutionary movement. The people of Makkah had long been furious and eager to finish him, but they had been unable to do so. Now the decisive moment had arrived. The conflict was passing through a critical stage. The time for a final settlement was drawing near. The situation had reached the point where the two rival forces had been sorted out and become completely separate from each other. A clear dividing line had been drawn in matters of belief and mentality. One side remained beyond this line, and the other on this side. Neither side had any further opportunity to cross it. The Islamic movement was now an organized and united force. Its group discipline was unshakable, and its moral standard was extremely high. Its argument was very sharp, and its appeal extraordinarily compelling. The persecution inflicted upon its leaders and workers had the power to win the hearts of the people. The small sapling of truth had grown into a mighty tree. What had been merely an imaginary fear to the leaders of the ignorant society yesterday was now a reality. The reality before them was demanding: if you have the power to resist this fear, then resist it. Otherwise, in the flood of light of the new age that is coming, your religion, offices, titles, and ignorant traditions will all be swept away. Then you will have to bow your arrogant heads before Muhammad and his ideal. The leaders of ignorance could hear this challenge of history and were becoming increasingly anxious. Thus, having reached this stage, the bloodthirsty enemies of the Messenger (peace be upon him) mentally prepared themselves for a terrible conspiracy against him.

The Makkah that had taken on the form of a blazing furnace for the companions of the Islamic movement had already reached the highest degree of heat. Persecution and oppression had become unbearable. The inhuman Quraysh had run the steamroller of their tyranny over the lives of the bearers of truth, making their lives miserable and breaking the bounds of their patience. This clearly meant that an important change was imminent, that a path to freedom was bound to emerge, and that a new chapter in history had become inevitable. The Quraysh had closed a great door of good fortune to themselves. They had proved themselves unworthy of becoming the pioneers of the Islamic movement. In this psychological environment, after the event of the Mi‘raj had occurred, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave glad tidings of a bright future and hinted that the path of the Hijrah would open and an era of power would then begin, new hope and enthusiasm arose among the Muslims. Those who had suffered violence were comforted and their courage increased. Then, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) saw that promised moment drawing near, his emotion and feeling rose to their peak. Through unseen indications, he understood that the future place of migration would be Madinah. This was known from the clear evidence of circumstances, especially the two events of the Pledges of Aqabah, as well as from information coming from Almighty Allah. In this situation, the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave his companions permission to leave for Madinah, and the Companions began departing one after another. Gradually, many left. Neighborhood after neighborhood became empty. Once, seeing the vacant houses of the Banu Jahsh clan, Abu Jahl remarked to the other leading Quraysh chiefs:

“This is the work of our nephew (Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him). He has broken our unity. He has torn our society into pieces. He has caused division among us.” (The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 114) Despite sending his companions to Madinah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) did not leave the central ground of his mission. He was waiting for Allah’s permission. No Muslims remained in Makkah except a small number whom the Quraysh had detained or prevented from leaving through intimidation. Among his close companions, however, Abu Bakr and Ali were still in Makkah. In this situation, when the Quraysh realized that the Muslims had found a destination and had all left one by one, they thought that Muhammad (peace be upon him) would soon slip from their grasp. He would then gain strength outside their control and take revenge for everything in the past. So they all gathered at Makkah’s public meeting place, Dar al-Nadwah, and began consulting one another about what step should now be taken against Muhammad. One proposal was that he should be confined in an iron prison and the door locked. It was objected that he was the kind of man whose words would reach outside even from a locked iron room, so another method had to be found. One member of the assembly proposed expelling him from Makkah, saying that whatever happened to him afterward was not their concern. But this proposal too was rejected. Some said, “Do you not know how captivatingly he speaks? Do you not know how sweetly he talks? These are precisely what have made him so widely accepted among the people. If you take this step, you will not escape his influence. He will spread his influence throughout Arabia and, through the power of his eloquence, initiate them into his view. Then he will attack you with the entire Arab population, seize the reins of power from your hands, and treat you as he wishes.” At this point, the cunning Abu Jahl devised a very clever strategy. He said that a strong and influential young man should be selected from every clan of Makkah, that each should be given a sword, and that they should all attack and kill Muhammad (peace be upon him) together. “In this way we can free ourselves from his trap. Responsibility for Muhammad’s murder and the blood-money will be divided among all the clans. The Banu Hashim alone will be unable—and will not dare—to take revenge on all these clans.” This strategy pleased everyone, and the conspiratorial meeting ended with a unanimous decision. The Quran reviews this meeting as follows:

“And remember when the disbelievers plotted to imprison you, kill you, or expel you. They make plans according to their preference, while Allah makes a counterplan. Allah is the best of planners.” (Surah Al-Anfal: 30)

The mysterious, dark night lay ahead. At noon, the Messenger of Allah went to the home of his dearest and closest companion, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq. There, he secretly informed him, “I have received permission to emigrate.” Abu Bakr asked permission to accompany him. He had already been granted this permission before asking for it. Abu Bakr’s eyes filled with tears of joy at this great fortune. He had already been carefully feeding and fattening two she-camels for the emigration. Pointing to them, he said to the Messenger of Allah, “Please accept whichever of these two you prefer as a gift.” But after much persuasion, the Messenger of Allah bought the she-camel called Qaswa by paying its price. When night fell, the Messenger of Allah, following Allah’s direction, did not sleep in his own house. He instructed his other beloved companion, Ali, to sleep fearlessly in his bed. At the same time, he entrusted him with the deposits people had left in his care and told him to return them to their respective owners in the morning. How many examples of such lofty morality are there in history—that the very man whose murder is being plotted is himself preoccupied with returning the murderers’ deposits? Then the Messenger of Allah went to Abu Bakr al-Siddiq’s house. Asma, daughter of Abu Bakr, quickly cut her waist belt into two pieces, using one to tie the food bundle and the other to fasten the mouth of the water-skin. These two travelers on the path of truth set out under cover of night.

Today is the day when the greatest benefactor and well-wishing friend of humanity was expelled from his home without having committed any offense. Today he has set out, bidding farewell to all those lanes and alleys where he grew up walking, along which he made thousands of preaching journeys to uphold the message of truth, and where he endured countless insults and persecutions. Today he must bid farewell to the sacred spiritual center of the Haram, where he prostrated many times, prayed repeatedly for the welfare and peace of his people, recited the Qur’an many times, and was repeatedly persecuted by his opponents and forced to hear heartbreaking words in this courtyard and in this sole refuge guaranteed to provide security. Today he is going to offer his final farewell to the city where the sacred memories and achievements of Abraham and Ishmael are preserved, and whose air and sky still resound with his prayers.

That his heart was torn apart in doing this, that his innermost being was cut into pieces, and that his eyes overflowed with tears was entirely natural. But since this sacrifice was necessary to attain Allah’s pleasure and fulfill the purpose of his life, the noblest of human beings did not hesitate to make this sacrifice as well.

Today it is as though his soul has departed from the body of Mecca. It is as though the fragrance has vanished from the flowers in Mecca’s gardens. Its springs seem to have dried up. For the righteous and virtuous people have departed from within its society.

The sapling of the call to truth had been born in the soil of Mecca itself. But the people of Mecca were not destined to enjoy the fortune of harvesting its fruit. The people of Medina and the inhabitants of the world attained this fortune. Today the people of Mecca were pushed back, and a place in the front ranks was made for the people of Medina. Those who considered themselves great, noble, and aristocratic were lowered to an inferior level. And for those who were regarded as comparatively lowly, a higher and more excellent position was allocated on this day.

Casting one last look, the Messenger of Allah said to Mecca:

“By Allah, you are the best land of Allah and the land most beloved to Allah. Had I not been forcibly driven out of you, I would never have left you.” (Tirmidhi)

Within a short while, he reached the cave of Mount Thawr.

The Messenger of Allah himself determined which route they should take. He also appointed Abdullah ibn Urayqit as their guide on the basis of an agreed wage. He spent three days in the cave. At night, Abdullah, Abu Bakr’s son, brought all the news of Mecca. Amir ibn Fuhayrah, Abu Bakr’s slave, grazed his flock of sheep around the cave throughout the day and, when darkness fell, brought them near the cave so that Abu Bakr and the Messenger of Allah could obtain the milk they needed.

Meanwhile, the Quraysh surrounded the Messenger of Allah’s house throughout the night. In addition, all the entrances and exits of the city were sealed. But when they suddenly learned that the very man they sought had escaped them, the ground seemed to give way beneath their feet. Seeing Ali in the Messenger of Allah’s bed, they collapsed in deep disappointment, scolded him repeatedly to vent their anger, and departed. People were sent to search in every direction, but no trace was found. One group, after rushing about extensively, arrived directly at the mouth of the cave on Mount Thawr. Their feet could be seen from inside. It is difficult to describe in words how terribly critical that moment was. Abu Bakr became anxious, thinking that if these men entered the cave, the entire Islamic movement would be endangered. The kind of feelings that would naturally arise in a devout human being of ordinary human disposition arose in Abu Bakr as well. But since Allah had made certain promises to the Messenger of Allah and assured him of help and protection, he knew with certainty that Allah would keep them safe. Nevertheless, just as Moses had received the reassuring words, “Do not fear,” through revelation, the Messenger of Allah received them too. He said to his companion Abu Bakr, “Do not worry; Allah is with us.” Thus, those who had come near the mouth of the cave turned back from there.

After staying in the cave for three days, the Messenger of Allah emerged with Abu Bakr and the guide, Amir ibn Fuhayrah. To prevent the Quraysh spies from following them, they took the long coastal route instead of the usual roads. Meanwhile, an announcement was made in Mecca that whoever could kill or capture either Muhammad or Abu Bakr would receive hundreds of camels as a reward. Many people began searching for them. Suraqah ibn Malik learned that two men of this description had been seen on the coastal road. He set out, spurring his horse and carrying a spear. As soon as he drew near and pursued them at speed, the horse’s front legs sank into the ground. After making two or three unsuccessful attempts, Suraqah asked for forgiveness and also requested a written guarantee of safety. This meant that he realized that a new era was about to begin through these men. The guarantee was written for him. It proved useful on the day of the conquest of Mecca. At this time, the Messenger of Allah also gave Suraqah the glad tidings, saying, “O Suraqah, see what your status will be on the day you wear the bracelets of the emperor of Persia.” This prophecy was fulfilled during the conquest of Persia in the caliphate of Umar. At this time, Zubayr was returning from Syria with a merchant caravan. On the way, he met the Messenger of Allah and Abu Bakr and presented both of them with white garments.

During this journey, Buraydah al-Aslami also met them with seventy companions. In fact, they had set out motivated by the hope of receiving the reward. But as soon as he came before the Messenger of Allah, Buraydah underwent a change. At the time of establishing his identity, when the Messenger of Allah gave him the glad tidings, “Your share has already been determined” (that is, it has been determined that you too will contribute to establishing Islam), Buraydah accepted Islam along with his seventy companions. Buraydah then said, “When the Messenger of Allah enters Medina, there should be a flag before him.” The Messenger of Allah agreed, tied his turban to the tip of a spear, and entrusted it to Buraydah. Waving this flag, the caravan entered Medina.

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“You will surely be tested through loss of life and property. And you will certainly hear many hurtful words from both the People of the Book and the polytheists. If you remain steadfast through all these trials and exercise restraint (from indecency), then surely that will be a matter of great courage.” (Aal Imran, 186)

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‘You were as discourteous to a prophet as it is possible for his relatives to be. You disbelieved me, while others testified to my truthfulness. You expelled me from my homeland, while others gave me shelter. You waged war against me, while others supported me.’

—The speech delivered by the Messenger of Allah addressing the bodies of the polytheists on the field of Badr.

Chapter 4

The Friend of Humanity in the Medinan Chapter: Changing the Course of History

“Very early one morning, Umm Ahmad saw me setting out under the protection of the man whom I fear even without seeing him. She began saying, ‘If you must leave, do not go to Yathrib; take us somewhere else.’

I replied to her, ‘Yathrib is now our destination. Wherever the Merciful Allah wishes to take His servant, the servant sets out in that direction.’

There is no reckoning the number of beloved companions and well-wishers we left behind, nor the number of grief-stricken women whom we saw shedding tears before we departed.

You think that we are leaving our homeland in order to gain the power to take revenge on those who expelled us. But we have another purpose.

On one side are we, and on the other are those of our friends who have strayed from the path of truth and used the weapon of persecution against us, creating turmoil.

One of these two contending parties has been blessed with the honor of raising the banner of truth and has been guided along the right path. The other party is heading toward Allah’s punishment.

Although they are our close relatives by blood, blood ties alone are of no avail where a sincere relationship based on unity of ideals and goals is absent.

A day will come when your unity will be shattered into pieces. Your collective existence will be torn apart. Then you will know very well which of our two groups is on the path of truth.”

(Summary of the poem by Abu Ahmad ibn Jahsh concerning the emigration)

The Meccan period in the life history of Muhammad, the greatest friend of humanity and the creator of the greatest history in the world, was the period of calling people and propagating ideals. The Medinan period was the period of assuming governing authority. In Mecca, people were developed. In Medina, a collective system was established. In Mecca, the materials were prepared. In Medina, the building was constructed.

Because of this difference, ordinary people who study the Qur’an, the Prophet’s life, and Islamic history superficially assume that the period of trial for the Islamic movement and its caller took place only in Mecca. They think that opposition in Medina was not so intense or fierce, and that there was no such unbearable atmosphere of continuous persecution as there had been in Mecca. At least, it is thought that during the Medinan period opposition and hostility took the form of naked swords and moved onto the battlefield. The period of the enemies’ vile and base conduct had supposedly passed. But the actual situation was the opposite. It is true that during the Medinan period the principal opposing group, the Quraysh, openly challenged the Muslims face-to-face on the battlefield. But it is also undeniable that, as the Islamic movement became stronger than before, new enemies emerged. These enemies were in no way inferior to the people of Mecca in their evil deeds. Their ever-new conspiracies harassed and troubled the Messenger of Allah and his Companions from beginning to end, and they left no effort unmade to obstruct the work of revival.

A perennial rule of history is that the more the work of reform, correction, and revival advances, the more frenziedly groups opposed to reform and unwilling to work strive to destroy it, driven by hostility. Ultimately, when it is rescued from the gallows of persecution and leaps onto the throne of power, the hatred and vengeance of falsehood exceed all limits. The establishment of a new Islamic society and a peaceful welfare state in Medina gave rise to precisely this kind of situation.

The Distinctive Environment of Medina

Historically, it is an extremely important fact that Medina’s political and religious environment was entirely different from that of Mecca. Consequently, the sapling of Islam, which could not grow at all in Mecca’s extremely hostile environment, quickly flourished with leaves and branches and began to bear fruit as soon as it was planted in Medina.

The first difference was that the entire population of Mecca and its surroundings was deeply interconnected. They belonged to tribes sharing the same religion and were bound by mutual agreements, while the Quraysh exercised complete control and dominance over them. But two different kinds of population lived in Medina and its surrounding areas, and conflict, strife, and tension prevailed between them.

Medina was the ancient city called Yathrib, established by the Jews. As their descendants gradually increased there, new settlements arose around Medina, along with small military fortresses. In this way, the entire area came under Jewish religious and political influence.

The second population group was the Ansar. Their original homeland was Yemen. They were descendants of Qahtan. When a devastating flood, famous in Yemen’s history, caused widespread destruction, the survivors scattered in different directions. The two brothers Aws and Khazraj of the Qahtan tribe came and settled in Medina at that time. Other people may have arrived later as well. Nevertheless, it was through these newcomers that a new population gathered in this region. Their descendants later increased, and gradually a new power emerged. At first, they wanted to live separately from Jewish society and culture. But under the pressure of the influence and power of the already established Jewish population, they were compelled to conclude an alliance with them. This treaty-based alliance continued smoothly for a long time. But as soon as the Jews realized that the growing strength of the Ansar was becoming a threat to their influence and prestige, they severed their alliance with them.

Among the Jews there emerged a depraved chieftain named Fityun. Flaunting his power, he issued an order that any girl marrying in his territory must first become his bedmate for a night of pleasure before entering married life. The extent of the Jews’ moral decline and corruption can be understood from the fact that they accepted this order submissively. But one day this satanic command stirred the self-respect of the Ansar. The sister of Malik ibn Ajlan was about to be married. On the very day the groom arrived, Fityun was passing naked in front of Malik. When Malik rebuked him, he replied that the following day Malik would face an even more humiliating situation. Enraged, Malik killed Fityun and fled to Syria. The Ghassanid king Abu Jabalah was ruling there. When he learned of the situation, he attacked Medina, killed the prominent Jewish leaders, and rewarded Aws and Khazraj. These events weakened the power of the Jews and strengthened the power of the Ansar.

In short, relations between the Jews and the Ansar were always full of conflict and strife. But because the Ansar had no ideal or goal, their internal unity could not be established on a firm foundation. Mutual disputes and quarrels consumed and destroyed their strength like termites. Consequently, a war called Bu’ath eventually broke out between the tribes of Aws and Khazraj, and many important people on both sides were killed. Thus they once again became powerless before the Jews. In this situation, they were compelled to seek an alliance with the Quraysh some time earlier. But this initiative failed for various reasons.

On the other hand, one reason for the Jews’ dominance and prestige was their religious authority. They possessed the Torah. By virtue of this, they carried the banner of a distinct religious law; they had their own creed and ideological capital, certain principles of character, religious laws and regulations, traditions, and distinct rules for worship. In this respect, the Ansar had virtually nothing. They depended on the Jews in all these matters. They received instruction from their Bayt al-Maqdis (at that time, the center of Jewish religious learning). Indeed, if an Ansari’s child did not survive, he would make a vow that, if the child lived, he would make the child Jewish. The Ansar suffered from an inferiority complex in this regard. Their self-respect and sense of nobility having been injured, they were constantly distressed inwardly. All these facts show that conflict and strife existed between the Jews and the Ansar in the environment of Medina, and that their relationship was one of deep rivalry.

It is worth mentioning that the Jews would often boast before the Ansar, saying, “The final Prophet will soon come. When he comes, we will join him and deal with you.” Because of this threat and prophecy from the Jews, the Ansar also began counting the days as they awaited the awaited Prophet. They resolved inwardly that when this Prophet appeared, they would be the first to join his group. And so it happened. Those who had made the prophecy were left deprived. The Jews themselves were defeated at the hands of those whom they had wanted to defeat. (The Prophet’s Biography, Shibli Nomani)

Considering this environment and background of Medina, it becomes clear why the present environment became more favorable to the Islamic movement than Mecca had been.

The Islamic Movement in Medina

Mecca had heard the call of Islam for thirteen long years. It had also learned the arguments supporting it. Moreover, before it stood the character and role of an incomparable personality illuminated by the light of Islam. The standard-bearers of Islam, crushed beneath the wheel of oppression and persecution, nevertheless raised the cry of Ahad, Ahad (Allah is One, Allah is One). Yet Mecca’s overall environment rejected this call from beginning to end.

But as soon as the call reached Medina, the cry of “Labbayk” (We accept) arose from there. The first young man in Medina to accept Islam was Suwayd ibn Samit. He was at once an intelligent poet, a skilled horseman, and a brave warrior. Young men of this kind generally become soldiers of revolutionary movements, participate in every development and constructive program, and sacrifice everything they possess. When this young man came to Mecca, the Messenger of Allah met with him as usual and called him to Islam. Suwayd said, “I have something of this kind with me called the Scroll of Luqman.” He even recited a portion of it. Then the Messenger of Allah recited the Qur’an to him. Observe what a conscience free from rashness and hatred is like. Suwayd immediately exclaimed, “This is even more beautiful!” The Messenger of Allah’s call then became deeply rooted in his heart. But sadly, soon after returning from Mecca, he was killed by members of the Khazraj. Many have said that he was a Muslim when he was killed and was uttering the words “Allahu Akbar.” (Ibn Hisham’s Biography, vol. 2, pp. 67–68)

The second young man in Medina to be influenced by the call of Islam was Iyas ibn Mu’adh. He was a member of a delegation from Medina. This delegation had come to Mecca hoping to conclude an alliance with the Quraysh against the Khazraj and obtain their help. The Messenger of Allah conveyed the call of Islam to the members of this delegation and recited the Qur’an to them. Iyas ibn Mu’adh was still only a teenager. He said, “My companions, is this not better than the purpose for which you have come?” The leader of the delegation, Abul-Haysar, immediately threw dust in his face. He meant, “What trouble are you stirring up in the middle of this?” He also said, “We did not come for this.” Abul-Haysar was eager to obtain the Quraysh’s assistance. He knew that if they accepted Muhammad’s call, the way to obtain help from the Quraysh would be completely closed. Iyas fell silent, but the call of Islam entered his heart. The delegation returned to Medina. Sadly, this alert young man too soon died in the Battle of Bu’ath.

In the eleventh year of prophethood, the Messenger of Allah held a detailed discussion in a meeting with the delegation that had come from Medina. After hearing his call, they began saying to one another, “Know for certain that this is the Prophet about whom the Jews have been telling you. Let us not allow the Jews to become his supporters before us.” Then Allah opened their hearts, and they all firmly embraced Islam. After that they began saying:

“We have severed our relations with our people. Perhaps no nation has as much enmity, strife, and discord among us as we do. It may be that through the Messenger of Allah, Allah will reunite our people. After we return to them, we will call them to the religion of the Messenger of Allah, and we will express before them the same attitude toward this religion that we expressed before him. Then, if Allah unites them upon this religion, he will thereafter be the most powerful man.” (Ibn Hisham’s Biography)

The call that the people of Mecca had regarded as a cause of division, the people of Medina recognized at first sight as the foundation of their unity. The first group from Medina organized in Mecca to raise the banner of the Islamic movement consisted of six people:

(1) Abul-Haytham ibn al-Tayhan (2) As’ad ibn Zurarah (3) Awf ibn Harith (4) Rafi ibn Malik Ajlani (5) Qutbah ibn Amir (6) Jabir ibn Abdullah.

After these men returned to Medina, they created fresh excitement and a new awakening there. The call of Islam gained popularity and continued to spread widely. There was no family among the Ansar in which Muhammad was not being discussed.

The First Pledge of Aqabah

The following year, that is, in the twelfth year of prophethood, twelve people came from Medina and made the pledge. It is known as the “Women’s Pledge.” The reason for this name is that the pledge involved commitments only concerning fundamental matters and did not include any matter of war or fighting. The wording of this declaration of faith was as follows:

“We will not associate anyone with Allah, we will not steal, we will not commit adultery, we will not kill our children, we will not knowingly spread fabricated accusations against anyone, and we will not disobey Muhammad in any righteous matter.”

When this group set out for Medina, the Messenger (peace be upon him) appointed Mus’ab ibn ‘Umair to carry out the work of inviting people to Islam in Medina. He entrusted him with teaching the Muslims the Qur’an, imparting Islamic instruction, and giving them detailed and correct knowledge of Islam. He also led the prayers there and taught Islamic ideals and Islamic moral principles. (Seerat Ibn Hisham)

The Conversion of Two Leaders to Islam

As’ad ibn Zurarah, the owner of the house where Mus’ab, the Messenger’s appointed preacher of Islam, stayed, once set out with Mus’ab on a missionary expedition toward the settlements of the Banu ‘Abdul-Ashhal and Banu Zufar tribes. They reached the vicinity of the houses of Banu Zufar, beside a well called Maraqq. At that time, several people who had accepted Islam gathered around them. The two leaders of Banu ‘Abdul-Ashhal, Sa’d ibn Mu’adh and Usaid ibn Hudair, were still followers of their tribe’s religion—that is, idolaters. Sa’d ibn Mu’adh was already furious at the missionary activities conducted by As’ad ibn Zurarah and Mus’ab. Hearing that these two men had arrived, he whispered to Usaid, “These two have come to deceive our weaker people and lead them astray. Go and tell them not to come to our homes. If As’ad ibn Zurarah were not my cousin, I would not be telling you this; I would confront him myself.” When the missionary gathering began, Usaid, following Sa’d ibn Mu’adh’s instructions, approached them both with a raised spear. After standing still for a few moments, he used harsh words and said, “Why have you come here? You are misleading our weaker people. If you want to remain alive, leave our territory at once.” Mus’ab said humbly, “Why do you not sit down and listen to us attentively for a while? If you like what you hear, accept it; otherwise, reject it.” On hearing this, Usaid calmed down somewhat. He lowered his spear and sat peacefully beside As’ad and Mus’ab. Mus’ab began speaking and recited the Qur’an to him. Before Usaid said anything, they perceived from the expression on his face that he was inclined to accept Islam. At last Usaid exclaimed, “How beautiful and captivating these words are!” He asked, “What do you do when you accept Islam?” They both replied, “Go, bathe, purify yourself, wash your clothes, then bear witness to the truth and pray.” The man who had stood moments earlier pointing a spear now had the life-giving spear of Islam lodged in his heart. He rose, bathed and purified himself, returned, and prayed two rak’ahs. After the prayer, Usaid said, “There is another man with me. If he joins your group, no one else in the tribe will oppose you. I shall bring him right now. He is Sa’d ibn Mu’adh.” He immediately went to Sa’d with the spear in his hand. A gathering was held there. Seeing Usaid from a distance, Mu’adh said to his companions, “By Allah, I swear that Usaid does not have the same expression now that he had when he left.” Then he said to Usaid, “Tell me, what brings you here?” Usaid replied simply, “I spoke with both of them. By Allah, I sensed no danger from them. I have forbidden them [from coming here]. Whatever you say, we shall do.” At once, to provoke Sa’d, he added, “Banu Harithah want to kill As’ad ibn Zurarah. Even though As’ad is your relative, they want to do this in order to humiliate you.” Fearing hostile action by Banu Harithah, Sa’d became angry. Snatching the spear from Usaid’s hand, Mu’adh went to As’ad and Mus’ab. But when he arrived, he found them sitting peacefully. Mu’adh said, “I immediately understood that Usaid had cunningly sent me here so that I would hear the two of them directly. I reproached him inwardly and stood before them both. I said to As’ad ibn Zurarah, ‘You have come to tell us things we hate.’” Mus’ab said humbly, “Calm down a little and listen to us. If you like what you hear, accept it; otherwise, we will not present you with anything you hate.” Sa’d calmed down and said, “You have spoken fairly.” When Sa’d sat down, Mus’ab recited the message of Islam and the Qur’an to him. The same thing happened with him as with Usaid. Before Sa’d said anything, signs of accepting Islam appeared on his face. Within a few moments, the second leader accepted Islam.

When Sa’d ibn Mu’adh returned with a “new life,” the members of the tribal council recognized from a distance that Sa’d’s face had changed. As soon as he arrived, Sa’d said, “O people of the Banu ‘Abdul-Ashhal tribe, what is your opinion of me?” Everyone replied, “You are our leader. Your judgment is more mature than ours. You are more virtuous and beneficial than all of us.” Sa’d said, “Then listen carefully: until you believe in Allah and His Messenger, it is unlawful for me to speak with your women or men.” After that, what else could happen? The men and women of the entire tribe accepted Islam together.

As the strength of the Islamic movement increased greatly through these two leaders, the missionary campaign intensified, and Islam spread from house to house and tribe to tribe.

The Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah

In the meantime, the season of Hajj arrived. This time, a large number of Muslims went from Medina to Mecca, because Islam was spreading widely in Medina. Inspired by the new religious zeal, these new Muslims from Medina came for Hajj and, avoiding the notice of the Quraysh, met their beloved leader, the Messenger (peace be upon him), in the darkness of night. Once again, a pledge of allegiance was taken. However, this pledge went considerably further than the “Mother Pledge.” Only one clause of the first pledge contained a political statement: “We will not disobey Muhammad’s just commands.” This time, however, a political commitment was included with every risk accepted. Under this pledge, supporting Muhammad meant engaging in war with the Quraysh and the entire Arab nation. In fact, the second pledge was concluded with precisely this meaning in view. During the discussions, these soldiers from Yathrib in the Islamic movement fully understood the possibilities of the future and said, “We will have to cancel all the treaties we have with the people of Yathrib—that is, the Jews. After canceling them, please do not let it happen that, if Allah grants you victory, you return to your own people and abandon us.” In response to this concern, the Messenger (peace be upon him) smiled and said, “Your blood is my blood, your enemy is my enemy. I am of you, and you are of me. Those with whom you fight, I shall fight; and those with whom you make peace, I shall make peace.” ‘Abbas ibn ‘Ubadah said, “O descendants of Khazraj! Do you know what pledge you are making to Muhammad (peace be upon him)? It is a pledge to fight all the inhabitants of the earth.” The members of the delegation replied with full awareness of their responsibility: “We pledge to continue helping and supporting you, even at the cost of destroying all our resources and having our tribal leaders killed.” Because of the special nature of this pledge, it came to be called “Bay’at al-Harb,” or the “Military Pledge.” One of its fundamental conditions was this: “Whether we are in hardship or abundance, happiness or sorrow, whatever our condition, we will listen to and obey every command of the Messenger (peace be upon him). We will give the Messenger’s commands precedence over ourselves, and we will not quarrel with our leaders and those entrusted with responsibility. If anyone censures or reproaches us regarding Allah’s religion, we will pay no heed to him.”

This pledge may truly be called the foundation stone of the Islamic state. At the same time, it may be described as the prelude to the Hijrah. Through this pledge, the future citizens of the future Islamic state voluntarily and gladly accepted Muhammad (peace be upon him) as their head of state. Moreover, a system of obedience was established through it.

Through this, not only was a pledge taken; the foundation of collective order and discipline was also established. The leader of the Islamic movement, in accordance with the opinion of the civic organization, appointed twelve regional officials (naqibs). Nine of them were appointed from Khazraj and three from Aws. These naqibs were instructed: “You are responsible for all the affairs of your respective tribes, just as the disciples of Jesus (peace be upon him) were responsible, and just as I myself am responsible for my group.” They served as representatives of the Messenger (peace be upon him). Through their appointment, the work of building an organized society began systematically.

When the news reached the ears of the Quraysh, they began beating their breasts in distress. By then, the delegation had already left Mecca. People were sent to investigate. Sa’d ibn ‘Ubadah and Mundhir ibn ‘Amr were captured and brought back. They vented their rage upon them. But what good did that do? (Seerat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

A New Tide of the Movement in Medina

When this delegation returned to Medina with renewed energy and enthusiasm, the work of inviting people to Islam began openly and extensively. When young people enter the field as pioneers of change, the old generation cannot withstand them for long. To understand the future of a movement, one must know whether it depends on an older generation or whether the blood of youth flows through its veins. Those who marched at the forefront of the Islamic movement in Mecca, and especially in Medina, were almost all young men. To convey an idea of all that this young generation did to advance the Islamic movement, it seems necessary to mention an amusing incident.

There was an elderly man named ‘Amr ibn al-Jamuh in the tribe of Banu Salamah. He had brought home a wooden idol called Manat and kept it there. The old man worshiped it and devoted himself to cleaning and dusting it around the clock. Two young men of Banu Salamah, Mu’adh ibn Jabal and Mu’adh ibn ‘Amr, had accepted Islam and become workers in the Islamic movement. The latter was the old man’s own son. Every night, they would get up in the darkness, first roll the old man’s idol in mud, then leave it upside down in the pit where the people threw all their waste. In the morning, the old man would shout, “Who interfered with my god during the night?” Then he would set out to look for his lost god. After finding it, he would wash and clean it and put it back in its place. The same thing happened again the following night. The old man would shout once more. One day, annoyed, ‘Amr hung his own sword around the idol’s neck. He said to the idol, “By Allah, I do not know who treats you this way. If you possess even a little strength, then I am leaving this sword here—try to defend yourself.” Night fell, and ‘Amr went to sleep. The two actors in this drama arrived during the night. They removed the sword from the idol’s neck. Then they found a dead dog, tied it by a rope to the idol’s neck, and threw it into a covered well filled with human excrement and urine. When ‘Amr awoke in the morning, he found that his god had disappeared again. After searching and seeing its wretched condition, he underwent a profound change of heart and accepted Islam. This shows what a radical transformation had taken place in Medina.

The New Center of the Movement

The leader of the Islamic movement was always thinking: if the movement could not survive in Mecca, and Mecca’s cruel leadership was unwilling to allow the building of a “new world,” then in what other region of the earth could this constructive work be begun by deploying all available strength? His first attention turned to Abyssinia, and that was why he sent his companions there. Although the Negus did everything within his ability to help the oppressed of Mecca, the Muslims could not overlook the disgraceful role of the Christian clergy there. It was not easy for Islam to develop under their pervasive influence. Moreover, missionary work would have to be started afresh among the local inhabitants. In doing so, the Muslims would face various insurmountable obstacles on foreign soil. For this reason, another land was being sought. When Medina responded openly to the call, the Messenger (peace be upon him) saw a ray of hope. The First Pledge of ‘Aqabah strengthened this hope further. Then, after Hazrat Mus’ab ibn ‘Umair stayed there and worked for some time, the report he gave during Hajj on the eve of the Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah provided a detailed account of the Muslims of Medina, information about their strength and resources, and the good news that a large number of Muslims were coming for Hajj that year. This report prompted the Messenger (peace be upon him) to engage in deep reflection. The rapid growth in the strength and number of Muslims in Medina was extremely encouraging. There, they were not facing serious opposition from the Jews such as they were facing from the Quraysh in Mecca. The people of Yathrib were very concerned about the companions in Mecca. The people of Yathrib had many advantages: they had fields, farms, and gardens. The Messenger (peace be upon him) thought, would it not be better if the Muslims of Mecca moved to Medina, escaped the persecution of the Quraysh, and fulfilled the demands of Islam? He therefore expressed this idea to those among the arriving delegation who had come for Hajj, and the pledge that was later concluded was concluded against this background. (Hayat-e-Muhammad, Muhammad Husain Haykal)

From the time of their return from Abyssinia, Muslims had been going to Medina one or two at a time with the permission of the Messenger (peace be upon him). But after the Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah, the movement accelerated, and it became almost certain that Medina would be the destination of the second Hijrah.

The leaders of Mecca could see that the Islamic movement had created a new and strong base. The future appeared extremely frightening to them. They understood very well that if the roots of Islam took hold in Medina, it would become an invincible power beyond their reach. One day it would attack them and exact a full reckoning for their past deeds. They also feared that, since the commercial route to Syria passed through Medina, the new Islamic center there might block this route. Thus the economic and commercial death of the Quraysh of Mecca would result. Internally, they were becoming bewildered by deep terror and anxiety. They could not understand what to do. Day and night they remained absorbed in the thought that Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his entire group might slip out of their hands. Because of this anxiety, they ultimately plotted to kill the Messenger (peace be upon him). A historic power had emerged from their own household and belonged to them more than to anyone else in the world. Through their own misdeeds, they turned that power into an “outsider” and became its enemies themselves. Therefore, the stronger it became, the more it turned into a deadly threat to them.

For this reason, when the first Muhajir set out for Medina, the people of Mecca persecuted him. This man was Abu Salamah ‘Abdullah ibn al-Asad al-Makhzumi. He was setting out with his wife and children mounted on a camel when members of his wife’s paternal tribe, Banu Mughirah, came rushing up and snatched the reins of Umm Salamah’s camel from Abu Salamah. They said, “We cannot allow our daughter Umm Salamah to become a wanderer with you.” Moved by this emotional incident, the people of Abu Salamah’s tribe became enraged. They said to Banu Mughirah, “If you take away our man’s wife, we will not allow our little child to remain in her lap.” Thus the husband, wife, and child were separated from one another. Abu Salamah went to Medina in this condition. Every morning, Umm Salamah would come to that place on the outskirts of the city and weep bitterly. After nearly a year had passed in this way, someone’s heart was moved to pity, and he persuaded Banu Mughirah to let Umm Salamah travel to Medina with her child on a camel. The woman set out alone. By Allah’s grace, she happened to meet ‘Uthman ibn Talhah on the way, and he escorted her as far as the outskirts of Medina.

In other words, after the bitter experience of the Hijrah to Abyssinia, the policy of the people of Mecca became that Muslims must not be allowed to escape. If anyone insisted on emigrating, his tribe and family would remain hostages in the hands of the Meccans. This policy was initially somewhat lenient, but gradually became stricter. Thus the late emigrants, Hazrat ‘Umar, ‘Ayyash ibn Abi Rabi’ah, and Hisham ibn ‘As ibn Wa’il, had to travel so secretly that they remained terrified at every moment lest they be arrested. Hazrat ‘Umar and ‘Ayyash managed to hurry away somehow, but Hisham was caught and subjected to torture. Hazrat ‘Umar and ‘Ayyash reached Medina safely, but a conspiratorial group set out from Mecca in pursuit of them. Its members were Abu Jahl ibn Hisham and Harith ibn Hisham. They went and met ‘Ayyash and said, “Your mother is on her deathbed. She has sworn that she will neither comb her hair nor stand out in the scorching sun until she sees your face.” His companions strongly advised ‘Ayyash that this was merely a ruse. “If you are caught once in the Meccans’ web of deception, they will force you to abandon Islam.” Wealthy ‘Ayyash had also been tempted by the thought that he would bring part of his wealth with him. On learning of this wish, Hazrat ‘Umar said, “I am wealthier than you, and I will give you half of my wealth. Do not go with them.” But ‘Ayyash did not listen. Hazrat ‘Umar said, “If you are determined to go, take my swift camel. Whenever you sense danger, ride it and flee.” But the Meccan conspirators plotted so cunningly that ‘Ayyash could not even escape by turning the camel onto another road. He was tightly bound. When they reached Mecca, they told the others, “Treat anyone among you who wants to emigrate as we have treated him.”

Later, Hazrat ‘Umar wrote a letter to Hisham ibn al-‘As with his own hand. In it he quoted the famous verse: “O My servants who have wronged themselves, do not despair of Allah’s mercy.” Hisham read the letter at a place called Mi’tuwa near Mecca and pondered it repeatedly. When he realized that it was referring specifically to him, he mounted a camel and set out without delay. But an even more authentic account says that, after the Messenger (peace be upon him) had emigrated to Medina, the subject of these two prisoners came up one day in his gathering. The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Who will help me bring ‘Ayyash ibn Abi Rabi’ah and Hisham ibn ‘As back?” Walid ibn al-Mughirah announced his readiness. At the Messenger’s command, Walid set out for Mecca. Reaching the vicinity of the settlement secretly, he saw a woman carrying food. He asked, “Where are you going?” She replied, “There are two prisoners here. I am going to give them food.” Walid followed her. The two men were confined in a room without a roof. When evening came, he climbed over the wall and reached them. He placed a stone beneath the chains and cut them with his sword. Then he brought the two men outside, seated them on camels, and they all fled together.

The people of Mecca left behind almost all the possessions of most of the Muhajirs who managed to reach Medina.

Yet despite the profound anguish of the Hijrah, men and women alike continued to leave their homeland without hesitation in order to fulfill their religious duty. There is no parallel to this miraculous achievement of the Islamic movement: it powerfully inspired even the illiterate women of the uncivilized Arab society of hundreds of years ago.

By obstructing the departure of the Muhajirs, the Quraysh displayed extreme intolerance. In contrast, the man with whom they were dealing showed greatness like a mountain and generosity and magnanimity like the sea. He was the embodiment of patience, forbearance, dignity, and steadfastness. Therefore, he remained firm at the center of the mission. It was his duty to prove that he had remained devoted to fulfilling his responsibilities in every way until the very last moment. He continued patiently carrying out his duty until Allah’s will concerning the people of Mecca was fulfilled. He was like the courageous captain of a sinking ship, who must leave the ship last, only after safely transferring all the crew and passengers to another vessel.

When no one remained except those whom the Quraysh had forcibly detained or who could not leave for some special interest or advantage, only then did he receive permission from Almighty Allah to undertake the Hijrah. He left Mecca only when the people of Mecca were unwilling to let him remain alive. When the moment of his journey drew near, he emerged fearlessly and safely through a ring of bloodthirsty swords.

Medina: The Moment of Anticipation

As the number of Muhajirs increased, the vitality of Medina grew. The radiance of the Islamic call spread in every direction. As Islam spread, love and attraction toward the bearer of Islam’s message steadily increased. Especially after the Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah, the people of Medina looked toward the road to Mecca every moment. It was as though fields full of crops were waiting for the clouds to come and pour down rain. It was as though all the building materials lay piled up, waiting for the builder of the edifice of humanity to arrive and begin construction with them.

The news also spread through Medina, carried on the wings of the wind, that Muhammad (peace be upon him) had left Mecca and was proceeding along the route of the Hijrah. Naturally, this news brought curiosity in Medina to its peak, and the moments of waiting became unbearable.

Even the little children kept repeating, “The Messenger (peace be upon him) is coming, the Messenger (peace be upon him) is coming.” Every morning, people would leave their homes, gather outside the city, and wait. When the summer sun rose overhead and the heat became unbearable, they would return home regretfully. On the day the Messenger (peace be upon him) actually arrived, people likewise gathered and were returning home. Suddenly, a Jew saw him from atop a fortress and announced the good news: “O people of Yathrib, look! The great man for whom you have been waiting has arrived.” What happened next? The entire city erupted in cries of “Allahu Akbar.” People rushed out in confusion and excitement. Most of the Ansar came out armed.

He first took up residence in Quba, a suburban settlement three miles from Medina. The family of ‘Amr ibn ‘Awf welcomed him joyfully, and this family had the good fortune of hosting him. This house was in fact a central stronghold of the Islamic movement. For most of the Muhajirs, it became their first stopping place. Some Muhajir Companions were still staying there. Hazrat ‘Ali, having delivered the trusts entrusted to him, also joined his beloved leader and the caravan there. He stayed there for fourteen days. People kept coming in groups to meet him. Their eagerness to see with their own eyes the one whose message they had already accepted with all their hearts knew no bounds. Everyone gathered hoping to see his face, hear his sweet words, and receive his prayer. Greetings, meetings, conversations, prayers, and gatherings—nothing was omitted.

At Quba, the Messenger (peace be upon him) laid the foundation of a mosque with his own hands. Every Muslim took part in its construction. The finest person in the history of the world began carrying large stones like an ordinary laborer. A song was also sung while they worked:

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“Those who build mosques, recite the Qur’an, and stay awake at night for worship are truly successful.”

This mosque was not merely an aggregate of bricks, stones, and other materials; rather, everyone from the Prophet (peace be upon him) to the ordinary Muslim displayed the greatest enthusiasm. That is why the Qur’an says about this mosque:

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“It is a mosque whose foundation was established upon piety.”

The Messenger (peace be upon him) reached Quba on Thursday, the 8th of Rabi al-Awwal, in the eleventh year of his prophethood. Fourteen days later, he set out for Medina with his entire party. From Quba to Medina, the Ansar stood in lines on both sides to offer congratulations. The relatives of the Messenger (peace be upon him) from his maternal family took up positions, specially armed. The women gathered on the rooftops and began singing songs of welcome:

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Small children roamed about in groups, beating drums and singing:

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In response to these children’s love, the Messenger (peace be upon him) showed them special affection. He spoke with them and asked, “Do you want me?” They replied, “Yes!” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “I want you too.” (Sirat-un-Nabi)

When Medina was blessed with this historic moment, imagine what excitement must have arisen there! Think for a moment about what scenes must have unfolded in its lanes and alleys, and what feelings and responses must have stirred in the air!

The fortune of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari’s house was suddenly illuminated when it became the temporary residence. The Messenger (peace be upon him) stayed there for seven months.

Development and Construction Work

After gaining some respite and recovering from the fatigue of the journey, the Messenger (peace be upon him) began development and construction work. The first task undertaken was the construction of a mosque. A plot of unused land belonging to two orphaned boys was purchased, and Hazrat Abu Ayyub himself paid its price. The foundation of the Prophet’s Mosque was laid on this land. The mosque was not important merely as a place of prayer; rather, it was developed as the center and source of the Islamic state and civilization. The Prophet’s Mosque was being developed simultaneously as the seat of government, a council chamber, a state guesthouse, a public library, and a national assembly hall. This construction work also aroused the same enthusiasm as at Quba. Could there have been any Muslim who did not participate in it wholeheartedly? The Messenger (peace be upon him) himself carried stones and mud. Seeing this, one Companion, overcome with emotion, exclaimed: “If Allah’s Prophet devotes himself to this work in such a manner while we merely sit and watch, then all our good deeds will be nullified.”

There was no room for idle talk amid the busyness of the work. Rather, everyone, including the Messenger (peace be upon him), raised their voices together:

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“The happiness of the Hereafter is the true happiness; otherwise, life is meaningless. O Allah, show grace to the Ansar and the Muhajirun.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

This inspiration and prayer were the true materials used to build the Prophet’s Mosque. A chamber adjoining the mosque was also built for the Messenger (peace be upon him), using branches and clay. He began residing in this chamber.

With the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) arrival in Medina, the call to Islam began spreading on its own. Within these seven months, the Islamic movement had gathered devoted companions from every household and every tribe. Only among the families of Khatma, Waqif, Wa’il, and Umayyah of the Aws tribe did the darkness of shirk remain. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Expanding the work of calling people to Islam was the most important constructive task. The Messenger (peace be upon him) certainly gave the call individually. But the sermon with which he began the collective call was as follows:

“O people, earn something for yourselves in due time. Know that one day all of you will die. Each of you will leave your people behind in such a state that they will have no complaint. Then he will be addressed by his Lord in such a manner that there will be no interpreter between them. He will be asked: Has My Messenger not reached you? And has the Messenger not conveyed My message to you? Did I not give you wealth and blessings? So what have you stored up for yourself? Then he will look to his right and left, but he will see nothing. Then he will look ahead, but he will see nothing except Hell. Therefore, whoever can should try to save himself from the Fire of Hell, even in exchange for half a date. Whoever cannot do even that should protect himself by saying a good word. For the reward of a good deed is multiplied from tenfold to seven hundredfold. May security, Allah’s mercy, and His blessings descend upon you.”

(Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Another Collective Sermon

“All praise belongs to Allah. I praise Him alone and seek help from Him alone. We all seek Allah’s protection from the evil of our desires and the harmful consequences of our deeds. No one can misguide the one whom Allah guides, and whoever He deprives of guidance has no guide. I bear witness that there is no one worthy of worship and obedience except Allah, the One without partner. Without doubt, Allah’s Book is the best speech. Whoever has had the Qur’an made beloved to his heart, whom He has brought into Islam after disbelief, and who prefers the Qur’an over all other human compositions will prosper. This is the best and most influential speech. Love only what Allah loves, and love Allah sincerely. Do not be negligent in Allah’s work, and do not let your hearts become hard because of it. Since Allah chooses the best things from His creation, He has identified the best deeds, the best servants, and the purest speech. Of what He has given people, some is lawful and some unlawful. Therefore, adopt servitude to Allah and associate no one with Him. Protect yourselves from His wrath as you ought to. Turn into action before Allah all the good words you utter. Through Allah’s mercy, establish bonds of love among yourselves. Surely Allah is displeased when the promise made to Him is broken. Peace be upon you.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

The account of his sermons found in various narrations is very brief. The Messenger’s (peace be upon him) sermons were generally concise. But observe how far-reaching a message was incorporated within them. They addressed virtually every issue. They contained the call to Islam, emphasized the teachings of the Qur’an, urged discrimination between the lawful and the unlawful, and taught the establishment of brotherhood based on ideals.

These two sermons show how the collective call was given. On the one hand, people were invited to the fundamental ideals. On the other, society was guided in solving various problems in the light of those very ideals.

Establishing the Foundations of the Islamic State

The third step—and politically perhaps the greatest task—was to establish a consensus among the Jews, polytheists, and Muslims of Medina for governing the state. A written agreement was prepared to establish a political society, resembling a written constitution. It is rightly called the first written constitution in the world. I do not wish to discuss the clauses of this constitution here; rather, I shall present a summary of some of its important parts. Through this written constitutional agreement, the Messenger (peace be upon him) achieved the following:

– In Medina’s newly formed society, Allah’s sovereignty and His law attained the status of fundamental principles.

– Final political, legal, and judicial power and authority came into the hands of Muhammad (peace be upon him).

– Through this constitutional agreement, the Islamic state was legally and formally established, and the process of implementing the Islamic way of life began. [A person who enters the field with a definite objective always thinks first of establishing his own state. Consider how empty-handed the Islamic organization in Arabia was in terms of external means, resources, and assistance. Moreover, consider the troubled condition of a few homeless people who had come to an unfamiliar environment in Medina. Then observe how rapidly the Islamic state was established and how its constitution came into force within a few months. Uniting people opposed to one another religiously and ethnically under a single organization so quickly was truly one of history’s most astonishing events.]

Considering the complexity of the circumstances of that age, one can appreciate that this was an extraordinary achievement. Behind it, one can see the active presence of incomparable political wisdom and skill in negotiation. From this constitutional agreement, as well as other treaties and transactions, we learn that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was not merely a Sufi dervish; rather, he possessed expert ability and wisdom in managing and skillfully completing collective affairs, and was fully qualified to discharge all these responsibilities.

The Brotherhood System

At that time, one major problem facing Medina’s society was the resettlement of the Muhajirun. People were leaving their homes one after another. It had become necessary to accommodate them in this medium-sized settlement, whose population numbered only a few thousand. In reality, this is a problem that has proved embarrassing whenever it has appeared in history. There is no parallel in world history for the skill, wisdom, and intelligence with which Medina’s society and its head of state solved this problem. No ordinance was issued, no law imposed, no land or other resources had to be allocated by the government, no restrictions were imposed by setting a limit on the number of refugees, and no force was used. This immensely complex problem was solved within only a few days through a moral appeal. The Prophet of the world (peace be upon him) established a genuine new brotherhood based on faith, ideals, and objectives, and formed a brotherly relationship between each Ansari and a Muhajir. Each Ansari divided his property—his home, gardens, and fields—into equal shares and gave a share to his ideological companion. Some were even prepared to divorce one of their several wives and marry her to their religious brother. On the other hand, the Muhajirun proved themselves so self-respecting that they would say, “Show us the fields or the marketplace; we can earn our livelihood through trade or labor.”

The unmarried Muhajirun, especially those of rising age who wished to devote themselves to acquiring Islamic knowledge rather than starting families, lived in the ‘Suffah,’ a courtyard of the Prophet’s Mosque. It developed into an important institution for the work of reconstruction. The Islamic society was the guardian of the Companions who lived in the Suffah. The Messenger (peace be upon him) himself remained attentive and active in meeting their needs.

The Conflict and Confrontation Again

I do not intend to mention here all the successive events in the history of Islam and the life of the Prophet (Sirah). I have only briefly wished to show how the generation of the Islamic movement came from Mecca to Medina and began giving birth to a new generation. What was the environment like, and what new activities began there with the arrival of an effective force? How did the soldiers of truth advance to awaken a sleeping society and play an effective, positive role in shaping its character? According to the historical order of things, the emergence of some negative role alongside a positive one was inevitable. Alongside constructive activity, the activation of a destructive force was an inevitable law of nature. When truth becomes active in the field, activity inevitably begins in the field of falsehood as well. The emergence of a villain alongside the hero becomes inevitable. Satan was deeply agitated and uneasy at the new society being established in Medina. He wanted to send some of his devoted agents into the field. He found villains, however, and brought them onto the stage. In Mecca, the Islamic movement had fallen into the hands of the supposed followers of Hazrat Ibrahim, while in Medina it encountered schemers wearing the sacred mantle of Hazrat Musa. The followers of Bayt al-Maqdis began treating the Islamic movement in the same way that the custodians of the Sacred Ka‘bah had treated it.

The Historical Position and Role of the Jews

It is a tragic fact in the history of Islam and Jahiliyyah that religious circles have always undertaken the resistance to the establishment of Islam with the greatest religious emotion and enthusiasm. Where religious circles should have responded to the first call of the true religion and stood in the front rank, with a few exceptions they have instead been the first to reject it. Religious circles initially become servants and standard-bearers of religion. But gradually, when they acquire rank and status and certain interests become connected with religion, they make religion their subordinate and slowly create certain permanent rights for themselves in the name of religion. They compel the religious masses to accept certain class-based demands of theirs, and ultimately special honorable rewards are designated for them. In the age of the moral decline of its followers, religion always passes through these stages. At this point religion becomes a highly profitable business and takes the form of inheritable immovable property. At this stage, sermons and exhortations become commercial goods, religious knowledge becomes a means of livelihood, and fatwas turn into saleable commodities with their own market value. Religious office becomes a ladder to spiritual leadership and power. Once religious leaders reach this stage, their commercial mentality compels them to think about every matter in terms of whether their interests remain secure and whether someone else is taking away their rank. When a business mentality enters the sphere of religion with these qualities, the following characteristics begin to appear among them:

– They cannot tolerate disagreement from anyone and cannot cooperate with others for any greater objective.

– They do not acknowledge any mistake, error, or weakness among themselves, nor are they prepared to correct it.

– They cannot leave positions of leadership and seats of influence to fulfill an assigned responsibility under someone else’s leadership, direction, or call.

The Jewish nation had reached the extreme of all these characteristics. They could never accept that truth might exist beyond the boundaries of their own class. They did not acknowledge that anyone could be guided aright without obeying them, or that the position of leadership could belong to anyone other than themselves.

The Quraysh of Mecca opposed Islam, and the Jews of Medina did so as well. Neither group left anything lacking in its opposition. Yet there is a vast difference between their opposing roles. A comparative examination shows that arrogance and pride were the true driving forces behind the Quraysh’s opposition, whereas the Jews’ minds were clouded by vengeance, hatred, and envy. The Quraysh suffered from aristocratic and superiority complexes, while the Jews suffered from an inferiority complex. Thus, the Quraysh displayed an attitude of open rejection and conflict, whereas the opposition of the Jews was dominated by crooked conspiracies and deception. The Quraysh possessed heroic arrogance, while the Jews had cowardly baseness in their character. Where the Quraysh’s opposition was directly aggressive, the Jews excelled in secret collusion, conspiracy, duplicity, and hypocrisy. In Mecca there were only two communities: Muslims and unbelievers. But in Medina, between these two forces, a third force—the hypocrites—also emerged. This comparison makes clear how much lower and meaner false religiosity and distorted piety can be than openly extreme disbelief, shirk, and Jahiliyyah, and how much more vile a role they play in opposing truth and justice.

We also see that in this conflict between disbelief and religiosity, the Jews’ distorted, self-serving religiosity gave the forces of the unbelievers and polytheists of Mecca its fullest support and cooperation against Islam. Yet regardless of the extent of their differences, it should have had greater sympathy for the standard-bearers of the worship of the One Allah and morality. At the very least, the Jews could have kept their position in opposition to Islam completely separate from that of the unbelievers and polytheists. But even after hearing the responsible call, “Come, let us agree upon a common word between us and you,” they decided to abandon the sacred religious thought and work of Muhammad, the greatest of human beings, and his companions, and become allies of such vile people as Abu Jahl and Abu Lahab. Another perennial historical role of false religiosity and distorted piety is that it is never prepared to support the religious side in the battlefield under any circumstances. Rather, it invariably takes the side of the enemies of religion. It becomes an ally of disbelief, atheism, and sinners. I am not discussing the few exceptional individuals. Some such exceptions can be found in any group, even at the time of its greatest distortion. We are discussing only the general principle.

This was the Jews’ disgraceful position. Emerging from their secret bases, they took up all the weapons of religious knowledge and practice, went to the destructive and negative front, aimed their weapons at Islam, and lay in ambush, effectively giving the unbelievers and polytheists their fullest support. They hurled obscene abuse and harsh words at the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Companions who were the leaders and workers of the Islamic movement, mocked and ridiculed them, harassed them by raising ever-new questions, launched a storm of accusations and propaganda, and engaged in espionage. At times they tried to provoke mutual conflict among the Muslims, issued fatwas declaring them unbelievers and sinners, plotted to assassinate the Messenger (peace be upon him), and committed terrible acts of treachery during war and times of crisis. They left nothing within their capacity undone in harming Islam. Yet from beginning to end they remained prey to a serious misconception. People of a negative disposition engaged in destructive activities have always fallen into this kind of misconception. (But later generations do not learn from it either.) Their misconception was that those who have no regard for any principle or ideal, have no constructive program, and descend to the lowest level of moral degradation can thwart any idealistic and constructive movement. In reality, their role is like that of bats, driven by hatred of the rays of the rising sun to spread their wings in the sky in a futile attempt to create artificial darkness; like a few mosquitoes buzzing in an effort to block the advance of an armed army; or like some stubborn person spitting at the full moon.

Those who possess no intrinsic worth, no vibrant ideal, no ideal in their character for contemporary human society, and from whom humanity cannot hope for any constructive service, cannot achieve lasting success for themselves merely by obstructing the progress of others. Those who have nothing but stagnation, idleness, bigotry, distortion, and destruction at their disposal may obstruct a vigorous group engaged in reformative and constructive work, but they cannot thereby create any worth or dignity for themselves. Ultimately, such people gain nothing but failure and humiliation. But when a diseased community is swept along by the herd current of emotional reactions and loses its power of judgment, it no longer considers the consequences. It simply continues moving forward. The diseased Jewish community too, blinded by inferiority and envy, engaged in conflict with Islam.

A comparative examination of the character of the Muslims of Medina and that of the Jews also shows that just as elevated is the character of those who respond to the call of the standard-bearers of truth and justice, so correspondingly degraded is the character of their opponents. As a positive movement beautifies humanity, so a negative reaction seeks to distort and destroy it.

On one side, the administrator of Islamic society faced an extremely broad and far-reaching constructive program. On the other, there was the problem of resettling the steadily arriving refugees and providing them with economic support. In addition, there was the ever-present fear of attack from the Quraysh of Mecca, and ensuring a durable defense system to repel it was indispensable. Beyond all these problems, there was another grave problem: within Medina’s newly established state and developing society, a large group of scheming and treacherous internal enemies was engaged in various confusing and divisive activities. Consider how delicate and complex the responsibilities of the Prophet of the world must have been in such circumstances. It is probably difficult for us even to imagine how many kinds of problems occupied that one mind day and night. We may think about it endlessly without grasping the magnitude of the life-and-death circumstances in which a small Islamic organization and a movement passing through its very earliest stage found itself. History has placed the responsibility for creating all these complications solely on the Jews. This responsibility indeed falls upon the Jewish community, which claimed to acknowledge Allah, revered Hazrat Ibrahim and Hazrat Musa, followed the Torah, and regarded itself as the hereditary contractor of purity, spirituality, knowledge of Allah, and God-consciousness.

In the beginning, the Jews were extremely hopeful about the Messenger (peace be upon him) and Islam. They saw that the followers of this newly emerged religion were engaged in conflict with the descendants of Ishmael (that is, the Quraysh—the translator), that they revered the prophets whom the Jews revered, respected their scriptures, and had adopted their qiblah, that is, Bayt al-Maqdis, as their own qiblah. For this reason, they came to believe that Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his companions could gradually be incorporated into the Jewish community. The Jews did not think this out of a concern for justice and truth; rather, it was a purely self-serving and commercial calculation. They thought they could soon make these homeless, destitute people obedient to them. With this hope, they concluded a treaty with the Muslims without much dispute and accepted the political organization being established in Medina. They believed that this developing political power was already in their pocket. Their religious and spiritual influence surrounded it from every side. The Jews had no initiative, effort, or concern for understanding truth and justice, reforming thought and character, or securing salvation in the Hereafter. A mere group interest had taken possession of these wretched people. They thought prey was gathering at their doorstep in Medina. So they lay in wait, setting traps and nets to catch it. In their eyes, the Muslims were a shoal of fish drifting from the sea toward the shore. And the Jewish fishermen had come to the shore with all the necessary equipment, ready to ensnare them in the net of religious hypocrisy. But within only a few days of experience, their castles in the air began to collapse. The Muslims made it clear to them that they were not such easy prey. They were so strong that the hunter himself became prey in their hands. They saw that, gradually, an Islamic state of a revolutionary character was developing. This state itself was becoming as strong as a fortress. Within only a few days, the Jews realized that the state whose foundation they had helped lay through the constitutional treaty was not merely far from being their puppet; there was not even any opportunity for them to insert a finger anywhere in it. They soon suffered complete failure in their dream of obtaining an influential position in that state. Their attempts to exert influence over its various institutions and activities failed again and again. All the conspiracies they devised to bring the head of state, its other officials, and its citizens who trusted in its principles under their control were thwarted. On the contrary, such a setback occurred at the very outset that their own people began surrendering before the principles presented by the Messenger (peace be upon him). This ‘dangerous’ revolutionary current swept away not only the uneducated ordinary Jews but even various leading figures. Only then did they regain their senses. They realized that their flourishing business in spirituality was about to collapse. Their cherished prey was slipping from their hands one by one. The Jews were horrified by the disastrous consequences of the treaty they had concluded. Under this treaty, on the one hand, they were obliged to obey the laws of the Muslim state. On the other hand, they had entered into a defensive alliance with the Muslims. Thirdly, they could see that the hopes for which they had done all this were turning into a mirage.

For this reason, an intense lava of hatred began accumulating within them, and from time to time that lava began erupting from the body of their society. The change of the qiblah in particular laid bare the vengeful attitude of Jewish society. At first, it took the form of propaganda. Then it turned into acts of sabotage. Finally, it manifested itself as treachery. Let us examine the anti-Islamic activities produced by the reaction to this attitude during the Medinan period—activities that the greatest well-wisher of humanity and his companions had to endure, and from which the Islamic state had to struggle hard to preserve its existence.

Intolerant Behavior

In light of the immense responsibilities that the newly established Islamic state in Medina had to bear, the role of its citizens was crucial. In particular, the absence of even one of its frontline workers was deeply painful for the Messenger (peace be upon him) and his companions. Abu Umamah As’ad ibn Zurarah, who had been entrusted with preaching Islam to the Banu Najjar, was just such a worker. But he died at the very beginning. Thus Islam lost a capable soldier. This was in itself a grievous event for the Messenger (peace be upon him). Moreover, the anti-Islamic groups in Medina doubled his anguish through misleading propaganda. The Jews and their hypocritical lackeys began saying, “You see! If Muhammad (peace be upon him) were truly a prophet, would such an active worker of his have died at such an inopportune time?” In other words, they rejoiced enormously at his death. Even the sensitive heart of the Messenger (peace be upon him), himself continually battered by blows of sorrow and calamity from every side, could not remain silent in the face of this propaganda. He said: “The death of Abu Umamah is a grievous death for the Jewish and Arab hypocrites! They go about saying that if Muhammad (peace be upon him) were a prophet, his companion would not have died. Yet I myself cannot escape Allah’s will, nor can I protect any of my companions from it.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

This small incident alone shows how much hostility had accumulated in the hearts of the enemies. The people of the Banu Najjar came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, “Appoint another person responsible for us now.” Since the Banu Najjar were relatives of the Messenger (peace be upon him), he comforted them by saying, “You are my maternal uncles; I am with you in everything, and I myself am responsible for you.”

Because of the conditions on which the Jews had signed the treaty, they were unable to obstruct the growth and spread of the Islamic movement. Before their very eyes, ordinary people and prominent figures were gathering beneath the banner of Islam. Yet their spiritual leaders, pirs, dervishes, and muftis watched as silent spectators. In the end, Islam even began entering their own homes. As their own people, especially their notable figures, continued accepting Islam, this community with its religion-for-profit mentality had no choice but to lose patience. Moreover, every revolutionary movement possesses such irresistible power to spread its influence that, in confronting those who come forward to resist it with a negative attitude, the younger members of their families are themselves initiated into that revolutionary ideal. Consequently, sons come into conflict with fathers, wives with mothers-in-law, daughters with mothers, grandchildren with grandfathers and maternal grandfathers, and slaves with masters.

When the religious practices of the elders come under this internal attack by a new movement, the elders become unbalanced with rage. At this stage, their patience and tolerance completely run out. History repeated this familiar pattern in Medina as well. I have already said how vigorously the banner of Islam’s victory was being raised in Medina and how rapidly the victory drum of the new ideal was sounding from house to house. Seeing this unimaginable change, the Jews became restless with fury. Especially when the chiefs of various tribes and famous influential figures responded to Islam’s true call, the entire body of Jewish society shuddered under the influence of envy and inferiority. For example, no one could perhaps express in words the turmoil that shook the Jews’ hearts on the day Abu Qays Abi Anas accepted Islam before their very eyes. He was a renowned elder. Even in the Age of Ignorance, he had begun moving against the prevailing trend of society. Guided only by his natural wisdom and conscience, he abandoned idol worship, declared bathing after sexual intercourse obligatory, and kept away from menstruating wives. At first he was attracted to Christianity, but soon stopped. He built a mosque in his own home and refrained from entering it in a state of ritual impurity. He openly said, “I worship the God of Ibrahim (peace be upon him).” This elderly man, afflicted by old age, was very courageous in speaking the truth. During the Age of Ignorance, he proclaimed the greatness of Allah. He expressed his thoughts through poetry. Some of his poems have been compiled in historical and biographical works. It is only natural that such a sharp-minded, honest, and respected person would be recognized as a distinguished notable in his society.

It is not surprising that the Jews argued with him and tried to draw him to their side. But the pure and uncorrupted nature that had created in him a longing and taste for the true religion could be satisfied by no one except the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) reached Medina, the moment of his good fortune drew near. He joined the Islamic movement and became a true follower of Islam. It is possible to gain some sense, through the imagination, of the reaction this event must have produced among the Jews.

Yet everything that had happened so far had taken place outside their own social circle. The truly upheaving event occurred when Islam entered Jewish society itself. Among these events, the one that completely shattered the mental balance of the Jewish community was the spiritual revolution of one of its greatest theologians. History bears witness that among leading figures, whether worldly or religious, the proportion who accept the truth is very small. Nevertheless, people of upright nature are present in every community. When the sun of truth spreads its radiance, they do not shut their eyes and hide in the sealed chamber of stubbornness and hostility. Rather, they open the windows of their minds and hearts to let in the rays of light. Although very few from among the ranks of eminent and learned people join an Islamic revolutionary movement, those who do become extremely valuable assets. For they must break the great chains of self-interest and rank. Abdullah ibn Salam was just such an exceptional person in Jewish society. His pre-Islamic name was Husayn. He was a highly distinguished scholar and a God-fearing religious leader. He belonged to the Banu Qaynuqa. After meeting the Messenger (peace be upon him), he accepted Islam and invited and encouraged his family to embrace Islam as well. Eventually, the entire family accepted Islam. Listen to the account of his acceptance of Islam as narrated by one of his relatives from him: “When I first heard the news of the arrival of Allah’s Messenger, I learned his name, qualities, and the time of his arrival, for we had been awaiting him. So I was inwardly delighted upon hearing the news, but I said nothing aloud. When he came to Medina, I remained silent. When he reached the settlement of Banu Amr ibn Awf at Quba, a man came and told me of his arrival. At that time I was working atop my date palm, while my aunt Khalidah bint al-Harith was sitting below. As soon as I heard the news, I called out Allahu Akbar in a loud voice. Hearing my cry, my aunt said, ‘May Allah destroy you! Even if you had heard of the arrival of Moses son of Imran, you would not have shown such jubilation.’ I said, ‘Dear aunt, by Allah, he is the brother of Moses son of Imran and follows his religion. He has brought the same law that Moses son of Imran brought.’ My aunt said, ‘My nephew, is he the prophet about whom we are told that he will come before the Resurrection?’ I said, ‘Yes, he is that prophet.’ Then I went to Allah’s Prophet and accepted Islam. After that I returned to my family and invited them as well. Consequently, they all accepted Islam.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Since this newly Muslim scholar knew the Jews’ weaknesses and was familiar with their hateful mentality and base character, he also knew what reaction his acceptance of Islam would provoke. When groups and communities are formed on the basis of selfishness, character declines so far that, instead of calling good good and evil evil, they call their own evil good and their opponent’s good evil. They call a cow from their own cowshed white even if it is black, and a cow from another’s cowshed black even if it is white. Indeed, the moment their own white cow breaks out of the shed, it is labeled black. Religious people of this kind have the same character in every age. As long as a person remains with them—or at least there is no fear that his activities will harm their commercial interests—his virtues are openly acknowledged. Sometimes his learning and character are even extravagantly praised. But as soon as circumstances change and the role of such a great personality proves harmful to someone’s religious business, opinions immediately change. The man who was once a scholar is now called ignorant. The one who was once a believer is now called an unbeliever, a sinner, and much more. The person once regarded as a servant of the nation is now called misguided. The one who was once an object of reverence becomes the target of abuse. Abdullah ibn Salam knew these degradations and meannesses in the character of the Jews, whose nature had become distorted. He lifted the veil from these basenesses. Secretly planning a drama, he concealed his acceptance of Islam. At the appropriate time he came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, “The Jews are a people devoted to falsehood. To expose the mask covering their distorted nature, have me sit behind a curtain in your house. Then, keeping me out of their sight, ask them what they think of me. You will then see what opinion they hold of me without knowing that I have accepted Islam. If they learn of my acceptance of Islam, they will accuse me and slander me.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) did exactly that. He seated Abdullah ibn Salam behind a curtain in his house. Meanwhile, the Jewish leaders arrived and a discussion began. They asked various questions, and answers were given. Finally, the Messenger (peace be upon him) asked, “What kind of man is Husayn ibn Salam among you?” They replied, “He is our chief and the son of our chief. He is a noble man among us and a great scholar.” After they had praised him in this way, Abdullah ibn Salam emerged from behind the curtain and addressed them: “O Jewish community, fear Allah and accept the religion Muhammad (peace be upon him) has brought. By Allah, you know very well that he is Allah’s Messenger. You have seen Muhammad’s sacred name and qualities written in the Torah. Therefore, I testify that he is Allah’s Messenger. I believe in him, regard him as truthful, and acknowledge him.” The Jews were utterly embarrassed by this drama and immediately said, “You are a liar.” Then they began denouncing and slandering Abdullah ibn Salam. The very person whom they had called a great man and scholar only seconds earlier, they now began calling a liar. Abdullah said to the Messenger (peace be upon him), “I did not tell you that these people are devoted to falsehood? They are afflicted with arrogance, lying, and misconduct.” In this dramatic manner, Abdullah ibn Salam announced that his entire family had accepted Islam. Consider what a terrible reaction this event must have produced in the minds of the Jews. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, pp. 138–139)

A few days later, a similar event occurred in the case of Mukhairiq, a renowned scholar and respected man, on the day of the Battle of Uhud. He was a wealthy man among the Jews and owned many date orchards. Through the light of his knowledge, he recognized the Messenger (peace be upon him) by observing his qualities. As fate would have it, the day of Uhud arrived, and it was a Saturday. At a gathering he said, “O Jewish people, by Allah, you know that it is an unavoidable duty for you to help Muhammad (peace be upon him).” He meant that, in principle, it was obligatory for them to help the Muslim army against the polytheists of Mecca. The Jews’ response was a loathsome picture of their deception and wicked mentality. They said, “But today is Saturday.” Hearing this, Mukhairiq said in a fiery voice, “There is no Saturday for you.” Then he took up his weapons and went to the field of Uhud, where he joined the Messenger (peace be upon him). Before leaving, he visited his family and said, “If I am killed today, I shall place all my wealth in the hands of the Messenger (peace be upon him). He may spend it as he sees fit in accordance with Allah’s command.” Indeed, this self-sacrificing soldier died that day. The Messenger (peace be upon him) took possession of all his property and spent it. There is, however, some disagreement as to whether Mukhairiq had accepted Islam.

The hidden reaction revealed by the Jews’ hypocrisy during this victorious advance of the Islamic movement becomes clear from an amusing incident. Umm al-Mu’minin Safiyyah bint Huyayy ibn Akhtab relates: I was dearer to my father (the Jewish chief Huyayy) and my uncle than all their other children. They both always kept me with them. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) came to Medina and stayed at Quba, my father Huyayy ibn Akhtab and my uncle Yasar ibn Akhtab went to meet him early in the morning. They returned at sunset. They appeared extremely tired and exhausted and were walking very slowly. As usual, I went toward them with a slight smile. But because of their fatigue, they did not pay me any attention. My uncle Abu Yasar asked my father, “Well, is this the person?” My father replied, “Yes, by Allah.” My uncle again asked, “Did you recognize him? Are you certain?” My father said, “Yes.” My uncle asked, “What is your attitude toward him now?” My father replied, “Nothing but enmity. By God, I shall remain his enemy as long as I live.”

This was the Jews’ true mentality. They knew very well that the one who had come to them was a caller to the truth and a prophet. Every word he spoke bore witness to his truthfulness. His entire character made his rank clear. His face reflected the signs of his prophethood. They not only knew and understood this; they also acknowledged it verbally in private meetings. Yet instead of adopting the path of faith and obedience, they resolved to oppose him and remain hostile. This was the Jews’ longstanding nature. Who does not know that when the sun rises, a flood of light pours forth? Human beings and animals have eyes, so they see this scene. But even grass and leaves without eyes sense that the event that occurs every day at the end of every dark night has taken place. Even heat, warmth, lifeless particles of earth, drops of water, and gusts of wind realize that the messenger of light has appeared. Sunrise is such a revolutionary event that even bats and the mute become aware of it. But the perversity of their nature is such that after the sun rises, the eyes of all other creatures open, while the eyes of owls and bats close. Indeed, the sign of sunrise for them is that the sun’s rays dazzle their eyes and force them shut. A person cannot be so blind that Allah’s prophets appear before him with knowledge and character of a miraculous order, yet he fails to feel that an extraordinarily important and great personality has appeared. These people see, know, and understand, yet after all this they keep their eyes closed. If light nevertheless enters their eyes, they bind them, cover them with their hands, bury their faces in sand, shut the doors and windows of their rooms, and hang a black curtain over them. There is a saying that a sleeping person can be awakened, but an awake person cannot be awakened. Likewise, an ignorant person can be given knowledge. But one who pretends not to know despite knowing cannot be brought out of the world of ignorance. This was the condition of most of the Jewish nation and its leading scholars. The Qur’an too mentioned this distortion of theirs, saying that:

“That is, they know and recognize the Messenger (peace be upon him) just as surely as they know and recognize their own children.”

The Jewish leaders burned with envy when they saw the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) exalted standing and ordinary people rushing toward his new call, while the intense intolerance and narrowness in their hearts only continued to grow.

A Barrage of Sophistry and Foolish Questions

When hatred arises in the minds of corrupted hypocritical religionists against an active call, a growing movement, or a great caller, and gradually intensifies, they close the doors of discussions that generate understanding and open the path of disputation. The questions and doubts created through debate are never intended to understand anything; they are intended precisely to prevent understanding. In other words, “I will not accept” is the source of their disputation. But the purpose of debate does not end there. Its purpose is to divert simple-minded people from the natural path of seeking truth and cast them into doubt, so that they move away from straightforward reasoning, become trapped in complex theoretical questions, and instead of assessing the rational value and moral impact of the call, keep wandering through the blind alleys of convoluted problems. Hypocritical scholars are completely confident that the Islamic movement can never destroy them. Their fear concerns losing ordinary people. Therefore, to keep those people bound to their support, they construct fetters of crooked questions. The hypocritical Jewish scholars were engaged in this very scheme.

After Abdullah ibn Salam joined the Islamic movement, the Jews devoted themselves entirely to creating disputes. They began firing arrows of twisted and complicated argument at the Islamic movement. But this disgraceful campaign was not launched from an open base; it was conducted from the secret base of the hypocrites. Men of many faces, wrapped in the splendid robes of piety, would attend the gatherings of the Islamic movement and, during the conversation, adopt an extremely simple and innocent, foolishly naïve manner, pursing their lips and raising all sorts of questions.

At one gathering they asked the Messenger (peace be upon him): “When Allah created the entire universe, who created Allah?” Do you see the perversity of their minds? The Jews claimed to believe in Allah. They believed in His prophets and bore the signs of His scriptures. They were already familiar with Allah and His attributes. Yet when Islam called people to that very Allah, extremely complicated questions about Allah arose in their minds. Outwardly, their question seemed to suggest that once they received its answer, the way forward would open for them. But the crookedness of the question made it clear that their purpose was not to gain guidance; rather, their true aim was to show people an escape route by which they could be deprived of guidance. The Messenger (peace be upon him) answered this crooked question very simply. That is, he recited Surah al-Ikhlas in a very straightforward manner: “Say, [O Muhammad], Allah is One. He is Self-Sufficient. He has no child, nor was He born, and there is none comparable to Him.” (Hayat-e Muhammad: Muhammad Husayn Misri)

Let us take you to another amusing gathering. Some renowned Jewish scholars once came to the assembly of the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, “Answer four questions for us. Then we will accept your call and obey you.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “You yourselves will bear responsibility for your promise; ask whatever you wish.” Before hearing the questions, readers, think for a moment about what kinds of questions intelligent people should be expected to ask in order to understand the true nature of the Islamic movement. They should have asked about fundamental principles, inquired about Islam’s moral values, and sought to learn about its political and economic systems and methods of implementation. They should have asked what one must do to become a Muslim. But they had no interest in any of these matters. To display their learning and intelligence, they raised the following questions one by one:

1—Why do children resemble their mothers even though they are formed from their fathers’ semen?

2—How does the Messenger (peace be upon him) sleep?

3—Which things had Israel (Jacob, peace be upon him) forbidden for himself, and why?

It was supposedly in order to verify whether the Islamic movement was correct that these questions were raised. Only the fourth question had any direct connection at all with the Islamic call and movement. But its nature was the same. The fourth question was: What is the spirit?

The Messenger (peace be upon him) calmly answered every question. In reply to the last question, he said, “You know very well that the Spirit is Gabriel, and he is the one who comes to me.”

The reader may have expected that, after receiving these answers, they would open their hearts to Islam. No, never. On hearing the Messenger’s final words, they said, “But, O Muhammad, Gabriel is our enemy. Whenever he comes, he brings us a message of great misfortune.” What this meant was that whenever Gabriel came from Allah claiming to bear the banner of Allah’s religion, conflict and confrontation inevitably arose, various kinds of damage occurred, and the situation even escalated into jihad. We have no rapport with him. If the enmity of this angel had not stood in the way, we would certainly have become your supporters and followed and imitated you. In other words, the call, the movement, and the message are all correct. But because of the angel whom Allah has involved in their background, our security has been destroyed. Therefore, wherever that Gabriel is present, we cannot go there.

The Messenger gave such a reply to this in the language of the Qur’an that those who heard it could never forget it. He said, “Say, [O Muhammad], ‘Whoever is an enemy of Gabriel should know that he has brought the Qur’an down upon your heart by Allah’s command. This Qur’an confirms the earlier heavenly scriptures and is guidance and good tidings for the believers’.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Another controversy began when, while discussing the prophets on one occasion, the Messenger raised the subject of Solomon. There was much discussion about this among the Jews. It began to be said, “Have you heard the astonishing claim of Muhammad? He says that Solomon, the son of David, was also a prophet. By Allah, he was nothing but a magician—God forbid.” The Qur’an refuted these ravings, saying that magic is disbelief. Solomon did not engage in disbelief. The story commonly circulated about the well of Babylon was merely a machination of Satan. (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

The Change of the Qiblah

In the early period of the Islamic movement, the Jews saw many signs on the basis of which they began to hope that, gradually, this historic force would come into their grasp. The Qur’an mentioned the worldwide distinction of the Children of Israel. For example, “I have favored you above all the worlds.” Moreover, it affirmed the prophethood of their prophets and the authenticity of their sacred scripture. By calling them, “Come to a common word between us and you,” it had highlighted the central truth of religion.

Moreover, in opposition to the practices of the polytheists, the Messenger of Allah approved of some Jewish practices. For example, the polytheists used to keep a lock of hair long, whereas the Jews did not. In this matter, he opposed the polytheists and sided with the Jews. In matters regarding which no instruction came from Allah in the Qur’an, the Messenger followed the practices of the Jews and Christians. (Bukhari, chapter on dress) The Jews of Medina fasted on Ashura. The Messenger also fasted on that day and approved of Muslims fasting as well. When the funeral of a Jew was being taken past, he would stand. Above all, the qiblah of the Muslims’ prayer was Bayt al-Maqdis. All these things clearly proved that Islam was closer to the People of the Book than to the polytheists. The real fact was that the selfish religious and spiritual leaders of the Jews had completely distorted the basic structure of Judaism. That distorted structure had also become lifeless. Yet the religion brought by Moses was Islam in its original form. All the other prophets too were bearers, callers, and preachers of Islam. There were only slight differences in the laws of the Shariah during the time of each prophet. Muhammad presented that same Islam before the whole world. He did not present it merely as a theory; rather, he also implemented it in the form of practical laws and regulations. Because of this conceptual relationship, the Messenger himself hoped that the Jews would gradually understand the Islamic activity, welcome it as soon as they understood it, and regard this work as their own duty. One day they would rejoice that the banner was being raised in the name of Allah, that the collective life of society and the state was being built on the moral principles taught by the prophets, and that the fundamental values of the Torah’s law were being revived anew. On the basis of this hope, the Qur’an presented its call in such a way that group and communal identity had no importance before it. Rather, what mattered was principle and action—that is, ideals and character, faith and practice. Whether a person was a Jew, a Christian, a star-worshipper, or a Muslim, if he truly believed in Allah, Allah’s law, the call of His prophets, and the reckoning and accountability of the Day of Resurrection, and then demonstrated this by transforming his entire life into a life of righteous deeds, that was the truly desired and sought-after thing. Not the name, but the deed, is the essential matter. Not the signboard, but the unadulterated path, is what is truly sought. Who maintains a relationship with whom, and who belongs to whose party or group, is not a matter for consideration at all. The real matter is what a person’s character is like and how the collective welfare of humanity can be ensured. But just as the hopes of the Islamic movement were not fulfilled by the Jews, the objectives of the Jews were not fulfilled by the Islamic movement either.

Amid this tension, a revolutionary change suddenly took place in the Islamic movement. This change was the change of the qiblah. In every age, it had been the essential nature of the Islamic movement to preserve the distinct character of its existence and to remain determined to keep ideological and doctrinal distinctiveness alive in every Muslim. While in Makkah, Bayt al-Maqdis had been made the qiblah for this very purpose, so that the group bearing the banner of the Islamic ideal would remain conscious of its distinct status and position. As a result, until the Hijrah, the Muslims fully felt their distinctiveness and individuality in opposition to the polytheists. The polytheists also understood that they and the Muslims were bearers and carriers of two completely separate ideals. This consciousness and feeling were expressed in the concise statement, “For you is your religion, and for me is my religion,” which clearly declared: your path is separate, and our path is separate. There is no similarity at all between us and you.

After moving to Medina, if there was any danger to the Muslims’ distinctiveness, it came from the Jewish and Christian groups there. It became necessary to protect the Islamic movement’s distinction and individuality from being mixed with the lifeless religions of the Jews and Christians, and to save Muslim society from being mentally absorbed into Jewish society. The need that had arisen during the Makkan period to make Bayt al-Maqdis the temporary qiblah had now come to an end. The hearts of the Muslims were more closely connected to the qiblah established by Abraham. The Messenger himself was a descendant of Abraham, and the early fighters of the Islamic movement were also members of this lineage. That temporary arrangement for preserving distinctiveness had now become unnecessary. For this reason, the Messenger’s truth-seeking heart was awaiting and yearning for this change.

In fact, by issuing the command to change the qiblah, Almighty Allah finally dismissed the Children of Israel from world leadership. He appointed the Ummah of Muhammad to their vacant position. The center of the activity directed toward attaining the welfare and success of all humanity, which had until then been at Bayt al-Maqdis, was now transferred to the Sacred Kaaba. The Muslims were described as the middle nation, that is, the central nation of the global Islamic movement. They were entrusted with the grave responsibility of bearing witness to the truth before humanity and with leadership of all humankind.

For sixteen months after the Hijrah to Medina, prayers continued to be performed facing Bayt al-Maqdis. This occurred in Rajab or Sha‘ban of the second Hijri year. Ibn Sa‘d narrated that the Messenger had gone to the home of Bishr ibn Bara ibn Ma‘rur for a meal. When the time for the noon prayer arrived, he stood to lead the congregation. Two rak‘ahs were completed. During the third rak‘ah, revelation came with the following verse:

“We have certainly seen you turning your face toward the sky. So We will surely turn you toward a qiblah with which you will be pleased. Turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram. Wherever you are, turn your faces toward it in prayer.” (Surah al-Baqarah: 144)

As soon as he heard this command, the most obedient servant of Allah turned toward the Kaaba while still in prayer. Immediately, all the worshippers praying behind him also turned toward the new qiblah. Bayt al-Maqdis lies directly north of Medina, while Makkah lies to the south. Changing the qiblah in the middle of the prayer meant that the imam had to move directly from in front of those following him to the rear, and the row of worshippers had to turn directly backward. The news was then widely announced throughout Medina and its surrounding villages. Bara ibn ‘Azib reported that the news reached a mosque while the people were in bowing. As soon as they heard it, they turned toward the Kaaba in that very position. According to Anas ibn Malik, the news reached the tribe of Banu Salamah the next day at the time of the dawn prayer. The people had completed one rak‘ah and were in the second. When they heard the caller’s announcement, they immediately turned toward the new qiblah. (Tafhim al-Qur’an, Surah al-Baqarah, note 146)

The Qur’an warned the Muslims in advance about the commotion that this change was about to cause: “Soon the ignorant will create a storm of propaganda, asking, ‘What caused the Muslims to change the qiblah?’” Various questions would be raised, strange psychological reactions would appear, and relations between communities would be adversely affected. So that the Muslims could stand firmly in the face of the approaching storm of propaganda, the Qur’an explained the significance of the change of qiblah to them beforehand. It made clear that the purpose of initially making Bayt al-Maqdis the qiblah was to smash the idol of Arab nationalism to pieces, because the Arabs were unwilling to acknowledge any importance in anything outside their own ethnic circle. And now the purpose of turning from Bayt al-Maqdis toward the Kaaba was also to shatter the idol of Israelite superiority. One task had been carried out earlier; the second was now being carried out. The worshippers of Arab nationalism had already been weeded out. Now it was the turn of the worshippers of Israelite nationalism to be weeded out. In this way, society would be purified from the infestation called hypocrisy. Thereafter, only those would remain in Islamic society who regarded Allah’s command and the Messenger’s Sunnah as most important. At this point, the change through which the Islamic movement was advancing would free the Messenger’s devoted followers from all admixture with people without ideals. It would also separate those without ideals from the sincere believers who believed that both east and west belonged to Allah and that Allah alone was the true center of obedience—those who knew the profound truth that merely facing east or west was not the real righteous act. Rather, the real righteous act was the living force active within these outward formalities of the Shariah. This living force consisted of believing in Allah, the Hereafter, the angels, Allah’s Book, and His prophets, and spending wealth in the way of Allah. Therefore, what must be given the highest importance in establishing the outward formalities of your qiblah is:

Advance toward good and beneficial works; do not fear any opposing force when carrying out Allah’s great revolutionary and transformative commands. Fear Allah alone.

At the very time the Qur’an announced the command of the Lord of the universe, it also declared that this event would seem difficult and burdensome to everyone except the firm believers. When disorder arose over it, many would become bewildered. When debate spread through every street and alley, the weak would feel dizzy and their emotions would be violently stirred. Now listen to some examples of the comments made about the change of qiblah.

The polytheists said, “Look at that! Muhammad and his followers have finally recovered some of their senses. Now that they have adopted our Kaaba as the qiblah, they will gradually return to our religion as well.”

The Jews said, “The leader of Islam has become so uncontrolled by his rage in opposing us that he has even abandoned the qiblah of the prophets. If he were a prophet, he would not have abandoned this qiblah.”

The hypocrites began saying, “We cannot understand which is Muhammad’s true qiblah. It is as though a game has begun over the qiblah. They face whichever direction they please. From what we can see, the entire religion of Islam seems to be a matter of whim.”

Those who were firm believers said, “We have heard the command, obeyed it, and believed in it. All of this has come from our Lord.” (Zad al-Ma‘ad, vol. 2)

This last group of believers was caught in the storm of propaganda. From every direction, waves of questions, sophistry, mockery, and ridicule began to be hurled at them. The same discussion took place in every gathering; the same whispers circulated in every street and alley where groups congregated; and heated arguments continued at every moment. This is normal in any revolutionary movement. Such turmoil arises with every important change and every step that runs contrary to the public’s customary ideas and beliefs. In such circumstances, the movement’s workers may become frightened and disoriented, sometimes reaching the point of agitation. In view of this danger, they were advised that patience and prayer were the best means of overcoming all such critical situations. Regarding the propagandists, it was said that seeking the truth was never their aim. Rational proofs would never satisfy or pacify them. Their purpose in asking questions was merely to embarrass others. They would not be satisfied until you abandoned your ideals and principles and became their followers.

The Islamic movement was entrusted with the responsibility of presenting conclusive arguments in response to meaningless sophistry. To fulfill that responsibility, extremely sharp and irrefutable arguments were presented, and the greatness and superiority of the Sacred Kaaba were explained to the people in one passage of Surah Al ‘Imran. It was proclaimed:

“Indeed, the first House established for humankind was the one at Makkah, blessed and a source of guidance for all worlds. In it are clear signs, including the standing place of Abraham. Whoever enters it should be secure. Pilgrimage to this House is a duty owed to Allah by whoever is able to find a way to it. And whoever rejects this command should know that Allah is independent of all the worlds.” (Verses 96–97)

Regarding Bayt al-Maqdis, it was known from the Bible that Solomon had it built four hundred and fifty years after Moses. It was designated as the qiblah during Solomon’s reign. In contrast, universally accepted historical and religious accounts tell us that Abraham built the Sacred Kaaba eight or nine hundred years before Moses. The Kaaba is not merely older in terms of time; its sacred surroundings also contain extremely important signs. A highly valuable Islamic heritage is connected with it. Every part of it bears the history of raising the banner of truth and justice. In addition, the means associated with Abraham’s worship have been preserved there. Even today, this place is a source of monotheistic inspiration. The conclusive proof that this central sanctuary of worship is also accepted and chosen by Allah is that a vast human settlement has grown around this House, built in the midst of a barren desert, and people come here from very distant places. Another shining proof of its lofty status is that every kind of livelihood reaches these inhabitants of the treeless, barren desert as if of its own accord. Most important of all, in the warlike Bedouin society of Arabia, this Sacred House has stood for four thousand years as an island of peace and security. Whoever enters its protected precincts finds his life, property, and honor safe and secure. Even bloodthirsty people come under the shade of this House, sheathe their swords, and extinguish the fire of their hostility. As soon as a murderer or robber enters its protection, he becomes a peace-loving citizen. Therefore, it is the rightful claim of this House to be the spiritual center of every movement that takes the call of Abraham into the field. What has happened here that is contrary to religion or reason, that so much whispering about it is taking place in every street and alley?”

If any correct conclusion was reached as a result of this reasoning, it was reached by ordinary people. The Jews regarded the change of qiblah as a final hostile step by the Muslims. This was because all their hopes had been destroyed by it. The dream they had cherished—that the Muslims could be brought under their control—had been shattered. They understood that bringing the Muslims under control would not be easy. On the other hand, the Muslims also clearly saw all the filth in the Jews’ hearts. Every dark aspect of their mentality became clear before them. It was no longer possible to maintain toward people with such a vile mentality the good opinion on which relations with them had been based. The Muslims understood clearly that even in Medina, the Islamic movement would have to survive by relying on its own strength. It was futile to hope for any help or support from those who traded in religion and piety. Rather, the fear increasingly intensified that the Jews would obstruct the path of the Islamic movement with a mentality even more despicable than that of the unbelievers and polytheists of Makkah. Despite this fear, however, the Messenger and his Companions always maintained the standard of the ethics appropriate to callers to Islam. They did not treat the Jewish hypocrites and other hostile groups in the same manner as they behaved. In confronting sophistry, mockery, ridicule, and base conduct, the Muslims did not stoop to their level. Whenever they had something to say, they confined themselves to speaking only rational words, in a courteous and intelligent manner. They received the Jews’ excesses with patience and forbearance, adopting a generous attitude.

Nevertheless, the tension that had been confined within their hearts until then burst out like a flood breaking through its banks.

Barbarism and Vulgarity

Those who have no constructive goal, purpose, or program generally do not allow anyone else to undertake constructive work either. The sole reason is that such work proves their own emptiness before the people of the world. This was also the condition of the Jews of Medina. They had lived in Medina for a long time, but they had shown no ability to do anything to improve the moral standards of the lower classes. They had taken no steps to improve people’s minds, reform their character, teach courtesy and discipline, or instruct them in living a life of peace and security. Far from being able to manage fallen humanity, they could not even protect themselves from decline. Every social and moral disease in the world had penetrated their very marrow, and they had made no arrangements to treat any of those diseases. In such circumstances, when a new force appeared before them and began lighting in people’s minds the lamps of inspiring principles, ideals, and beliefs; when it began treating all social diseases, building a new nation with renewed vigor, forming individuals’ characters in accordance with a sacred goal and purpose, and striving with the help of those individuals to build a peaceful and just society, the Jews became enraged. They began every base effort and scheme they could devise to make this constructive movement fail. When such a negative and destructive force becomes determined to oppose someone, it puts civilization, decency, and courtesy aside. It becomes practiced at behaving in an extremely disgraceful, uncivilized, and discourteous manner. The Jews likewise began displaying extreme barbarity.

Here are two or three unforgettable examples of the evil deeds and misconduct that the Jewish community—renowned as the successors of the prophets, followers of Allah’s Book, and teachers and jurists of Allah’s law—began committing under the influence of hostility and hatred. This Jewish community regarded no one as religious or God-fearing except themselves. Yet their morality had deteriorated so far that whenever they met the Messenger, instead of saying, “Peace be upon you,” they would say, “Death be upon you.” This conduct was directed toward the great man who was working to revive the religion brought by Abraham, Moses, Jacob, Joseph, Isaac, and Ishmael; who was engaged in reviving the original spiritual force of the Torah; and who was striving to reestablish Allah’s law and commandments. Indeed, the truth is that he was actually fulfilling the duty the Jews themselves had forgotten and completing the work they had left unfinished. Once, several of them came to the Messenger’s house and behaved like thugs, using the aforementioned expression. Even Aisha reacted sharply to this misconduct from behind the curtain. She became so angry that she could not refrain from replying. She said, “Wretches, may death be upon you.” Hearing this, the Messenger said, “Aisha, be gentle.” Aisha said, “Do you hear what they said?” The Messenger said, “I heard them, but in reply I only said, ‘And upon you,’ meaning ‘and upon you as well.’ That is enough.”

Two more shameful examples of uncivilized conduct have been preserved forever in the Qur’an. Consider:

First, they would appear before the Messenger, and whenever during a conversation they felt the need to say, “Please wait a little; give us an opportunity to understand what is being said,” they would use the ambiguous word “Rā‘inā.” In Arabic, its apparent meaning is, “Give us a little time, listen to what we have to say, or pay some attention to us.” But in Hebrew, the Jews’ principal religious language, a similar-sounding word was used to mean, “Listen, may you become deaf.” Moreover, Arabic also has a nearly homophonous word derived from a similar root with a very bad meaning. For example, a word derived from “Rāyā” was “ar-rāyā,” meaning “a despicable person.” It was not difficult to alter this word into the form “Rāyāynā,” which would mean, “Our despicable person.” (Translator’s note.) Similarly, the word “Rāyānā” was used to mean becoming ignorant and foolish. Even the word “Rā’inā” could be transformed into “Rā’iyānā” by slightly twisting the tongue in pronunciation, giving it the meaning, “O our shepherd.” The leading Jewish religious figures wearing robes and turbans would skillfully shoot arrows of abusive speech in this way. How could ordinary people possess such expertise in literature and language? This was the scheme of their great and accomplished scholars. They would come from home fully prepared, having carefully thought and researched how they could behave uncivilly that day. History preserves a clear account of one of these deceitful scholars, a man named Zayd ibn Thabit. This Jewish hypocritical cleric also made a major contribution to establishing the vile example of hurling immoral and discourteous verbal attacks. Outwardly, they wore the label of great politeness and refinement. But when one looked into the depths of their hearts, one could see that a thug-like mentality was active there. Among themselves, they knew that they were mocking and ridiculing the finest man of the age. But if anyone objected, they would say, “Oh brother, do you think us discourteous? We are speaking with sufficient respect and decorum; we are merely asking you to give us an opportunity to understand and to make ourselves understood.”

Second, in the course of conversation, the Jewish scholars, successors of the prophets, would sometimes address the Messenger in these words: “Isma‘ ghayra musma‘in.” The apparent meaning of this expression was, “Please listen for a moment. You are such a revered person that nothing may be said to you without your wish or permission.” But their scheming mentality intended another meaning: “You are not worthy of being listened to at all. May Allah make you deaf, and may you be deprived of your hearing.”

Observe what filthy and despicable-minded people rose up to resist Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him.

Thirdly, when the believers sat in the Messenger’s gathering, heard something, and understood it, they would sincerely and devotedly say, by Allah’s command, “Sami‘na wa ata‘na,” meaning, “We hear and we obey.” But the bearers of the Torah behaved in an extremely theatrical manner in such situations. First, they would loudly say, “Sami‘na,” meaning, “Yes, we have heard.” Then, instead of “ata‘na” (we obey), they would slightly twist their tongues and say, “Asaina,” meaning, “We reject your command and have resolved to disobey it.” Here too the same complication arose: if anyone objected, they would express annoyance and say, “Do you consider us such bad people? Are you slandering us in your excessive opposition? Do you have no custom of showing respect to scholars and learned people outside your own circle? Are you unwilling to regard anyone besides yourselves as civilized and well-mannered?”

It is worth considering: could this kind of vile conduct cause any harm to the Messenger’s movement? Could the existence of the Islamic group be wiped out through such baseness and depravity? In reality, no constructive force can be harmed even slightly by showers of abuse and harsh words. The opponent gains only the small pleasure of releasing the accumulated steam of his negative, destructive, and bigoted mind. When these religious figures had performed such antics in the Prophet’s gathering and departed, they would surely go to their own gatherings and boast, “Today I went and gave the Prophet some very harsh words.” Sitting among their own disciples, they would surely prove their ability by explaining what meanings they had extracted and imposed by turning a single word around. They would boast of the great battles they had waged through their knowledge of language, grammar, and rhetoric.

The lesson to be learned from these misdeeds of the Jewish religious leaders is that when religious leaders fall into decline, they primarily develop the filthy disease of verbal distortion. Secondly, they lose the ability to consider the demands and requirements of humanity, courtesy, decency, and good manners. Thirdly, a shameful contradiction arises between their outward and inward conduct. Fourthly, a kind of cowardice appears among them, because of which they cannot openly express the filthy emotions in their minds. Instead, they go about labeling their base and ugly mentality with decency and courtesy. These signs are irrefutable proof of the incompetence of any ideology and mentality. In particular, wherever abusive and indecent speech is found, there can be no relationship with truth and justice. Just as the fragrance emerging from a freshly cooked dish clearly reveals the nature of the food and the quality of its spices, so every person’s speech and manner of speaking serve as a measure of his character. If the stench of indecent speech and discourteous behavior emanates from someone’s mind, one can never hope that a noble character, combining pure ideas and gentlemanly attitudes, is taking shape within him. When you see someone speaking indecently and behaving badly with a person of a different opinion, understand that he has lost the battle of reason with his opponent and has also been defeated in the battle of morality. This defeated person is now merely spewing the poison in his mind through abuse. Those who spew poison from their minds have no importance in history. They continue only to vilify, while the caravan engaged in constructive da‘wah continues moving forward.

This was not the end. When the call to prayer was introduced in Madinah, the Jews also became deeply troubled by it, since they regarded it as another religious innovation opposed to their established religious laws. In particular, they saw that the words and sentences of the adhan fully expressed the entire revolutionary call of Islam and its fundamental ideology, and that proclaiming this adhan five times a day in a loud and melodious voice was a highly effective and influential means of propagation. Its sound entered the ears of their women, children, and slaves five times every day. Imagine for a moment what silence must have prevailed in the skies and air of Madinah when this unprecedented sound was uttered in Bilal’s beautiful voice. Perhaps the hearts of everyone, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, were drawn to it. In particular, they must have perceived the difference between the sound of the adhan and that of bells and drums. Some feeling or other may also have arisen in the hearts of their people. The sound of bells and drums was merely sound; it contained neither words nor meaning. The sound of the adhan, on the other hand, was a collection of sentences resonating with simple, comprehensible meanings. No human feeling was expressed in the sound of drums and bells, whereas the call of the adhan reflected human emotion and feeling. After understanding this difference, the Jews should have admitted that the adhan was a more effective and superior means of calling people to true worship. But instead of admitting this, they became furious. They gave bizarre similes for the caller’s voice, imitated it, and distorted the words while making laughable gestures. Jealousy and envy had reduced these false devotees to the level of clowns. But how could the work being done by the adhan be stopped through mockery and clowning?

The Jews’ vulgarity went so far that they even made Allah Himself its target. For example, instead of accepting the straightforward meaning of the Qur’anic verse, “Who is ready to lend Allah a loan?” they began mocking it by saying, “Now Allah Almighty has become poor too. He has also begun asking His servants for loans.” Few examples of such shamelessness and insolence toward Allah can be found. Likewise, wherever the Qur’an presented mosquitoes, flies, and similar small things as examples and offered their existence as an argument, the Jews found an opportunity to create a storm of ridicule. They would say, “The God of the Muslims is strange too. Even when giving examples, He can find nothing besides insignificant creatures like mosquitoes and flies. How can a Qur’an that mentions such insignificant things be the Book of Allah?” See what an utterly silencing answer they received in Allah’s statement:

“Indeed, Allah is not ashamed to present an example—of a mosquito or something even smaller. Those who are prepared to accept the truth know from these examples that it is the truth from their Lord. But those who are not prepared to accept it say, ‘What does Allah intend by such an example?’” (Surah al-Baqarah 2:26)

Ridiculous Demands

The Jews’ insolence took the form of demanding proof and developed into an absurdly ridiculous state. They began saying to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, “Why does Allah not speak to us?” (Al-Baqarah 2:117) In other words, why does Allah secretly send angels to you and secretly convey His message to you? Let Allah come down to the world, appear before our eyes, and tell us face-to-face, “This is My command; follow it, and here is My Prophet, so obey him.” If He does not wish to do even that, then let Him at least send some clear and conclusive sign after which no one can deny that you are His Prophet and that the Qur’an is His word.

They even specified what this conclusive sign should be so that they could be satisfied and content. It is known from historical and biographical works that this demand became very important among the Jews. It continued to be discussed for a long time and was repeatedly raised before the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him.

First, listen to how this demand arose. Before the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, arrived, the Jews of Madinah would deliberately pray for the immediate appearance of a future prophet in order to frighten Aws and Khazraj. But as soon as the Messenger appeared as a prophet, they immediately changed their attitude and became determined to deny and disobey him. Their overnight change of face raised questions among the public. People would come and ask them, “What is the matter? Previously you yourselves used to pray and foretell that a prophet would come. And now you yourselves have become enraged against the prophet who has appeared!” In particular, at one gathering, leading figures such as Mu‘adh ibn Jabal and Bishr ibn Bara ibn Ma‘rur openly said to the Jewish leaders, “O Jewish community! Fear Allah and bow your heads. You yourselves used to ask Allah to bring Muhammad’s appearance so that you could gain power over us. We were polytheists, and you were the ones who told us that this prophet had appeared and described his qualities to us.” It is easy to imagine how such exchanges exposed the Jews’ false front. They must have realized what the public thought of them. To preserve their reputation for religiosity and piety, they had become compelled to take refuge behind some shield. What was that shield? To learn this, listen to the answer to the above question from the lips of Salam ibn Mishkam, a Jewish leader of Banu Nadir. He said: “Muhammad did not bring with him any proof by which we could recognize him as a prophet. Therefore, Muhammad is not the person whose coming we used to mention to you.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Ibn al-Silviya al-Fat‘yuni also said exactly this directly to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. In other words, they needed some final sign. Determining that sign was also the Jews’ responsibility: they could demand whatever sign they wished. Similarly, people were asking them about the pledge taken from earlier prophets to accept the final Prophet. But they evaded this question by giving one excuse or another. The Jew Malik ibn al-Qat’id once stated plainly, “By Allah, no pledge concerning Muhammad was taken from us.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

For them, there was no sign in the Qur’an’s holy words and conclusive arguments; no sign in the Messenger’s character; no sign in the movement that brought about a radical transformation in life; and no sign in the growing group of soldiers of truth. Even the sacrifices and self-offering of the small number of Muslims confronting the powerful forces of persecution and oppression contained no sign capable of stirring their consciences. They wanted only something astonishing or amusing.

Now listen to what kind of signs they were demanding.

Rafi‘ ibn Huraymala and Wahb ibn Yazid came to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and said during a discussion,

“O Muhammad, bring us an entire book written and sent down from heaven; we will read it, and make a spring flow before us. Only then will we follow you and testify to your truthfulness.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

This Rafi‘ ibn Huraymala also demanded, “O Muhammad, if you are Allah’s Messenger, as you claim, then ask Allah to speak to us in such a way that we can hear Him.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

At another discussion, Jewish leaders including Fakhkhas and ‘Abdullah ibn Sabur were speaking with the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. They said, “O Muhammad, is it really true that no jinn or human being teaches you this Qur’an?” The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “You know very well that this Qur’an has come from Allah and that I am Allah’s Messenger. You find this truth written in your Torah as well.” They said, “O Muhammad, whatever you say, it remains true that when Allah sends a messenger, He does for that messenger whatever he asks, and the messenger is given power by Allah to demonstrate whatever he wishes. Therefore, bring down a written scripture from heaven for us, which we can read and know.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

The Jews had found a shield. The questions of what the Messenger’s call was, what he taught, what his arguments and proofs were, what kind of life his call produced, what kind of character his teachings developed, and what kind of cultural system was being built through his constructive efforts all became irrelevant to them. Their sole demand now became, “Show us a book brought down from heaven.” They had found an excuse to silence everyone. Whenever anyone said anything about it, they would give a clear reply: “We are ready to believe. But go and tell Muhammad to show us some sign. Allah’s beloved servants obtain whatever they want from Allah. What kind of messenger is he if Allah does not fulfill his request? O people, leave these divisive discussions. Go to one of Allah’s beloved servants.” This was nothing but evasion.

The Jews’ Shylock-like Conduct

It is universally known that as the pressure of the Muhajirun on Madinah’s limited means and resources increased, and people without resources or shelter became engaged in rebuilding their economic lives, poverty and hunger spread widely among most workers of the Islamic movement. In this trial of poverty and hunger, the leader of the Islamic movement himself and his family were equal participants with his ordinary companions. Indeed, the main share of the trial fell upon him. Misfortune never comes alone. Alongside the hardship of poverty and hunger, illness also spread among the Muhajirun. The new climate did not suit the newcomers. They began falling ill one after another. Along with inadequate food, a painful fever that spread like an epidemic reduced the Muhajirun to skin and bone and left them unable to pursue economic activity. On one side, the Islamic movement was facing ever-new problems and opposition. The newly established Islamic state needed reconstruction in every respect. All kinds of threats came from external and internal enemies. Able-bodied people were increasingly confined to their beds. There was not enough food or clothing. The strength by which this small revolutionary group overcame such circumstances was faith in Allah, love for its purpose, and mutual brotherhood. In reality, faith and brotherhood are the central strength of individuals and organizations that accomplish great historical tasks. This strength kept even the physically weak strong and considerably reduced the impact of shortages of resources and support. Even amid this, the struggle against the hostile environment was greatly weakened by the widespread epidemic. At that time, a rumor also spread that the Jews of Madinah had cast magic and that the Muslims would no longer be able to survive there. To understand how critical the situation was at that time, listen to the statements of some of the Messenger’s Companions.

Abu Bakr was tossing in agony on his sickbed and expressing his anxiety by reciting a poem:

******

“Everyone remains with his own family, while death is nearer to him than his shoelace.”

Meanwhile, Bilal was turning from side to side on his sickbed. Despite suffering intense pain, he continued reciting poetry, the meaning of which was:

“Now I am recalling the plains, mountains, and springs of Makkah. Will I ever spend a night again in the plain where the azkhar and julayl grasses grow? Will I ever bathe again in the water of the Majannah spring, or ever see the mountains of Shama and Tufayl again?”

‘Amir was singing: “I encountered death before tasting death. The coward’s death comes upon him.” He was suffering such intense physical pain that it was as though he had heard the footsteps of death before death arrived.”

Shaddad was also ill. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, came to visit this companion. Groaning in pain, the patient said, “Perhaps drinking the water of Bathan would help.” The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Go there. Who is stopping you?” The patient said, “What about the Hijrah?” The Messenger comforted him, saying, “Go there. Wherever you go, you will remain a Muhajir.”

After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, when the Muslims went to Makkah, their bodies were extremely weak because they had repeatedly suffered from illness. Seeing their condition, the people of Makkah taunted them, saying, “Do not return to Madinah.” Because of this taunt, the Muslims walked in a heroic manner at the Messenger’s instruction.

For these reasons, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, used to say: (********)

“That is, the Hijrah is no child’s game; rather, it is an extremely difficult undertaking. Once, a Bedouin came to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and accepted Islam. But as soon as he came to Madinah, he developed a fever. Considering Islam to be inauspicious, he abandoned Islam and left. On this occasion, the Messenger said, ‘Madinah is like a goldsmith’s furnace: it expels the dross and separates out the pure gold.’ (Bukhari) In other words, those who undertake the great work of a movement must face trials at every step. Only people of genuine faith pass that trial. Those who merely pretend to have faith separate themselves at one stage or another. Thus, this period of trial by fire in Madinah was serving the role of a goldsmith’s furnace. (Uswah-e-Sahaba, Maulana Abdur Salam Nadwi)

It was at this time that the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, supplicated to Allah in a pleading voice: “O Allah! Make Madinah as beloved to us as You made Makkah, or even more so. Bless its food grains for us, and transfer the epidemic that has come to Madinah to Mahya.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

On the other hand, poverty and hunger had created an extremely alarming situation. It goes without saying how difficult it was to establish the foundations of economic life in a new place and arrange lawful means of livelihood there—especially when new areas of expenditure were arising before the movement at every moment. The history and seerah works are filled with painful accounts of the disastrous conditions through which the soldiers of truth had to pass during this period.

Abu Talhah described the conditions during this period of disaster as follows:

We became distressed by the pain of hunger and went to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, seeking help. We explained the entire situation and exposed our stomachs to show that, because we had fasted for several consecutive days, we had tied a stone around our stomachs (to prevent a particular kind of inflammation arising in the stomach). After seeing this, that greatest person in human history also exposed his stomach, where not one but two stones were tied. Seeing this, we who had been relating our own tales of suffering felt comforted. (Shama’il al-Tirmidhi, chapter on the life of the Prophet)

Once, in a similar situation, Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, came and wished to describe his hardship to gain comfort. But he remained silent, thinking that this would needlessly increase the Messenger’s distress. A short while later, ‘Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, arrived. He too was afflicted by the same hardship. When asked why he had come, he openly said, “I have become distraught from hunger.” Hearing this, the Messenger said, “My condition is the same.” It was decided that they should all go together to Abu al-Haytham, a relatively prosperous Companion who owned a garden. When the three reached him, they found that the poor man had gone to fetch water himself because he had no servant. Returning and seeing his visitors, he embraced them with overwhelming joy. Then he took them into the garden and gave them dates to eat. They ate the dates, drank water, prayed for Abu al-Haytham, and returned. (Shama’il al-Tirmidhi)

Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas once related: “I was the first member of the Islamic movement whose hand shed the blood of an enemy of Islam, and I was the first to shoot an arrow on the field of jihad. We fought jihad in such conditions that eating tree leaves and the fruit of the siqac trees caused sores to form in our mouths, and our stools became like those of camels and goats.” [This incident is also taken from Shama’il al-Tirmidhi. Although it occurred somewhat later, it gives a general idea of the economic crisis in Madinah.]

The Messenger’s close companion, Abu Hurayrah, reported: “Once I fainted from hunger between the pulpit of the Prophet’s Mosque and the room of ‘A’ishah. People would press my neck with their feet, thinking that I had been possessed by a jinn (and doing so as a form of treatment). But I had not been possessed by a jinn; this condition was caused only by the pangs of hunger. (See Shama’il al-Tirmidhi, chapter on the life of the Prophet.) Abu Hurayrah also reported: Once I was traveling somewhere with ‘Umar. We were discussing the explanation of a verse as we walked. Suddenly I fainted and fell down. This happened because of hunger.”

In such circumstances, although the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, would immediately spend the goods arriving in the Bayt al-Mal to relieve the Companions’ hunger, the crisis was so extensive that the income of the Bayt al-Mal, together with the open-handed donations of the prosperous Muhajirun and Ansar, was still insufficient. Besides the ordinary hungry Muhajirun, the permanent residents of the Ahl al-Suffah (the needy Companions who stayed continually in the Prophet’s Mosque) also depended on substantial assistance. Guests arrived constantly. Bedouins would come at all times to accept Islam, meet the Messenger, and ask about the rulings of the Shari‘ah; those seeking help would come and request assistance; and one group of Muhajirun after another continued to arrive. In such circumstances, how far could the Bayt al-Mal cope? When pressure from the needs of the companions and the needy increased, the Messenger would appeal for help, and everyone would give whatever he could, sincerely. Sometimes loans were taken. It was not possible to obtain many loans from within the Muslim community, so they had to approach wealthy Jews. The Jews were seasoned usurious moneylenders, and their web of interest-based lending was spread throughout the entire area. But the purpose for which they lent money to Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, and his companions was more frightening than usury itself: they intended to subjugate them through money and assistance. With this mentality, when collecting their loans they assumed the very form of Shylock and behaved insultingly. The polytheists were no different. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and his companions themselves had to endure these bitter experiences. Many such incidents have been recorded in historical and seerah works. Those who devoted their lives to the welfare of the world endured such suffering. Even in this most desperate situation, the faith of the soldiers of Islam and their struggle to achieve their goal did not weaken in the slightest.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) had instructed his close companion and personal assistant, Bilal, to spend freely from the wealth received in the Bayt al-Mal for the needs of the Islamic movement and its soldiers. Bilal did so. Once, ninety thousand dirhams arrived and were piled on a mat. Sitting there, the Messenger (peace be upon him) distributed the money among the needy. Not a single dirham remained. After the distribution was over, when a person seeking assistance came, he ordered that a loan be taken for him. Abu Hurayrah narrated that once dates had been piled up before Bilal. The Messenger (peace be upon him) asked, “What is this wealth?” Bilal replied, “It has been kept for some unknown need in the future.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Do you know that because you have withheld this wealth in this way, the smoke of Hell may reach you on the Day of Resurrection? Distribute this as well. O Bilal, fear nothing from the One who possesses absolute power.” Bilal narrated that once a polytheist from Madinah came to him and said, “I have plenty of wealth. Take it whenever you need it.” Bilal began taking loans from him. One day, as Bilal was performing ablution and preparing to give the call to prayer, that creditor suddenly came with several merchants and began shouting, “You Abyssinian!” Bilal went up to him. He became extremely agitated and began berating him. He warned that the month was nearly over and that if the loan was not repaid on time, he would—according to the Arab custom of the Age of Ignorance—enslave him. Then he would return to his former condition. Bilal said, “I felt embarrassed by this insulting treatment just as any other respectable person would have.” After the night prayer, Bilal went to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to report this distressing incident. Finding no way to repay the debt, he expressed his intention to disappear and said, “I will return once arrangements have been made to repay the debt.” But before Bilal could carry out his intention, the Messenger (peace be upon him) summoned him the next morning. When he arrived, he saw four camels laden with goods standing there, sent by the ruler of Fadak. The creditor was summoned and the debt was repaid; the remaining goods were distributed as usual.

Abu Hadr al-Aslami, a soldier of the Islamic movement, became indebted to a Jew. He possessed nothing with which to repay the debt except the clothes he was wearing. Abu Hadr asked the Jew for more time. But that usurious creditor refused to grant even a little time. He seized Abu Hadr and brought him to the Messenger (peace be upon him), saying, “Arrange for my due to be paid.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) told Abu Hadr, “Repay the debt.” Abu Hadr offered an excuse. But seeing the creditor’s inflexible attitude, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Repay it however you can.” The Companion again said, “The battle of Khaybar is near. I hope it will be possible to repay it after returning from there.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) again sternly ordered him to free himself from this trouble. In the end, the Jew left only after taking the clothes Abu Hadr was wearing. Abu Hadr removed his turban and wrapped it around his waist. Observe the nature of the Jewish creditor’s oppression over such a small debt: he was not satisfied until he had taken the debtor’s clothes.

Jabir ibn Abdullah was another prominent figure in the Islamic movement. He lived in Madinah and was quite prosperous. Nevertheless, from time to time necessity forced him to borrow from a Jewish creditor. Once, because the date harvest was poor, he could not repay the loan on time and obtained an extension until the next harvest. The next harvest was poor as well. The creditor was no longer willing to grant him time. Finally, he too went to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to describe his plight. The Messenger (peace be upon him) went to the Jew’s house with several Companions. He requested that the Jew give Jabir a little more time. But the Jew refused. The Messenger (peace be upon him) walked around for a while, then returned and discussed the matter with the Jew again. But the hard-hearted creditor’s heart did not soften. Afterward, the Messenger (peace be upon him) slept for a short while. Upon waking, he made the same request again. The man remained unyielding. Finally, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went and stood in Jabir’s date orchard and told him, “Bring down the dates.” When the dates were brought down, a harvest beyond expectation was found. The debt was repaid, and some remained as well. (The Life of the Prophet, Shibli Nu‘mani)

The Messenger’s (peace be upon him) personal armor was pledged to a Jew. Even by the time of his death, he had not accumulated enough money to redeem that armor. (The Life of the Prophet, Shibli)

Once, a Bedouin came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and began pressing him to repay a debt. In his customary manner, he spoke with extreme agitation. The Companions explained to him that he should consider whom he was speaking to. He said, “I am only asking for what is owed to me.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) told the Companions, “You should support him, for this is his due.” He then ordered that the man’s due be paid and gave him somewhat more than what was owed. (The Life of the Prophet, Shibli)

The incident of Zayd ibn Sa‘nah provides further insight into this crisis. He was a Jewish scholar who was verifying the truth of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) claim to prophethood in light of various signs. He relates that a Bedouin came and met the Messenger (peace be upon him). He said, “My tribe has become Muslim. When I invited them to Islam, I told them that if they accepted Islam, Allah would give them abundant wealth. Unfortunately, famine has appeared instead. If they are not helped now, there is a danger that they will abandon Islam.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) looked questioningly at Ali. Ali said, “At this moment, there is nothing.” Zayd ibn Sa‘nah said, “Take eighty mithqals of gold from me. In return, give me dates during the harvest season.” The agreement was concluded. The Messenger (peace be upon him) took the gold and gave it to the Bedouin. One day, when two or three days remained before the appointed term, the Messenger (peace be upon him) had prayed over someone’s funeral with several Companions and was standing beside a wall. Zayd seized the Messenger’s shirt and cloak and said very roughly, “O Muhammad! Why do you not repay my debt? By Allah, I know very well what sort of people you descendants of Abd al-Muttalib are. You are accustomed to not repaying debts.”

Umar looked sharply at Zayd. Then he said, “O enemy of Allah! By Allah, if I did not fear being reprimanded by the Messenger, I would have struck off your head.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said to Umar, “Umar! In this situation, you should have advised me to repay the debt properly, and advised this man to ask for his debt back in a courteous manner.” Then he said, “Go and pay him what is due to him. And instead of rebuking him, give him an additional twenty sa‘ of dates.”

In reality, this incident was Zayd ibn Sa‘nah’s final test of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) prophethood. He revealed his identity to Umar and accepted Islam with Umar as his witness. He then donated half of his property to the Muslim community. This Zayd ibn Sa‘nah held a particularly distinguished position among the Jewish creditors. Yet this incident also shows the financial hardship in which the Islamic movement and its members lived, how many loans they had to take because of the crisis, and how harshly they had to be treated by creditors.

The Jews and wealthy polytheists used the weapon of moneylending against the Islamic movement on the one hand. On the other, they tried to dissuade Muslims from spending wealth in the way of Allah, so that the movement would become weak through financial scarcity. For this purpose, they mocked the verses that encouraged giving in the way of Allah. They would say, “Look, even the Muslims’ Allah has become bankrupt and is begging for loans.” At other times they would say, “Allah’s hand is shackled.” These words passed from the mouths of the Jews to the hypocrites, who repeated them, thereby corrupting the entire environment. On the other hand, they would meet Muslims accustomed to giving and say, “Why are you wasting your own wealth? What benefit do you gain by feeding and supporting a few beggars from Makkah? Take care of your own children. Invest your wealth in trade and business. Where did you find such a foolish field for investing your wealth?” It is concerning these Jews and hypocrites who conducted these smear campaigns that the Qur’an says: ******** “That is, they teach people to be miserly.” They would sit among the Ansar, posing as well-wishers, and say, “Do not squander your money like this. You will fall into poverty and hardship. So do not spend so much wealth on the Islamic movement. Try to understand what the situation may become.” (The Life of Ibn Hisham)

Meanwhile, among the members of the fifth column serving as the Jews’ puppets, people whispered, “Stop spending money on the companions of the Messenger (peace be upon him). Let them scatter in all directions.” (Surah al-Munafiqun, verse 7)

What a far-sighted, sinister plan it was! On the one hand, they sought to cut off the source of the desire and enthusiasm to give in the way of Allah. On the other, by acting as creditors, they attempted to crush the Islamic movement through their Shylock-like oppression. Had this plan succeeded, the Islamic revolution could have been defeated without confronting it in the fields of faith, reason, practice, and character. But since the matter was connected with Allah, the All-Knowing and Almighty, His subtle planning thwarted the conspiracy of the enemies of Islam.

The central matter in this story is the patient character and conduct of the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the noble Companions, which manifested itself in response to the vile oppression of their opponents. Even in the most chaotic and painful circumstances, they did not allow their high moral standards to descend in the slightest. It is impossible to fully comprehend what great and brilliant examples of humanity they were.

The Fifth Column Formed by the Jews

The thousands of lessons of human history testify that whenever a movement has been conducted with sincerity and devotion for the sake of honesty and human welfare, and has advanced toward victory, one of the forces resisting it has consisted of those who openly engage in conflict and use the weapons of their time, fighting until the very last moment. The other force consists of anarchists and subversives who, because of their moral degradation and baseness, descend to the lowest levels of cowardice and deceit and devote themselves to spreading webs of conspiracy from the secret lairs of hypocrisy. The reactionary conduct of the polytheists of Makkah represented the first force, while the Jews of Madinah and their dependents represented the latter.

Since the Islamic movement had taken the form of a state, and this state was growing before everyone’s eyes while conscientious, active, and industrious people joined it from every direction, the opposing forces were suffering the terrible effects of inferiority and vindictiveness. Yet they had no means of expressing the agitation within them or influencing the situation. In opposition to Islamic belief and ideology, the Jews possessed no constructive doctrine that was reasonable, straightforward, attractive to the people, and capable of creating excitement. They possessed only some lifeless and hollow beliefs, capable of obstructing the course of history and creating paralysis and stagnation in human nature. The Islamic movement had gathered a people of elevated moral character, while the Jews possessed no people of comparable moral character capable of standing before them. The people they had were morally lower than even the desired minimum standard of humanity. They had no inspiration or driving force left with which to lift themselves from this fallen state. The ancient type of person produced by Judaism was not even fit to stand before the new human being created by the Qur’anic call to rebuild humanity. However much they created misunderstanding and hostility through propaganda, the Jewish force was increasingly compelled to retreat in the field of argument. Whatever they might think of themselves, the forces of history were on the side of the Islamic movement. In the arena of reality, the Jews were continually receiving powerful blows. Contemporary human society was moving forward, leaving them behind and raising the banner of the Islamic way of life. In the political arena, the Jews longed to destroy the Islamic revolution. But the treaty of friendship bound their hands. In this context, they became utterly incapable and helpless. This sense of incapacity and helplessness combined with the fundamental features of their character and assumed the form of cowardice. The rival mentality that becomes active in people amid helplessness and cowardice invariably carries them, through envy and hatred, to the secret lair of hypocrisy. Thus, instead of attacking the opponent from the front, it strikes secretly from behind. Instead of open banditry, it plots burglary. The Jewish community adopted this cowardly role.

The actual circumstances created two conducive conditions for the emergence of the vile circle of hypocrites. First was the vengeful mentality of the Jewish circle and their dependents. Since this mentality lacked the power for a direct attack, the secret lair of hypocrisy became active. Second, seeing Islam’s growing power, many began entering through this hidden path in order to secure their own future.

The Jewish mind opened this hidden path. Their prominent leaders concealed their hostile mentality, donned the cloak of Islam, and began entering the Islamic organization. The following distinguished figures of Banu Qaynuqa entered Islam as a “fifth column”:

(1) Sa‘d ibn Hanif (2) Zayd ibn Lusait (3) Nu‘man ibn Awf ibn Amr (4) Rafi‘ ibn Huraymala (5) Rifa‘ah ibn Zayd ibn Tabut (6) Salsalah ibn Barham (7) Kinana ibn Surayya.

Among them, Zayd ibn Lusait was the person who had started a brawl with Umar in the market of Banu Qaynuqa. In addition, when the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) she-camel went missing, this man mocked him, saying, “He claims to receive reports from the heavens, yet he does not know where his she-camel is now!” In reply, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “I know nothing except what Allah informs me of. Now Allah has informed me about the she-camel. It is in such-and-such a field, and its halter is caught on a tree.” When the Companions hurried off to search, they saw with their own eyes that it was exactly as he had said.

Rafi‘ ibn Huraymala was such a high-ranking hypocrite that on the day he died, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Today one of the leading chiefs of the hypocrites has died.” Rifa‘ah ibn Zayd ibn Tabut was another such person. When a storm arose as the people were returning from the expedition against Banu al-Mustaliq, they became frightened. The Messenger (peace be upon him) comforted them, saying, “This storm has come to punish a hypocrite chief.” When they reached Madinah, everyone learned that Rifa‘ah had died in that very storm. (The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2)

Interestingly, all those who joined the ranks of the hypocrites were elderly and prosperous. They were selfish and hard-hearted. The young people generally supported the Islamic movement. Only one young man, Qays ibn Amr ibn Sahl, is found among the fifth column.

This circle was not so limited. In reality, these few individuals were the leaders and commanders of the fifth column. They also recruited new hypocrites from among their acquaintances. Moreover, they sought out weak people among the Muslims, influenced and used them, spread doubts among them, and added mockery and ridicule to important matters in Muslim gatherings, thereby spoiling the atmosphere. They would go to the mosque, listen to all important discussions, and report them at their own meetings. At night they held conspiratorial meetings, devising new harmful plans and implementing them in new ways. The awkward conduct created by the hypocrites was well known to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslims because of its inherent abnormality. At the same time, through revelation, their thoughts, activities, conspiracies, and even particular signs of their crime-prone consciences continued to be identified at every level. Once, the conduct of these hypocrite leaders became intolerable in the Prophet’s Mosque. During a general gathering, this group sat completely apart and engaged in separate whispering. Seeing this, the Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered them to leave the mosque. Some were so closely attached to one another that they were expelled while holding hands and embracing each other.

The central leadership of this circle of hypocrites was concentrated in the person of Abdullah ibn Ubayy. This man was the principal villain in the drama of spreading slander against A’ishah. Hatred, malice, and vindictiveness toward the Islamic revolution were mixed into his very marrow. Hear from Usayd ibn Hudayr the main reason for this incurable hatred and malice. During the expedition against Banu al-Mustaliq, he said to the Messenger (peace be upon him) concerning Abdullah ibn Ubayy:

“O Messenger of Allah! Be somewhat compassionate toward this man’s grief-stricken feelings. When you arrived in Madinah, we had completed all preparations to place him on the royal throne. A crown was being made for him. Your arrival reduced his plans to ashes. The poor man is venting that resentment.” (Tafhim al-Qur’an, introduction to Surah al-Nur)

Those whose plans are ruined by a call or movement, and whose interests fail after reaching the threshold of success, spend their entire lives restless, carrying poison in their hearts. Such defeated rivals can never forgive their opponents. This was also the case with Islam. Abdullah ibn Ubayy had carried the bitter memory of his failure from the very first day, and carried it throughout his life. He accepted Islam at the outset so that he could make a place for himself within this new power and gradually rise from within it to the highest level of power and leadership. But whoever wished to advance through this system had to follow the path of faith and righteous deeds. Thus Abdullah ibn Ubayy had no alternative but to remain a hypocrite. His hypocrisy was concealed at first. But one day, by circumstances, this filthy disease of his heart became exposed publicly.

One day, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went to visit the sick Companion Sa‘d ibn Ubadah. He was riding a donkey, with Usamah ibn Zayd seated behind him. Usamah himself relates that on the way, Abdullah ibn Ubayy was sitting in a gathering. Members of his own tribe were seated around him. When he saw the Messenger (peace be upon him) passing by, he turned away in annoyance. The Messenger (peace be upon him) went to him and offered greetings. He then paused, recited a passage from the Qur’an, invited him to Islam, reminded him of Allah, and warned him about his anger. Abdullah ibn Ubayy sat silently, holding his breath. But when the Messenger (peace be upon him) finished speaking and departed, he shouted in extremely rude and indecent language, “Hey, you! This way of speaking is not proper. Go sit in your own house. Say whatever you wish to say to whoever comes to you. Do not bother anyone who does not come to you. Do not go to someone’s house and, uninvited, offer an invitation that he does not like.” Observe how every word is filled with poison! What filthy and hurtful language, and what provocative emotion!

In reality, these words did not belong to Abdullah ibn Ubayy as an individual. They were the poisonous outburst of a declining Age of Ignorance against the age of prosperity that was approaching.

From his exalted position, the Messenger (peace be upon him) heard this vulgar babble. On hearing it, perhaps his noble heart was stirred by compassion rather than anger.

Abdullah ibn Rawahah, a member of the Muslim group, was also present in the gathering. His sense of self-respect moved him to perform his duty. He replied to the hypocrite leader in a forceful voice: “Why should the Messenger (peace be upon him) not come? We want him. He will come to our homes and gatherings. We love him, and it is through him that Allah has honored us.”

After this experience on the way, the leader of humanity went to visit Sa‘d ibn Ubadah. Seeing an unusual expression on the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) face, Sa‘d asked the reason. The Messenger (peace be upon him) related what had happened. Sa‘d also explained the same background, saying, “When Allah brought you to Madinah, we were making a crown for him. By coming here, you shattered his dream of kingship.” He meant that this reaction was natural and that it was better not to attach importance to it.

This man continued to act on the stage of history as the principal villain in the entire drama of hypocrisy. He was its chief instigator. Behind him stood the blessing of major leaders. Behind them stood groups of conscious hypocrites and immature Muslims. Behind everyone stood ignorant and foolish Bedouins. These various classes successively contributed to every reactionary step taken against the Islamic movement. The Jews influenced this distorted and destructive force of hypocrites, and it played a major role in all the opposition and resistance faced by the Muslims in Madinah and in all the conspiracies confronting the Messenger (peace be upon him). Although leadership of all hostile activities remained in Jewish hands, the hypocrites who acted as the Jews’ puppets were in practice chiefly responsible for the negative incidents arranged to obstruct the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) path.

Propaganda Activities

When an idle, anarchic group comes up against a reformative and constructive movement, it throws itself wholeheartedly against the movement’s leaders and workers. They themselves want to do nothing and feel no responsibility toward Allah or the people. Therefore, they readily devote all their energy and talent to negative activities. Like ghosts, such people surround the leaders and workers of reformative and constructive movements from every side and try to search out their faults through telescopes. They dissect every word, action, and incident. Then, as soon as they find the slightest deviation or defect, they begin beating the drum and proclaiming, “O people! Look, they are involved in misguidance, deviation, and disbelief. Such-and-such an act opposes the ancient scholars; it insults the great imams and criticizes the great saints.” When, driven by blind opposition, they seek to harm a good person and his work for the public good, they point out faults in every good deed on the one hand. On the other, even when those who work commit the slightest mistake, they magnify it enormously, publicize it, and inflame public opinion. The greatest opportunity for subversives arises when an event goes against the mistaken notions, superstitions, and evil customs of ordinary people, even if the event itself is correct and just. It is universally known that reformative, constructive, and revolutionary movements must oppose many popular practices. Therefore, there is always some issue available for hostile propaganda. The Messenger (peace be upon him) and the noble Companions faced precisely this situation at the hands of the Jews. Every morning and evening, some commotion or other took place, and some form of propaganda was launched.

The Accusation of Ambition for Office

In every age, opponents have slandered every bearer of truth, seeking to smear his sincerity and devotion with some selfish motive, claiming that he is an office-seeker, that he wants to become someone important. The same allegation was made against Moses and Aaron: that they wanted to seize the state throne. Slander was spread against Jesus, claiming that he wanted to become king of the Jews. When the delegation from Najran arrived, the Jews slandered the Messenger (peace be upon him), claiming that he was playing with the lives of so many people only to seize the rank Jesus (peace be upon him) had held. They claimed that he wanted Christians and others to begin worshipping him. Notice that the Messenger (peace be upon him) never made any such claim. He never even hinted at a desire to obtain such a throne or office. Yet, from the fertile imaginations of his opponents, such an imaginary accusation was fabricated and invented: that Muhammad (peace be upon him) intended to have himself worshipped like Jesus (peace be upon him). What if he did not make the claim verbally? Surely it existed in his heart; even if not today, signs indicated that someday in the future he would make it. Because such ramblings had been put into the ears of the Najran delegation, one of its members, Abunafe Qarzhi, openly asked the Messenger (peace be upon him), “Do you want the Muslims to worship you just as the Christians worship Jesus (peace be upon him)?” Another member asked, “Do you want us to worship you, and is that what you are calling us to?” He replied, “I seek refuge in Allah from worshipping anyone besides Allah or calling people to worship anyone besides Him. Allah neither sent me for this purpose nor commanded me to do so.” (The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2) At this point, the Quran also clearly declared: “It is not proper for any human being that Allah should give him the Book, wisdom and prophethood, and then he should say to people, ‘Become servants of me instead of Allah.’”

The accusation of insulting universally recognized religious symbols

After the Leader of humanity (peace be upon him) migrated to Medina, a renewed desire for revenge began to stir in Mecca, and they constantly considered launching an attack on Medina. Their spies roamed around Medina. Correspondence had begun between them and the Jews of Medina, and their military units would repeatedly reach the borders of the Islamic state. In response, the Islamic state also established a system of patrols. Military and civilian units conducted patrols and monitored the movements of the Quraysh spies and military units. Through these activities, Medina wanted to make the Quraysh understand that we were not asleep. At the same time, they were warned that if they destroyed the peaceful environment, the routes of their commercial caravans would be closed.

Under this patrol system, in Rajab of the second year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a force of eight men to investigate the movements and future plans of the Quraysh. This force was not authorized to take any military action. However, they unexpectedly encountered a small commercial caravan of the Quraysh. The confrontation became so tense that the soldiers of the Islamic state attacked and killed one of the men. They arrested the rest and brought them to Medina along with their merchandise. Since the incident occurred at night, at the end of Rajab and the beginning of Sha’ban, the Quraysh of Mecca on one side, and the Jews and hypocrites of Medina on the other, exploited the opportunity for suspicion and unleashed a storm of propaganda. They linked the incident definitively to the sacred month of Rajab and began inciting the people: “They want to become Allah’s beloved servants, yet they do not hesitate to shed blood even in a sacred month.” (Towards Understanding the Quran)

The result of this propaganda was extremely harmful to the Muslims. This small, young power was already surrounded on every side by enemies and dangers. The support of any individual or group was therefore immensely valuable to it. It was highly dangerous for the belief to spread throughout Arabia that they were violating the sanctity of the sacred months. The stability of Arabia’s religious and economic system depended on that sanctity being preserved. There was a danger that even the Muslims’ supporters would turn against them. Moreover, since this matter was connected with the people’s sensitive religious feelings, it could also become a cause of provocation. In particular, this propaganda could destroy people’s trust in the Muslims’ fear of Allah, religious devotion and moral responsibility. The incident at Nakhla was also deemed objectionable by the Islamic state itself for another reason: the Messenger (peace be upon him) had not authorized this force to engage in any conflict. Despite receiving no proper instruction, the force had taken an action that could undermine the very purpose of the Islamic state’s patrol system and damage the plan developed for that purpose. Steps were being taken with the utmost caution to implement this plan. Since the Nakhla incident was wholly an unlawful and unauthorized action, the Messenger (peace be upon him) rigorously questioned those involved, punished them, and refused to accept the detained men as prisoners of war or deposit their merchandise in the public treasury.

The Islamic state took, according to its own rules and discipline, the measures appropriate for this unauthorized action. But when the opponents began their propaganda over it, the Islamic state confronted them with an even more rational, morally compelling and clear, yet crushing, reply. Allah Himself gave the Messenger (peace be upon him) the answer through revelation, saying:

“They ask you about fighting in the sacred month. Say: Fighting in it is a grave matter. But barring people from the way of Allah, denying Him, preventing His servants from reaching the Sacred Mosque and expelling its people from it are far graver in Allah’s sight. And persecution is more serious than killing.” (Al-Baqarah, 2:217)

It is clear from this that, influenced and troubled by the vigorous propaganda of Islam’s opponents, the Muslims asked what Islam’s view was of warfare in a sacred month. Those who held an unbalanced notion of honesty and peacefulness, and who became alarmed at the slightest opposition, grew especially anxious: Had we not lost Islam’s true spirit and fear of Allah? Had we, under the influence of excessive political enthusiasm, moved away from our real objective and ourselves driven the people away? The unease of such people was unusual, and their peace of mind was being destroyed. This state of mind was particularly active behind the question. In this connection, the opponents of Islam too were given a crushing reply. Allah said that the polytheists of Mecca, who were guilty of the grave crimes of preventing people from following the path of Allah, disobeying Allah, preventing visitors from entering the Sacred Sanctuary, and harassing its residents and expelling them from the Sacred Sanctuary, were now coming onto the field as guardians of the sanctity of the sacred month—by what right? The Jews and hypocrites were also implicitly told: you remained silent when the people of Mecca committed all these acts of oppression and violated the sanctity of religious symbols, and you are still silent about them. Yet today, on the basis of an isolated incident at Nakhla, you have posed as such guardians of religious sanctity? The authorities of the Islamic state had not authorized this action. Rather, the incident occurred because of the mistake of a few individuals. The ruler of the state refused to benefit from the incident and punished those involved.

A historical review of this incident shows how the enemies of Islam lie in wait, ready to attack as soon as the slightest mistake occurs. Whenever anyone makes even the smallest error, they immediately spread it throughout the world, coloring it with their own interpretation.

Where attempts are made at every moment and in every matter to spread confusion, suspicion and provocation, it is easy to imagine the anxiety and tension experienced by the small Islamic state surrounded by enemies, its founding revolutionary movement and its leader. The entire environment was filled with doubt, suspicion, confused questions and objections. Yet such obstacles have never been able to prevent the victory of an idealistic and morally upright organization.

The accusation of pursuing personal gain behind religion

I have already said that the Jewish scholars created entirely unreasonable commotion over every reformative measure implemented by Islam. One significant reform concerned the status and rights of an adopted or legally acknowledged son. Vicious propaganda was also conducted very vigorously over this matter.

According to the former religious and social ideas, an important traditional custom had long prevailed in Arabia: marrying the divorced wife of an adopted or legally acknowledged son was considered just as unlawful as marrying the wife of a biological son. To abolish this custom, Allah, according to His own plan, caused events to unfold in a remarkably extraordinary manner and brought them to a revolutionary conclusion. The event was this: at only ten years of age, Zayd ibn Harithah became a slave. The Messenger (peace be upon him) raised him with such affection and care that he attained the status of an adopted son in his household. Later, Zayd’s father and brother came to take him away, and the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave him permission to go. But by then Zayd had come to love the Messenger (peace be upon him) so deeply that he could not accept severing the relationship and refused to go with his father. Although Zayd had accidentally become a slave, he was actually the son of a noble Arab family. For this reason, some leading men of Mecca proposed that he marry Zaynab, the maternal cousin of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him). But Zaynab’s brother did not agree to the marriage, because it did not meet the standards then prevailing in Arabia for marriage. In the view of the mentality of ignorance, the mark of slavery still remained on Zayd’s forehead. Moreover, his lack of means and having neither support nor a home of his own were considered separate defects. Islam also deemed it necessary to change this mentality. The Messenger, the friend of humanity (peace be upon him), sought to remove the barrier of hereditary discrimination from marriage and turn the entire Islamic society into one united family. As a result of his effort, the wall of this discrimination collapsed completely, and the concept of kufu, or family compatibility, acquired a new meaning. He changed the Muslims’ outlook with great emphasis. He taught them that when marrying, the bride’s character and religious devotion must be considered first. Other matters should be considered afterward. He once also said that if, instead of religious devotion and morality, you establish some other standard, great disorder and chaos will arise in society. Thus, the concept of kufu that became established was that a spouse should be chosen from the perspective of who can be the best life partner in terms of life’s true purpose and who can develop the greatest harmony and unity in taste and mentality. Countless marriages, indeed most marriages, came to be conducted in accordance with this new outlook. The extent to which this mental and social change progressed can be understood from the marriage of Abu Talhah. While Abu Talhah was still an unbeliever, he sent a marriage proposal to Umm Sulaym (may Allah be pleased with her), although Umm Sulaym had already accepted Islam. She replied, “You are still an unbeliever, while I have accepted Islam. How can two conflicting ways of life be brought together? If you accept Islam, I will take no dowry from you other than your acceptance of Islam.” This reply shows that the marriage proposal was also desirable to Umm Sulaym. But Islam had created such a revolutionary mentality in her that she forced herself to reject it. At the same time, she encouraged him to accept Islam. Eventually Abu Talhah accepted Islam. They married, and their dowry truly was Islam. (Muwatta of Imam Malik and Uswa-ye Sahabiyyat, Maulana Abdur Salam Nadwi, may Allah have mercy on him)

In short, tastes and standards in marriage were changing. Yet some obstacles remained. That is why Zaynab’s brother did not agree to the proposed marriage. The Messenger (peace be upon him) also wanted the marriage to take place. But when nothing but a mentality of ignorance obstructed it, the matter was marked as undesirable in the sight of Allah and the Messenger. It was criticized indirectly in Surah Al-Ahzab. Verse 35 says, “Muslim women and Muslim men, believing women and believing men … Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward for them.” The central message of this verse is that Muslim men and women who possess the Islamic ideology, mentality and character are completely equal and like-minded. There is intimacy and affection between them, and they deserve one another’s esteem. Therefore, hereditary discrimination and distinction, and the ignorant ideas of nobility and aristocracy, should not stand as obstacles between them. But the indication did not end there. The following verse is even stricter. It says that when Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) decide a matter, no believing man or woman has the right to give importance to personal likes and dislikes or private standards against that decision. “Whoever disobeys Allah and His messengers has clearly strayed far.” (Surah Al-Ahzab, 33:36) In other words, when the way is opened for a marital relationship between a Muslim man and woman, creating an obstacle by giving importance to old ideas of ignorance is a form of arbitrariness against the guidance and decision of Allah and the Messenger. Such arbitrariness ultimately takes the form of misguidance. Thus this verse struck a forceful blow, and it hit its proper target. After hearing these verses, Zaynab’s brother understood the indication and agreed to the marriage. This meant that the chains of the ignorant standards distinguishing the naturally noble from the ignoble, and the highborn from the lowborn, were broken.

Through this very event, Allah decided to abolish the prevailing mistaken notion concerning an adopted or legally acknowledged son. Later, the situation became such that the husband and wife could not get along. The real difference existing between them affected the relationship. Complaint after complaint began reaching the Messenger (peace be upon him). But instead of improving, the relationship continued to deteriorate. Eventually Zayd began expressing to the Messenger (peace be upon him) his desire to divorce her. The Messenger (peace be upon him) became deeply distressed, because a marriage intended to establish a revolutionary example in society was breaking down. Moreover, the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself had made a significant contribution through his encouragement and advice in arranging the marriage. He was Zayd’s guardian, and therefore a great responsibility rested upon him in this matter. He repeatedly tried to preserve the marriage and prevent Zayd from divorcing her. But in the end, all these efforts failed. Zayd divorced her. Eventually it became necessary for the Messenger himself to marry Zaynab. There was no legal obstacle to this. But because of former ideas of ignorance, there was a fear that the public might be stunned and that the opponents would gain another tool for propaganda. Allah’s plan, however, was that the mistaken notion concerning adopted sons inherited from the age of ignorance should be removed clearly and transparently by the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself, so that the roots of this evil custom would be completely uprooted. In the Quran, Allah revealed his unspoken anxiety, saying: “You concealed within yourself what Allah was going to reveal. You feared the people, whereas Allah is more deserving that you fear Him.” (Al-Ahzab, 33:37) In a mildly critical tone, it was said that you were concealing in your heart something that Allah was determined to disclose. You feared the people; that is, Allah does not approve of concealing, out of fear of society’s ignorant ideas, something that is lawful under Allah’s law. It needed to be brought into the open, “so that there would be no restriction upon the believers concerning the wives of their adopted sons when they have divorced them.” (Al-Ahzab, 33:37) In other words, the purpose was to permanently remove from Muslims the ancient restrictions prevailing in society regarding the wives of adopted sons. Thus, to break this chain of ignorance, the final blow was struck: Allah Himself took special initiative and arranged the marriage of the Messenger (peace be upon him) to Zaynab.

As soon as this event occurred, an uproar broke out among the anti-Islamic circles in Medina. They began spreading the propaganda: “So, what do you think of the show of piety and purity? He actually married his adopted son’s wife!” At the same time, various stories were invented to make the tale sensational and appealing. The foul-mouthed Jews and hypocrites also began spreading the rumor—Allah forbid—that “in reality, he had fallen in love with his daughter-in-law, so he forced her to be divorced and then married her himself.” [It should be noted that some hostile Orientalists of modern times have adopted verbatim from history all the filthy slanders attributed by the then hard-line enemies of the Islamic movement. This incident too has become an accepted matter among those scholars and researchers, who have embellished it and arranged it in their books to make it more sensational. They claim that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) suddenly saw Zaynab and fell in love with her. It is worth considering: a man who spent his entire life in ceaseless effort and unremitting activity, with a completely spotless youth, and who could not spend even a moment at ease—did his character, having reached the highest level of maturity, become so fragile that a single glance left him helplessly in love? Does this insult fit his character as a whole at all? Moreover, Zaynab was the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) own maternal cousin and had grown up laughing and playing before him since childhood. Her existence was certainly nothing new to the Messenger (peace be upon him). It is also an established fact that he himself had made great efforts to arrange her marriage to Zayd and had been Zayd’s guardian in that marriage. In the face of these incontrovertible facts, can any basis at all be found for this fabricated story, created by the Jews and hypocrites of Medina and once again used by Orientalists against Islam? Does this fictional tale meet the standards of those who claim rationalism and research?

This was no ordinary marriage; it was conducted in heaven itself. They claim that he caused revelations to descend at will in order to create the circumstances for this marriage. Previously, hostile propaganda had been waged over matters of creed and jurisprudence. But in this incident, truly filthy propaganda was spread, and an attack was launched on the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) moral greatness. It is well known that the most devastating attack against any reformative and constructive movement can be made on moral grounds. If opponents spread propaganda about the supreme leader of a mission, claiming that he is a libertine, that he does not hesitate to adopt any means to satisfy his desires, and that he respects no moral standard, no more damaging attack could be made. It is easy to imagine how filthy a campaign the enemies conducted in Medina around this incident, and how several days passed in the life of this greatest well-wisher of humanity amid mental anguish.

This propaganda by the Jews must also have been extremely distressing for innocent and simple-hearted Muslims. On the way, they may have been harassed with all kinds of obscene remarks, and attempts may have been made to create various doubts and suspicions in their minds. Some immature Muslims may have become alarmed as a result. The hypocrites who had infiltrated their ranks may have pretended to be friends while spreading all kinds of absurd claims. In this situation, Allah impressed several matters firmly upon the Muslims’ minds for their consolation and instruction. He informed them that there was no restriction upon the Prophet (peace be upon him) concerning what Allah had made lawful for him. (Surah Al-Ahzab, 33:38) He explained the purpose of this measure: that there should be no restriction upon Muslims in marrying the divorced wives of their adopted sons. (Surah Al-Ahzab, 33:37) He also declared that Muhammad (peace be upon him) was not the father of any of their men. (Surah Al-Ahzab, 33:40) Finally, addressing the Messenger himself, He said: Do not follow the disbelievers and hypocrites, and do not be distressed by their propaganda. Put your trust in Allah; Allah is sufficient. (Surah Al-Ahzab, 33:40) In this way, the vile and filthy propaganda conducted by the Jews for their despicable purposes was answered in an extremely calm and dignified manner.

Another filthy propaganda campaign

The foregoing incident shows that when Satan finds no opportunity to damage the ideals and objectives of the Islamic movement by attacking it from any direction, he urges people to strike it from behind. In Satan’s view, the best way to attack from behind is to smear the character and leadership of its leader. That is why, at one stage, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was accused of being intoxicated by power, and at another of the vile sin of selfishness. Then this stream of propaganda advanced further, and the family of the supreme leader of the Islamic movement was made its target. Yet this family had been established as the central social and moral model for all humanity and for the entire Muslim ummah. The structure of Islamic society was being built around this family. Striking at the center of this family was therefore the most effective way to destroy that structure. In the end, the destructive forces did not hesitate to deliver this final blow. The heartbreaking story of this hostile attack has been preserved in the Quran, Hadith, history and works of Sirah for instruction under the name “the Incident of Ifk,” or “the story of the slander against Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her).”

Before presenting the facts of the main incident, I consider it necessary to analyze how such a terrible storm of vile slander could arise within the virtuous and pious society built by the Islamic movement and inside its trained, well-organized group. Through what opening did this dreadful storm enter the fortified stronghold of the Islamic organization and gain an opportunity to create extreme terror there for a time?

An environment conducive to creating confusion

To create sabotage and disorder within the Islamic social system, Satan certainly requires a particular kind of favorable environment. Whether this environment arises from some defect in the society’s discipline and morality or from the compulsions of circumstances and surroundings, Satan’s conspiracy can achieve some success as soon as an opportunity to create confusion appears. In the course of Allah’s natural order, some openings for Satan to work necessarily remain, no matter how ideal the society may be. In human nature there are certain weaknesses through which confusion and frivolity can find a way in. It is therefore impossible to guarantee that even the society established by the Messenger (peace be upon him) will provide no opportunity at all for anarchic forces to operate within it. Just as even a very healthy person may sometimes suffer from fever, cough and cold, even the purest society may suffer from diseases. What may be expected of a healthy and vibrant society is that it will always be engaged in preventing disease and destroying germs. But one cannot expect that no disease will ever break out in that society. The most favorable environment for Satan in any society is an environment of secret consultations and whispers. Such an environment arises when, instead of openly expressing opinions, giving advice, criticizing and asking questions before the whole community, individuals sit separately and consult secretly. The Quran calls this naجwa. In reality, najwa means beginning a dangerous journey in collective life. When people feel embarrassed to act openly, there must certainly be something behind it. This tendency toward secret consultations and whispers, moving away from transparency, ultimately turns into conspiracy and collusion.

Unfortunately, within the movement conducted under the supervision of the Messenger (peace be upon him), the hypocrites, led by the Jews, created this atmosphere of whispers and continued to trouble the movement’s leaders and workers. The Quran continued to correct those who created this atmosphere and to warn the leaders of the Islamic organization. The Quran says:

“Do you not see those who were forbidden from secret consultations, yet they return to what they were forbidden and secretly confer among themselves about sin, hostility and disobedience to the Messenger?” (Surah Al-Mujadilah, 58:8)

“O believers! When you converse privately, do not converse about sin, hostility or disobedience to the Messenger. Rather, converse about righteousness and the fear of Allah.” (Surah Al-Mujadilah, 58:9)

“Whispering is a satanic act intended to vex the believers. Yet they cannot harm anyone except by Allah’s permission.” (Surah Al-Mujadalah 10)

“These secret conspirators may conceal themselves from people’s eyes, but they cannot hide from Allah. When they speak words displeasing to Allah in the darkness of night and in seclusion, Allah is with them.” (Surah An-Nisa 108)

“Whenever three people gather for secret consultation, Allah is their fourth; and when five gather, Allah is certainly with them, wherever they may go.” (Surah Al-Mujadalah 7)

“They say with their mouths, ‘We will obey’—that is, the collective decision and the leader’s command. But when they leave you, a group of them spends the night secretly plotting against your words. Allah records their plans.” (Surah An-Nisa 8)

These verses state unequivocally that people may freely discuss among themselves, privately or openly, in order to support, obey, implement, and ensure the continuity of the established principles on which the Islamic society, state, and organization collectively operate, as well as the social decisions and organizational traditions that are in force. But secretly consulting and whispering among themselves in order to disobey these things, dissent from them, undermine them, organize rebellion against them, raise objections, and cause their failure is such a vile sin that it destroys the character and fate of those involved and burdens the entire social system with embarrassment and problems. Satan is the true instigator of secret rebellion and whispering. The Qur’an has warned the Islamic organization against this incitement.

One subject of secret consultation and whispering was “disobeying the Messenger’s command.” In fact, this was the central issue. Within the environment of the Islamic movement in Madinah, there was no possibility that the movement itself, its ideals and objectives, would be made targets of propaganda, or that any step would be taken in rebellion against Allah’s disobedience and His Book. At most, the hypocrites had the opportunity to create confusion by arguing with the leadership of the Islamic movement and provoking agitation against its supreme leader. The most effective and easiest way to destroy a moral movement may be to spread slander against its finest person.

In this connection, I have already said that allegations concerning selfishness and lust for power had been made earlier. But it was not limited to making specific accusations; rather, a campaign of rumor-mongering (a whispering campaign) and a “cold war” had taken permanent form.

For example, when the system of zakat and distribution was formally introduced later, a vile allegation was made against the Messenger (peace be upon him): that he embezzled the money deposited in the Bayt al-Mal according to his own whims. The reality was that, when zakat and ushr began to be collected regularly from all accumulated property, commercial capital, livestock, and agricultural produce, vast wealth began to gather at a single center and was distributed through the hands of the Messenger (peace be upon him). The sight of this enormous accumulation of wealth made the greedy drool. They wanted this wealth, as in the Age of Ignorance, to remain concentrated in the hands of the wealthy like themselves. But the economic system established by the Islamic movement directed wealth toward the poor. The wealthy were deeply dissatisfied with this revolutionary change. They could not attack the Islamic economic system, which instead of filling their pockets was legally collecting from them the “penalty” called “zakat.” To vent their resentment, they made the Messenger (peace be upon him) their target. They said that he was spending wealth on his supporters and relatives and was especially giving generously to the Muhajirun. In other words, they claimed that he was practicing nepotism with the funds of the Islamic state treasury. They said that he was seizing the hard-earned wealth of ordinary people in Allah’s name and spending it to expand his own influence, power, and domination. In any system of government, accusations against rulers concerning public treasury funds become serious. But especially in a religious and moral social system, where the treasury is called Allah’s property and every receipt and expenditure is managed in Allah’s name and according to Allah’s law, such allegations can generate intense agitation.

It is worth considering that this allegation was being made against the ideal man who had legally declared the funds of zakat and charity unlawful not only for himself and his family, but for the entire clan of Banu Hashim. Perhaps no comparable example of such selflessness can be found in all human history. Yet even upon the forehead of that radiant personality, petty people of utterly base character had the audacity to smear defilement.

The Qur’an identified these people in this way: they hurt the Messenger (peace be upon him) through their vile speech (Surah At-Tawbah). In other words, instead of speaking openly and freely about the collective problems of the movement, they kept attacking the personality of its greatest leader. The Qur’an itself presents an example of this attack. The situation was that the activities and conduct of the hypocrites within the Islamic society were so incongruous that they greatly irritated the believers. The believers felt deeply embarrassed by this conduct. Moreover, taking legal action was difficult, while silently tolerating it was also arduous. What could the unfortunate Muslims do? In accordance with the requirements of the community, they were compelled to inform the Messenger (peace be upon him) about the improper activities of the hypocrites. Thus each hypocrite gradually became identified in society, and the Messenger would show a particular reaction toward him. At first this reaction was extremely gentle, and then it gradually became stricter. In these circumstances, those afflicted with the disease of hypocrisy, feeling neglected and cornered, began saying that—God forbid—the Messenger of Allah had no judgment; he believed whatever he heard from anyone. Ordinary people, who had no standing compared with us, would go to the Messenger (peace be upon him), say whatever they wished about someone, and he would immediately believe everything they said. We are suffering because of this weakness of the supreme leader. Today we are called hypocrites and conspirators, while those fasting slave boys of the other day have become his closest companions.

Perhaps as a reaction to this situation, a group of hypocrites once met the Messenger (peace be upon him) for a separate discussion. During the meeting, one hypocrite after another would suddenly say, “I have something to discuss with you privately.” Out of courtesy, the Messenger kept this opportunity open to everyone. But this theatrical practice of requesting a private conversation had a different purpose. Through it, the hypocrites wanted to establish their influence over ordinary Muslims and give the impression that they were exceptionally important people, something like VIPs. They wanted to suggest that they spoke privately with the supreme leader only at the highest level. Their second purpose was to gain artificial proximity in the Messenger’s eyes and, as far as possible, create a bad impression of the sincere believers, thereby slightly easing the neglect and marginalization into which the hypocrites had fallen as a result of their own misdeeds. But the courtesy of the Messenger, which had created unrestricted opportunities for the hypocrites to waste time, was revoked by Allah through the following command:

“O believers, when you wish to have a private discussion with the Messenger (peace be upon him), offering him special time, give charity before the discussion.” — (Al-Mujadalah 12)

This command broke the backbone of the extremely miserly hypocrites, and the practice of repeatedly requesting special time for discussion came to an end. Yet this practice had begun on the assumption that the leader of the movement was very simple-minded and trusting. Therefore, in confronting the sincere, they would also try to put various ideas into his ears and win him over to their side. But they could not imagine that, just as he was trusting toward sincere believers, he was extremely cautious toward conspirators. In any case, it is easy to understand that those who sat within the Islamic organization and spread such contemptuous remarks against its supreme leader could not possess proper love and obedience toward discipline. Yet this obedience and love are what make the workers of a party active and energetic. In a religious and moral organization, those who engage in propaganda and whispering against the leadership are in reality engaged in an attempt to destroy that organization.

When the Islamic movement was taking a revolutionary turn from the stage of preaching and propagation toward the stage of jihad, a large number of hypocrites emerged. Whenever any movement takes such a turn, some people become bewildered and lose their balance. In such circumstances, only those workers can remain balanced who have already heard where they are going and which stages they will have to pass along the way. Otherwise, the condition of all movements in the world is that when a major turning point appears and they must leap from one stage to another, those who had no prior understanding of this change become inactive and incapable. In such historic events, even good workers often fall into difficulty and lose heart. This is what happened in the Islamic movement. When the movement entered the stage of struggle from the stage of propagation, some people lost their mental balance. Particularly those who were not prepared to bear the unbearable burden of jihad became hypocrites forever. They had to suffer this fate because they had not prepared their minds in advance for this situation.

The Qur’an says that, in the early period, a group of people had been commanded: “Restrain your hands.” That is, while conveying Islam’s message, continue tolerating oppression and excesses and do not engage in conflict. Engage only in activities such as establishing prayer and giving zakat (An-Nisa 77). But at that stage they were not pleased with this command. Later, when those same people were commanded to undertake jihad, they immediately became so afraid of people that their activities came to a halt. Their mental reaction was such that they said to Allah: “O Allah, why have You made fighting obligatory upon us? You could have allowed us to preach for a few more days, purify character through prayer and zakat, and continue fundraising and constructive work. Our demands were not fulfilled at one stage, yet You imposed the work of another stage before its time!”

But they were helpless. They could neither argue with Allah nor prevent His command from being issued. Before them stood only the personality of the Messenger (peace be upon him). Therefore, they could never forgive him. They fled from every battle and resorted to various excuses on every delicate occasion. They took full revenge on the leader of the Islamic movement for the responsibilities imposed by Allah.

Whenever a movement becomes involved in conflict, its standard-bearers strike the enemy and are themselves struck in return. Some blows succeed and others fail. The result is sometimes hopeful and sometimes disappointing. No battlefield in the history of the world has ever been found where only one side always wins. Even the victorious side pays the price of victory with many lives; many are wounded and much property is destroyed. The hypocrites working in the Islamic movement of Madinah had no faith in the philosophy that “with every hardship there is certainly ease.” At every loss and every blow, they cried out that it had happened because of the movement’s leader’s lack of wisdom and prudence. (God forbid.) The Qur’an presents the emergence of their defeatist philosophical propaganda in this way:

“If they achieve success, they say, ‘This is from Allah’; but if they suffer a loss, they say, ‘This is because of you [O Messenger].’” (Surah An-Nisa 78)

That is, they blamed the Messenger (peace be upon him) for every blow suffered in the various conflicts, every loss and injury, every sacrifice that became necessary, and every effort and strategy that failed to produce the expected result. Their attitude was that Islam, the Islamic movement, and the discipline of the Islamic organization were all excellent, but the person leading them was incompetent. They also displayed a measure of God-consciousness by saying that whatever success was achieved was a gift from Allah, as though their propaganda was not merely philosophical but also God-fearing. But this hypocritical God-consciousness could not show even the slightest obedience or goodwill toward a leader like the Messenger (peace be upon him)—the kind of obedience Islam commanded toward the leadership of even an enslaved Black man. What greater self-deception could there be than this futile attempt to attain closeness to Allah while showing disobedience to Allah’s Messenger and the greatest leader of the Islamic movement? And what more terrible instrument could a person gather for his own destruction?

It is relevant to note that the success they acknowledged as a gift from Allah was not acknowledged out of gratitude or recognition of His blessings. Rather, they meant that the favorable developments that emerged from time to time due to circumstances, and the benefits occasionally obtained from warfare, had nothing to do with the Messenger’s insight and prudence; they were merely accidental events created by Allah. [The same point is made in Tafsir Ma’ariful Qur’an in its explanation of the relevant verse of Surah An-Nisa. When a battle strategy proved sound and victory was achieved, the hypocrites would say that it had happened accidentally through Allah’s intervention. They would not acknowledge the Messenger’s military skill. But if defeat occurred, they would blame the Messenger’s incompetence.]

It is easy to understand what kind of anguish the supreme leader of the Islamic movement had to suffer when, in every difficult period, so-called companions who expressed criticism, ridicule, and contempt were present within the movement. At every turn they would say, “It is because of this leader that such-and-such calamity has now appeared, we have suffered such-and-such a blow, and disaster has descended from that direction,” and so on. After learning the outcome of every important event, they would sit down like wise men and comment, “That action should not have been taken; it would have been better if this other action had been taken,” and so forth.

In addition to this vile mentality, before every battle they would utter various kinds of nonsense, such as: “We fear that we may also fall victim to some disaster” (Al-Ma’idah 52). In other words, the movement was being conducted so incompetently that it could face disaster at any moment. Why should we risk our lives needlessly?

During the Battle of Uhud, because of this mentality the hypocrites lamented: “If we had had any say in the leadership, we would not have died here” (Aal Imran, verse 154; see Tafhim al-Qur’an). Those who held this mentality had an unmistakable lack of confidence in the Messenger’s leadership and prudence. They considered themselves the wisest of all. As for the man who had been conducting the movement for so many years under the guidance of revelation, he was nothing in their eyes—even though he was a prophet. When they were so uncomfortable with the Prophet’s direct leadership, Allah alone knows what they would have done to any Companion who led them, given that this group claimed exclusive competence and wisdom.

These examples show that, instead of directly opposing the Islamic movement, they considered it most successful to make the Messenger’s personality the target of attack and launch indirect assaults—and that is what they adopted. In the meetings of secret consultation, objections and propaganda against this supreme leader of the movement were drafted, and new measures were continually considered for disobeying and rebelling against him.

Ethical-System Complexities Within the Islamic Organization

The organizational system of the Islamic movement was an entirely moral system from beginning to end. This environment is the broadest and best field for Satan’s work. In particular, two aspects favor those who create confusion. A particular complexity of a moral system is that, until clearly objectionable incidents emerge in the form of verified evidence, the organization cannot take any action against them; and those who feel troubled cannot publicly disclose the confusing background of the situation before the final outcome becomes clear. Islam’s moral code forbids members of Islamic society to harbor bad opinions of one another. A righteous person is obliged to give the best possible explanation for every suspicious action of his companions. Thereafter, even if, after reviewing all the facts of an undesirable incident, he comes to harbor a bad opinion deep in his heart, he must still wait a long time to see whether any contrary evidence emerges that can refute his bad opinion.

No formal case may be brought against anyone, nor may the person concerned be placed in the dock, on the basis of mere suspicion, however strong it may be. For these reasons, the sincere Muslims of Madinah were compelled to watch silently, even though they observed the initial activities of the troublemakers and anarchists engaged in secret consultation as undesirable signs. But only when the turmoil began to bear its expected fruit did the moral system of society permit them to speak against it and allow the collective system to be activated.

The second complexity of a moral system was that, when someone made an allegation against the organization’s supreme leader or other officials, their position became extremely delicate. On the one hand, they held the administrative authority of the organization and alone possessed the power to eliminate all turmoil, disorder, and confusion. On the other hand, they themselves became victims of the turmoil, so that if the leaders took punitive action against the troublemakers before their masks were removed before the Muslim public, the leaders themselves would instead be accused of suppressing criticism and dissent. They would be found guilty of defeating those who raised the voice of truth through authoritarian means. Just as one may say of an individual that courtesy is the greatest strength but also the greatest weakness, so one may say of a party that its moral system is also its greatest complexity. The only solution to this complexity is for the collective mind of the party to become so alert and conscious, and its collective character so strong and firm, that it allows nothing contrary to its own temperament or nature to continue within the party. No one in the party environment should be willing to listen to whispering, rumors, or secret consultations against party discipline, and no one should dare spread in any direction anything of this kind that comes to his ears. But it is difficult for any party to meet this ultimate and highest standard collectively and completely, and to remain at that level at all times. No human society can be entirely free and pure of people who think evil in their minds, offer wicked incitement with their mouths, entice others toward bad things, and listen with their ears to such undesirable matters. In what people think, say, and hear, Satan inevitably takes some part.

The hypocrites benefited fully from this flexibility and openness of the moral system and enjoyed its advantages. But ultimately they could not escape being seized by its formidable power. In the Qur’an’s words, the brief summary of all their activities was this: “They did not obtain what they sought.” Yet they certainly embarrassed the Islamic organization and certainly plunged it into disorder.

In this environment of secret consultation, rumor-mongering, whispering, and murmuring, the personality of the foremost leader of the Islamic movement had been made a target of attack from the very beginning, and attack after attack was being launched. In such an environment, if the fortune of the subversive conspirators and troublemakers favored them, it would not have been at all impossible for them to cause a catastrophic disaster by spreading increasingly crafty and increasingly vile slanders. To take advantage of this flexible environment and use the hypocrites skillfully, Satan needed one more thing: a seasoned villain whose mind would be exceptionally creative and capable in devising crooked conspiracies, and who would have the courage to cast a burning ember into the powder magazine created by the secret conspirators. Such a seasoned villain was already prepared in the form of Abdullah ibn Ubayy. This man’s mind was filled to the brim with a sense of his own personality and dignity. And why would it not be? On the eve of the Hijrah, preparations had been under way to place the crown of kingship of Madinah on his head. Only the arrival of Muhammad (peace be upon him) turned his hopes to ashes. Far from becoming king, because of his character he did not attain even the status of the Islamic organization’s first, second, or third rank. This misfortune produced an extremely bitter and poisonous reaction in his mind, and from that reaction new forms of turmoil and new conspiracies began to arise at every moment. Satan does not work directly inside human beings to any great extent. He needs human devils under his control. And to keep these human devils active against Allah’s religion, he needs a suitable leader, a leader skilled in conspiracy. Satan found such a ready-made leader skilled in conspiracy. He was also a man from within the circle of the Islamic movement. On the one hand, this man declared that he accepted the movement conducted under the Prophet’s leadership; on the other, he was constantly engaged in conflict against that movement.

This arrogant, scheming villain, experienced in striking when the moment was opportune, once drew a smoldering ember from the furnace of burning hatred within his breast and cast it into the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) sacred family circle. The moment it was cast, the entire society began to burn psychologically.

A Report by Aishah Herself

The authoritative, detailed account of the storm that swept through Aishah’s soul during this terrible calamity is recorded in the important books of Hadith, history, and Sirah. These accounts come from Aishah herself and from other narrators. At present I have authoritative works such as Zad al-Ma‘ad (vol. 2, pp. 113–115) and Sirat Ibn Hisham (vol. 2, pp. 342–347) before me. However, since the author of Tafhim al-Qur’an has presented this painful story of Aishah most beautifully, I quote that account here:

“After reaching Medina, I fell ill and remained bedridden for about a month. Rumors containing this slander were spreading throughout the city. They had even reached the ears of the Messenger himself, peace be upon him, although I knew nothing about them. Yet what puzzled me was that, whereas the Messenger, peace be upon him, used to show me special attention during my illness, this time he did not. When he came home, he would merely ask, ‘How are you?’ He would not say a word more. Seeing this, I suspected that something had happened. At last, I obtained his permission and went to my mother so that she could nurse me properly. One night I went outside to relieve myself. At that time, our house did not yet have a toilet, so we would go into the wilderness. Misṭah’s mother was with me. She was my mother’s maternal cousin (other accounts indicate that Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, had assumed responsibility for the guardianship of everyone in this family. Yet despite such a great favor, Misṭah had joined those who spread slander against Aisha, may Allah be pleased with her). On the way to the wilderness, Misṭah’s mother stumbled. Instantly, an involuntary curse escaped her lips: ‘May Misṭah perish!’ I said, ‘What kind of mother are you, cursing your son? And your son is one who took part in the Battle of Badr.’ She said, ‘Have you not heard what he has done?’ Then she told me the whole story. She explained openly what the slanderers were spreading about me. Among the Muslims—apart from the hypocrites—who became involved in this turmoil were Misṭah, the famous poet Hassan ibn Thabit, and Hamna bint Jahsh (the sister of Zaynab bint Jahsh, one of the Mothers of the Believers). Hearing this account, my blood ran cold, and I even forgot the natural need for which I had come. I went straight back home and spent the entire night weeping.” (Ibn Hisham’s account adds: “I wept until it seemed my liver would burst!”)

On the one hand, Aisha, may Allah be pleased with her, was writhing in intense mental anguish. On the other, whispers continued throughout the city as usual. Her father and husband alone could have offered the strongest defense on her behalf. But when wicked people spread such slander, the closer a person is to the accused, the more entangled he becomes. Thus her father and husband fell silent and began to be pierced by arrows of defamation hurled from every direction.

For Muhammad, peace be upon him—the greatest beneficent friend of humanity—these moments had become unbearable both personally and in terms of the interests of the organization. Anyone noble, aware, and responsible could understand the state in which the Messenger, peace be upon him, found himself. He showed great patience and spent a long time in silence. But it was impossible to leave such a sensitive matter unresolved in the existing circumstances. Some decision had become unavoidable. Therefore, the Messenger, peace be upon him, began an impartial investigation. He summoned two close companions, Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, and Usama ibn Zayd, may Allah be pleased with him, and asked their opinions. Usama, may Allah be pleased with him, said, ‘O Messenger! She is your noble wife. We find nothing in her but goodness. Everything being spread is false and baseless propaganda.’ (Sirat Ibn Hisham) Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, gave his opinion from another perspective. He said, ‘O Messenger! There is no shortage of women. You may take another wife instead of Aisha. But summon the maidservant and investigate.’ In fact, Ali’s intention was that taking another wife was preferable to allowing the Messenger, peace be upon him, to suffer such distress, and that it would be better to divorce the wife concerning whom such a tumult had arisen. In reality, because of his special family bond, Ali gave greater importance to the Messenger’s personal distress than to the movement-related aspect of the matter. Thus he advised the Messenger, peace be upon him, to free himself from his mental anguish.

Nevertheless, the Messenger, peace be upon him, accepted the second part of Ali’s advice. He summoned the maidservant. Ali slapped her once and reprimanded her sternly, saying, ‘You will tell the truth before the Messenger, peace be upon him.’ She said, ‘By Allah, I know nothing about her except good. The only fault I have seen in Aisha is that when I went outside while making dough, I would tell her to watch it for a while. But she would fall asleep, and a goat would come and eat the dough.’ (Sirat Ibn Hisham) In this spontaneous statement, the maidservant had cleared Aisha, may Allah be pleased with her, so completely that no other statement could have added anything to it. She had portrayed the true image of a simple, innocent girl in whom it was impossible for human conscience and reason to imagine anything bad. The second step the Messenger, peace be upon him, took was to call a general assembly and deliver an address. After beginning with praise of Allah, he said in a deeply anguished voice:

“What is the intention of those who hurt me regarding my family and spread unreal statements about them? By Allah, I know nothing about my family members except good. I also know the person whom they have involved in this slander to be good. He has never entered my house in my absence.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, volume 3)

According to another account, the Messenger, peace be upon him, began by saying, “Is there anyone who can rescue me from the one who is causing me distress concerning my family?” (Zad al-Ma‘ad, volume 2)

On hearing this, Usayd ibn Hudayr, the chief of the Aws tribe, stood up and said, “O Messenger of Allah! If such people belong to our tribe, we will teach them an appropriate lesson. And if they are from Khazraj, give the order. By Allah, the proper punishment for such people is beheading.”

Immediately, Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah, the chief of Khazraj, objected from the other side: “You are lying. By Allah, we will not behead them. Ah, I understand—you said this only because you think they are Khazrajis.” Usayd ibn Hudayr became extremely angry at Sa‘d’s reply. Perhaps he understood that a group whose criminals, anarchists, and schemers receive the support and patronage of influential leaders cannot rid society of crime. People like Abdullah ibn Ubayy are born in every movement at all times. But a strong and self-conscious group does not allow such people to remain within it; rather, it expels them. However, if schemers receive shelter and encouragement from influential people in an organization, domestic enemies like Vibhishana continue to be nurtured, and society suffers from them. Realizing this bitter truth, Usayd, may Allah be pleased with him, exclaimed, “It is not I who am lying; you are. By Allah, you are taking the hypocrites’ side because you yourself are a hypocrite.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

The reason this bitter atmosphere had arisen was that conspiracies were continually being devised to stir tension between Aws and Khazraj. That was why a dispute over a minor remark produced tension and nearly led to a fight. The great leader who had established good relations between the two tribes did not want the unity built through many years of effort to be destroyed again because of him. He came down from the pulpit, calmed both groups, and the assembly ended. (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

Experiencing this weakness within the group further increased the Messenger’s distress, peace be upon him. In reality, this was the consequence of the old fire of division and hatred that Abdullah ibn Ubayy had kindled during the expedition against Banu al-Mustaliq.

Hear the conclusion of the story, which transformed tragedy into comedy, from Aisha herself, may Allah be pleased with her!

“The rumor of this slander continued to circulate throughout the city for about a month. The Messenger, peace be upon him, suffered intense anguish. I wept constantly. My parents were overwhelmed by extreme concern, anxiety, and agitation. Finally, one day the Messenger came and sat beside me. During all this time, he had never once sat beside me. Abu Bakr and Umm Ruman (Aisha’s mother) thought that a final decision was about to be reached. So they too came and sat nearby. The Messenger said, ‘Aisha, such-and-such reports about you have reached me. If you are innocent, then I hope Allah will reveal your innocence. But if you have committed a sin, then repent to Allah and ask His forgiveness. When a servant acknowledges his sin and repents, Allah forgives him.’ Hearing this, my tears dried up. (Such a reaction is to be expected from an innocent person.—N.S.)”

I said to my father, ‘Answer the words of the Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him.’ He said, ‘Daughter, I do not understand what I should say.’ I said to my mother, ‘You say something.’ She too said, ‘I do not understand what I should say either.’ I said, ‘A statement has entered your ears, and immediately it has become firmly fixed in your minds. If I now say that I am innocent—indeed, Allah is witness that I am completely innocent—you will not believe me. And if I falsely confess to something I did not do—indeed, Allah is witness that I did not do it—you will believe me. At that moment I tried to remember the name of Jacob, but I could not. (When an innocent person becomes bewildered after being subjected to a grave slander, such an accident in the psychological world is natural.—N.S.) Finally I said, “What more can I say in this situation? I will say only what the father of Joseph said: ‘Perfect patience.’” (When Jacob’s sons falsely told him that a tiger had devoured Joseph, he said this.—Translator) Saying this, I turned my face away and lay down. (This reflects the desperate attitude that arises in an innocent person, along with helplessness, when he is slandered.—N.S.) At that time I was saying to myself, ‘Allah is aware of my innocence. Surely He will disclose the truth.’ Yet until then I could not even imagine that revelation would descend concerning me and be recited until the Day of Resurrection. I never considered myself so highly honored that Allah Himself would speak on my behalf. However, I thought that the Messenger might have a dream through which Allah would inform him that I was innocent. Suddenly the Messenger underwent the state that would normally come over him when revelation descended, and even in the intense cold season, pearls of sweat streamed from his face. We all became silent. I was completely unafraid. But my parents became so rigid with fear that, had their bodies been cut anywhere at that moment, I think no blood would have come out. They were afraid of what news Allah might disclose. When the Messenger’s condition returned to normal, he was seen to be extremely happy. Smiling, the first thing he said was, ‘Aisha, congratulations. Allah has declared you innocent.’ Then the Messenger recited ten verses. My mother said, ‘Get up and express gratitude to the Messenger of Allah.’ I said, ‘I will not express gratitude to him, nor to you. I will express gratitude only to Allah, who has declared me innocent. You did not even deny this slander.’ (Tafhim al-Qur’an, Surah al-Nur) Notice that Aisha’s words contain only a reproach infused with intense self-respect. Could this be the statement of a guilty conscience? Every word of this account declares that it is the genuine, spontaneous, and precise report of an innocent person’s sorrow and pain.

The Defense by Revelation

Revelation soon descended to remove this storm of propaganda and the crisis it had created. The surah revealed to remove this crisis was named “Nur” (Light). The name wonderfully suited the actual circumstances. For this surah was revealed to dispel the darkness created by a serious social crisis and illuminate the environment. It reviews the Muslim organization and society, identifies its weaknesses, and provides moral and legal guidance to free them permanently from those weaknesses.

The very opening of this stirring surah’s message is startling. It says:

“This is a surah which We have revealed, made obligatory as a responsibility (for Islamic society), and in which We have presented clear instructions. Perhaps you will benefit from it.” (Verse 1)

Now comes the resounding declaration of Surah al-Nur addressed to society:

“Those who fabricated this slander are a group among you. … Each person who took part in this slander has earned a share of sin equal to his participation. And the one who bears the greatest share of responsibility will have a terrible punishment.” (Verse 11)

What a terrifyingly sarcastic reprimand! An allegation without evidence, which had not the slightest sound indication behind it, arose with the force of a storm—not from an external enemy or rival, but from within a Muslim group trained over many years. Nor was it the sudden lapse of one or two people. For an entire month, a group continued creating an extreme psychological disaster. Surah al-Nur states that such weakness exists within your collective environment that its own builders may undertake to destroy it. There are gaps in this environment through which falsehood and evil can enter the society and organization of the soldiers of truth. It is being said that this was not merely an isolated incident of slander; rather, it was a flowing stream of sin. From this stream, one filled a drum, another a pitcher, and another took only as much as could fit in his palm. Thus, each person accumulated sin for the share he took. Then the principal instigator of this evil deed—Abdullah ibn Ubayy—is indicated: he lit the first fire and then continually fanned it until it became a conflagration.

Surah al-Nur asks:

“When you first heard it, why did believing men and women not think well of one another, and why did they not immediately say, ‘This is a terrible slander’?” (Verse 12)

Notice how powerful the moral appeal in this statement is, and how sharply it lashes the feelings of decency and faith. In other words, a noble woman of Islamic society became separated from the caravan by accident, and a respected member of that same society found her on the road and brought her along—is this mere incident really a basis for your lowest level of suspicion? If another woman and man among you had accidentally found themselves in such circumstances, would they necessarily have engaged in such a vile act? Is this how you conceive of your own character? Is your society so base that whenever two of its members happen to become separated, they do not miss even the slightest opportunity to commit adultery? If you cannot entertain such a degrading view of yourselves, what right did you have to hold such a despicable view of one of the finest women and one of the prominent members of your group?

In reality, the overwhelming majority of this society maintained its moral superiority even during this crisis. Otherwise, if this poison had been allowed to infect the entire body of society and society as a whole had been unable to resist it psychologically, this blow would have torn its entire existence apart. In this matter, Abu Ayyub al-Ansari showed the most accurate response. When his wife informed him of this filthy rumor, he said, ‘Mother of Ayyub, if you had been in that place instead of Aisha, would you have done such a thing?’ She said, ‘By Allah, never.’ Abu Ayyub said, ‘Then Aisha is much better than you. I also say that if I had been in Safwan’s place, such a thought would not have entered my head. And Safwan is a better Muslim than I am.’ (Sirat Ibn Hisham, volume 3)

Surah al-Nur asks those who spread this filthy slander: Why could you not respond as Abu Ayyub al-Ansari did?

Then Surah al-Nur raises the question from a legal perspective:

“Why did they not produce four witnesses as proof of their accusation? In Allah’s sight, they themselves are liars.” (Verse 13)

In other words, tarnishing the character of a man or woman is not mere amusement; it is a serious crime, and taking legal action against it is extremely necessary in a living society. To say at will that an honest and innocent citizen has committed murder, theft, or adultery is not a trivial matter that can be dismissed by saying that what happened has happened. It demands the highest degree of responsibility and awareness. After making such an accusation, proving it and presenting legally valid witnesses becomes essential. Those who accuse two respected and decent members of Islamic society without having seen the matter with their own eyes have the duty to produce evidence and witnesses for the accusation. Otherwise, under the law, they themselves are liars and criminals.

Now observe how Surah al-Nur identifies the fault of the weak members of Islamic society:

“Consider what a grave error you were committing when you passed this lie from one person’s mouth to another and said with your mouths what you had no knowledge of. You regarded it as a trivial matter, whereas in Allah’s sight it is grave. Why, upon hearing it, did you not say, ‘It is wrong for us to utter such a thing’? Glory be to Allah! This is a monstrous slander!” (Verses 15–16)

It is a tremendous weakness of any society or organization that baseless and irresponsible rumors can easily spread within it. This is an even greater weakness for an organization established for the moral reform of the entire world and under whose leadership a social and political movement is conducted. A person hears something with his ears, immediately believes it in his heart, and spreads it with his mouth; then it passes from one mouth to another. No one verifies its truth, makes any distinction, or brings the chain to an end. Everyone freely says whatever he wishes against whomever he wishes, and no one faces any obstacle in spreading slander against those he wants to defame. In such a society, no one’s honor can be secure. If people such as the Messenger himself, peace be upon him, Aisha al-Siddiqah, may Allah be pleased with her, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, and Safwan cannot be protected from the slander spread by a hypocrite, whose honor can remain safe in that society?

For this reason, Surah al-Nur says in a tone of severe reprimand:

“Those who slander innocent women are cursed in this world and the Hereafter, and theirs is a severe punishment.” (Verse 23)

This verse paints a picture of Aisha’s character, may Allah be pleased with her: a believing, chaste woman who had no idea what adultery was or how it was committed, and to whom it never even occurred that anyone could slander her in this regard. This portrayal of such a simple-minded, oppressed woman has morally stirred the heart of every person.

It is unfortunate that among those devoted believers who obeyed Allah and His Messenger and were loyal members of the Islamic movement, and who were swept away by this powerful and vigorous herd current, there was a personality who had rendered valuable service to the Islamic movement and enriched its literary and spiritual resources. He was Hassan ibn Thabit, may Allah be pleased with him. Hassan too became one of those included in the reprimand and censure of Surah al-Nur. Yet he held a very high position in the Islamic organization and at the Messenger’s court, peace be upon him. At various times, the Messenger, peace be upon him, would specifically advise him to answer the attacks of the poets and literary circles of the Age of Ignorance through poetry and literature, and to undertake the task of explaining and interpreting Islam. At one point, Hassan, may Allah be pleased with him, gained the rare honor that the Messenger, peace be upon him, seated him on his own pulpit and asked him to sing the national anthem of the Islamic movement. Aisha, may Allah be pleased with her, herself appreciated his status so deeply that after this tumultuous period had passed, she always honored him. Sometimes she would be reminded that this man had taken part in spreading slander against her. Then Aisha, rising to the highest level of generosity and magnanimity, would say, ‘Let it go. He always gave the anti-Islamic poets a crushing response on behalf of the Messenger, peace be upon him, and the Islamic movement, and made valuable contributions in the field of poetry.’

Whatever the case, the actual fact is that this extraordinary figure of the Islamic movement became caught in the web of error laid by the hypocrites. Although he performed the role he played in this turmoil sincerely and believed it to be justified, it was extremely harmful to the movement. Anyone can learn from his conduct that, however firm a person’s character may be, he cannot be certain that he will never fall into error under any circumstances. Likewise, however high-ranking another person may be, no one can guarantee that he will never suffer a lapse of judgment in any matter. Every person, great or small, is a target of Satan’s schemes at every moment. Indeed, Satan is even more eager to spread a web of conspiracies around every important and leading person. That is why the fundamental principle followed by the Islamic movement in every age is that the group’s true allegiance should be to principles and ideals, not to individuals.

Trapping a leading figure of the Islamic movement was a major success for Abdullah ibn Ubayy and his accomplices. Driven by hypocritical cunning, they were carrying out their mischief, while Hassan ibn Thabit was sincerely striving to make their conspiracy succeed. It would not be inappropriate to say that, for the movement, Hassan’s sincerity and simplicity were even more destructive than Abdullah ibn Ubayy’s hypocrisy was harmful. For an action taken with sincerity and good intentions is often far more successful in causing harm than an action deliberately motivated by evil intentions.

Hassan ibn Thabit did not understand whose cause he was serving or whose viewpoint he was spreading. He did not realize whose ideas and resolutions he was implementing, which class of people his actions favored in society, or which faction within the organization he was strengthening. His failure to display the insight and wisdom characteristic of a believer in this matter was perhaps the result of Allah’s will.

The relationship between Abdullah ibn Ubayy and Islamic society was weak and distant. His hostile activities could be tolerated. But Hassan ibn Thabit was one of the Islamic organization’s own people. That was why his hostile conduct seemed unbearable. It made everyone feel as though one of our own swords was striking us. Whenever such a situation arises in a movement or organization, patience is nearly exhausted. Perhaps that had happened here as well. But the strict moral discipline of the Islamic organization held back the emotions. Only one person could not restrain himself: Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal. He lost control for two reasons. First, slander was being directed against Aisha, whom he regarded as his own mother. Second, the slander itself implicated him. Safwan was a veteran of Badr, a devoted servant of the Islamic movement, and known for speaking plainly. Moreover, no trace of sin had ever appeared in his character, and, like a shy young man, he had brought Aisha from the rear position to the next position of the Islamic army with the utmost care, without casting even a glance at her or saying a single word throughout the journey. For this reason, his blood was boiling.

Safwan heard several lines of the poem Hassan had written describing the slander fabricated by the hypocrites. The language was Hassan’s, but the message and mentality were those of the hypocrites.

Safwan got into an argument with Hassan. At one point, he struck him with a sword. Thabit ibn Qays intervened, tried to stop him, restrained Safwan, and took him to the house of Banu al-Harith. Eventually, the matter reached the Messenger (peace be upon him). He summoned both Hassan and Safwan. Safwan said, “O Messenger, this man has hurt me and made extremely obscene remarks against me. Therefore, unable to control my anger, I struck him.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) gently reasoned with Hassan and pacified him, and paid Safwan the blood money (penalty) for the sword wound. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 3)

It was natural for Safwan to become agitated. Therefore, Hassan softened his stance. Allah saved him from harboring a desire for revenge and later thinking of doing something even more harmful to the movement.

Later, Hazrat Hassan fell into deep remorse, which found expression in one of his poems. Through this poem, he tried to wash away the stain cast upon Hazrat Aisha. He said:

“She is a chaste, veiled woman, above all suspicion. She is free from interfering with the honor of innocent women. She is virtuous and of impeccable character. Allah purified her nature and purified her from sin. Nothing that has been said so far applies to her. I said those things only because I had been misled by the fabricated lies of a tale-bearer.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 3)

Along with this, Surah An-Nur presented a social principle to the Muslims in the form of a normative argument:

“Wicked women are for wicked men, and wicked men are for wicked women; and pure women are for pure men, and pure men are for pure women. They are free from what those people say.” (Verse 26)

In other words, people generally seek a spouse who is morally and mentally compatible for marriage. A person chooses someone in whom he sees a character like his own. In particular, those who devote their entire lives to pursuing a specific purpose and goal also seek a marital partner who can support and assist them in achieving that purpose and goal in life. How can one ignore this truth, gained from worldwide experience: that unity of character and mentality, together with harmony in thought and outlook, is what ensures compatibility and understanding between any couple? Without this, conflict, quarrels, and discord will persist from beginning to end. This verse calls upon the spreaders of slander to realize the truth and asks: Have you not seen that the noble woman whom the great leader of the Islamic movement chose as his life partner, with whom he shared a deep bond of the heart and with whom his outlook and thinking were in perfect harmony, an ideal example of unity and coordination—was she really nothing but a carefully adorned puppet, whose adornment fell away in a single moment, leaving only a useless doll behind?

She was the beloved daughter of a pure and unblemished family, whose parents were among the first standard-bearers of the Islamic movement. She spent her childhood amid the storm-tossed conditions of this very movement. As the life companion of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), she had the greatest opportunity to benefit from his radiant character; she alone had the special opportunity to receive the Messenger’s training, and her room was illuminated many times by the light of revelation. Is it possible for the character of a woman raised and brought up in such a sacred environment to be of such a nature that the vilest accusation could apply to her? Yet, before this slander was spread, no such idea had ever entered the minds of her parents, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), or the ordinary Muslim community! How could a pure character, nurtured and developed for many years in a family environment radiant throughout with purity, cleanliness, and honesty, suddenly commit such a vile act, whose slightest indication had never appeared before anyone? How can one imagine that a splendid, fruit-bearing tree, after producing sweet fruit for a long period, would suddenly begin producing sour fruit one day?

The Law Became Active

In the flood of light from Surah An-Nur, the heart-city of the Muslims began to sparkle; public opinion moved with single-minded concentration toward a definite goal; and Islamic society breathed a sigh of relief after emerging from a long period of turmoil. Surah An-Nur brought with it the law concerning hadd al-qadhf (the punishment for slander). In addition to sincerely repenting and confessing their crime, the slanderers were also faced with evidence against them. They submitted their backs before Islamic law and, after receiving eighty lashes each, restored the purity of their consciences. Mistah, Hassan ibn Thabit, and Hamnah bint Jahsh suffered this punishment. But the real culprit escaped the reach of the law. Nevertheless, his base character and vile machinations became completely clear to public opinion, and Islamic society cast him aside as entirely insignificant.

Everyone makes mistakes. No human being is sinless except the prophets. But when the two opposing character responses in the incident of Hazrat Adam (peace be upon him) are examined, it becomes clear that after committing a sin, two paths open before the sinner. One is the path chosen by Satan: the reckless path of clinging even more firmly to sin. The second is the path chosen by Hazrat Adam, in keeping with a sound and upright nature: repenting after committing the offense and reforming oneself. Abdullah ibn Ubayy and his companions adopted the satanic path, while Hassan, Mistah, and Hamnah adopted the path of self-purification.

A Blessing in Disguise

Revive the passage of time for a moment through the eyes of imagination, and transport yourself briefly into the storm-tossed atmosphere of the month-long slander in Madinah. A terrible and painful situation will rise before you. The movement that had gathered workers one by one and transformed into a small revolutionary caravan; the movement that, after traversing a long and difficult road, had built in Madinah a small haven of peace called the Islamic state; the movement that wanted to shelter in that haven the distressed humanity scorched by the fire of years of unrest and anarchy—if destructive turmoil were to arise from within that very movement, nothing could be more alarming. Especially in a situation where that Islamic state was facing enemy attacks from every direction, was at risk of military aggression from one side or another at any moment, and was surrounded by the harmful activities of a large part of its own non-Muslim inhabitants.

But the Qur’an comforted it, saying that there was no need to panic or be anxious. “Do not consider this incident harmful to yourselves; rather, it is a means of benefit for you.” (An-Nur 11)

Indeed, when idealistic and revolutionary movements fall prey to disasters and disturbances that create mental instability and anxiety, they ultimately become causes of greater welfare and progress, reform and construction, and the creation of strength and resistance—whether those disasters emerge clearly from within or from outside. Just as various rises and falls, accidents, and calamities can assist the advancement of ambitious and capable individuals, opposition and conditions filled with disorder can smooth the path toward progress and stability for movements possessing intellectual and practical strength. An organization that remains alert and conscious of its aims and objectives; whose collective mentality has developed; whose moral and intellectual temperament has reached maturity; whose leadership remains in the hands of ever-active, vigilant, discerning, and wise people; whose workers keep a watchful eye on all hostile and anarchic forces; that remains prepared to struggle with all its might against any possible dispute or adversity; and whose public opinion permits no anti-Islamic ideology to operate within the organization—such an organization gains something from every hostile attack and opposition.

The great Islamic state and organization of Madinah also benefited in several ways from this filthy campaign of slander and malicious propaganda, and as a result it became stronger and more vigilant than before.

Through direct and bitter experience, the leaders and workers of this radiant movement of honesty and justice gained knowledge of all these dangerous and far-reaching weaknesses of humanity. Such knowledge cannot be gained, let alone even vaguely understood or used to prepare people to confront them, by sitting in a spiritual lodge under a master-disciple system. This incident exposed many gaps in collective life through which all kinds of destructive defects could enter. Through it, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and his Companions identified, among the personnel at the various levels of the organization, those afflicted with the disease of hypocrisy; those possessing weak faith; those with coarse understanding and an emotional temperament; those who, despite being motivated by good intentions, went astray; and those who, because of their simplicity, fell victim to the enemies’ deception. In particular, it became clearly known how far the small faction created within the Islamic organization by the scheming hypocrite leader could go.

After these weak aspects of the internal transformation of Islamic society had been learned through practical experience, a psychological environment was created. By making use of it, arrangements were made on the one hand to provide training through new moral directives, while on the other hand social regulations were introduced capable of protecting Muslims from various character defects. Thirdly, a strict decree containing new laws and penal provisions was issued, guaranteeing the enduring collective welfare of humanity.

This incident shook the collective conscience of Madinah’s Islamic society awake. It awakened its morality and activated its collective sense of honor by striking at its feelings. After being rescued from this embarrassing aggression by the hypocritical forces, every member of that society became more vigilant and stronger than before.

During this incident, the person who suffered the greatest oppression, alongside Hazrat Aisha, was the Messenger of Allah himself, peace and blessings be upon him. Yet the generosity, magnanimity, patience, and forbearance he demonstrated through his dignified, calm, and unemotional conduct overwhelmed people with wonder. This incident offers an instructive example for those who would lead the Islamic movement and organization after the Messenger (peace be upon him). He endured extreme mental torment in order to present world humanity with a cordial social system. He had appeared to protect the honor of all people, yet contemporary society repaid him by smearing his own honor with the stain of false accusation. If anyone else had suffered such a situation, he would either have crushed his opponents or, in utter despair, withdrawn to a corner of his home. But he continued to fulfill his duties as the embodiment of patience and forbearance.

Provocative Activities

The Jews of Madinah, on the one hand out of pride in their consolidated strength and on the other out of political necessity, concluded a constitutional treaty with the Messenger (peace be upon him) and came under the administration of the Islamic state. Perhaps they did not properly understand this new political power in time. Nor could they foresee its bright future. They could not imagine that this power would develop so rapidly and, with the help of a few destitute refugees and the Ansar of Madinah, become a force capable of controlling the course of history through faith and character alone. They thought that these Muslims, expelled from their homeland like dry leaves fallen from a tree, would be wiped out by the first blow of any impending disaster. And even if they somehow survived, they would still be unable to build a powerful society. But through the miraculous power of the revolutionary vitality of the Kalimah Tayyibah, these few people built a strong political structure even in an extremely hostile environment. Not only that, within a few months the Jews realized that the Islamic state was a rising sun before which the lamp of their influence and prestige would flicker. In particular, when they saw the Muslims return to Madinah from the Battle of Badr not merely safe but waving the banner of victory, the Jews were so stunned that they must have been forced to reconsider the whole matter anew.

The peace treaty concluded with the Messenger (peace be upon him) had made the Jews allies and lawful citizens of the Islamic state. But rebellion and envy were blazing fiercely in their hearts.

This contradictory position ultimately led them onto the path of conspiracy and anarchy. Whenever they found an opportunity—or created one when none existed—they tried by every means to destroy the Muslims’ social unity, incite them, paralyze the administration and law and order in one way or another, create critical situations, and weaken the leadership of the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Jews’ lackeys hid within Islamic society in the guise of hypocrites. Together with people of weak faith from among the Ansar, they implemented the Jews’ plans. These mischief-making conspiratorial enemies eventually devised a crooked method. They composed obscene poems about Muslim women, recited them aloud, and circulated them. They tried to damage the women’s reputations. Because of this filthy poetic practice, their minds became so shaped that they had no respect for a basic social value such as chastity. One day this shameless Jewish mentality manifested itself when some Jewish youths behaved entirely like gangsters. A Jewish tribe called Banu Qaynuqa lived in Madinah. An Arab Muslim woman went to their market to shop. The shopkeeper first behaved indecently toward her and then stripped her naked in the open market. After committing this misdeed, he and his companions, instead of feeling ashamed, began mocking and ridiculing her even more. The woman cried out and called for help in the Arab manner. Hearing her cries, an Arab youth’s sense of honor was aroused, and in intense agitation he lost control and immediately killed the wicked Jew. The conspirators got exactly what they wanted. A riot was about to break out between the Arab Muslims and the Jews. Upon receiving the news, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went to the scene without delay. He rebuked the Banu Qaynuqa tribe for their despicable misconduct and also warned them, saying, “O Jewish people, mend your ways before you suffer the same fate that befell the Quraysh in the Battle of Badr.”

According to Ibn Sa‘d’s account, since the Banu Qaynuqa tribe harbored intense hostility and obstinacy, they replied in an agitated tone: “O Muhammad! Do not think the world is yours simply because you have killed a few men of the Quraysh. They were weak and unskilled in warfare. By Allah, if you raise your sword against us, you will learn that we are the true fighters. You have never encountered people like us before.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 2)

Until then, the people of Madinah’s Aws and Khazraj tribes had been far behind the Jews politically, economically, and intellectually. Yet the Islamic movement had created the pulse of new life within them, and their continuous effort and zeal to attain a sacred goal had bound them together and with the Muhajirun in bonds of unity. Seeing the favorable transformation in their fortunes, the Jews became inwardly enraged. A notorious Jewish old schemer named Shas ibn Qays watched this change in the situation with great concern. His heart was filled with envy and hatred toward the leaders and workers of the Islamic movement. Once, he saw with his own eyes a gathering of the Messenger’s Companions. Some people from Aws and Khazraj were conversing there. At the sight of their mutual sympathy, harmony, and the unity created by Islam, his very heart seemed to burn to ashes. Where was the fighting and uproar of the Age of Ignorance, and where was this sweet scene of unity? The old Jew said to himself, “Ah, I understand. So the descendants of Qayla—Aws and Khazraj, named after their ancestral grandmother Qayla—have now merged completely into one! If they become united like this, it will become impossible for us to live in peace.” Eventually, the people of his tribe hatched a conspiracy and made a Jewish youth their pawn to carry it out. They instructed him: Go and sit in the Muslims’ gatherings, mingle closely with them, and remind them of the Battle of Bu‘ath and the earlier wars fought between Aws and Khazraj. The Jewish agent fulfilled the task assigned to him very well. Once, the people of Aws and Khazraj were sitting together in a gathering. In the course of conversation, discussion began about the dark chapter of the Age of Ignorance. Gradually, conflict, quarrels, and taunts arose between them; they competed to disparage one another, and this turned into agitation. Finally, the excited fighters on both sides stood face to face, as though they would fight a new war to prove who was stronger. Voices rang out: “Bring the weapons, bring the weapons!” Both Aws and Khazraj were thrown into a state of battle readiness. Even the time and place of the fight were fixed. The agitated men were going out fully armed. At that moment, the Messenger (peace be upon him) arrived at the scene with several Muhajirun. He then delivered the following speech:

“O Muslims, remember Allah. Allah has guided you to the path of Islam; through it He has increased your honor, cast off from your necks the chains of the Age of Ignorance, freed you from unbelief, and bound you together in mutual affection and love. Even after this, you have begun raising the slogans of the Age of Ignorance in my very presence—what is the meaning of this?”

As soon as they heard this brief speech, the people realized that all of this was actually a tribulation and crooked conspiracy created by Satan. It was the enemies of Islam who had caused these confusions. They repented, bowed their heads, expressed their obedience, and returned with the Messenger.

A similar incident occurred on the way to the Battle of Banu al-Mustaliq. The hypocrites subservient to the Jews had created a dangerously high level of tension between the Ansar and the Muhajirun under the leadership of Abdullah ibn Ubayy. We have mentioned this incident earlier. On that occasion too, the Messenger (peace be upon him) brought the situation under control with great speed and wisdom.

Among these conspiracies, the most organized and devious was the incident of Masjid Dirar. The real mastermind behind this conspiracy was a false spiritual leader named Abu Amir from the Khazraj tribe. Before the Messenger (peace be upon him) came to Madinah, he had considerable influence because of his knowledge of the earlier revealed scriptures and his ascetic way of life. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) came to Madinah and became a refuge for people of every class, Abu Amir’s influence and prestige fell to zero. For this reason, he remained intensely resentful inwardly. Moreover, the outcome of the Battle of Badr presented him with such a picture of the future that he became restless with agitation. One day he began inciting the Quraysh leaders of Makkah to fight the Battle of Uhud; on the other hand, he formed connections with other polytheist leaders of Arabia, incited the Ansar themselves to rebel against the Messenger (peace be upon him), and even invited the Roman Emperor Heraclius to attack Madinah. (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 4)

He incited the hypocrites to establish an alternative center to confront the Messenger (peace be upon him). Masjid Dirar was built on the basis of this plan. The architects of this center of anti-Islamic activity made a dramatic appeal to the Messenger (peace be upon him), saying that they had built this mosque for the weak and disabled people who could not go far to pray. Moreover, nearby residents would easily be able to gather there on dark nights and during storms and rain. They asked him to go inaugurate it and bless it. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was then setting out for Tabuk. He deferred the matter until his return from Tabuk. On his return, he was warned through revelation:

“Those who built a mosque to cause harm, promote unbelief, spread division among the Muslims, and provide a base for those who previously fought against Allah and His Messenger, and who swear that we intended nothing but good—Allah bears witness that they are liars. You must never pray in the mosque they have built. However, the mosque whose foundation was laid upon piety from the very first day is more worthy for you to pray in. There are many people there who wish to purify themselves. Allah loves those who seek purification.” (At-Tawbah, 107–108)

A lesson may be learned here: how a small seed of vengeance gives birth to a vast poisonous tree, and how the forces of unbelief use a mosque as a base to oppose the Islamic movement. Observe how the discord created to harm Islam manifests itself by putting on the label of religion and God-fearing devotion. There is no end to the number of groups and factions, spiritual lodges, mosques, madrasas, publishing houses, and newspapers and magazines that are still being established and nurtured before us with evil purposes like Masjid Dirar. The claim of their architects is also the same: “We are working only with good intentions.”

If this mosque had truly been built for the worship of Allah, and if its purpose had been to make congregational prayer easier for weak and disabled Muslims, then this need would have been presented for the Messenger’s consideration. The leader of Islamic society would then have decided to build the mosque. Like the other mosques, it too would have been built through the Muslims’ collective participation. Instead, some people secretly consulted one another, devised a hidden plan without the knowledge of the Islamic organization and its leader, and built a separate mosque for themselves without anyone’s knowledge. Yet the mosque of Quba already existed nearby. This clearly means that some deception must lie behind this act, carried out under the cover of God-fearing devotion. Revelation came down, exposed this deception, and laid it before society. If, in the presence of an organization working toward a specific goal, some people think of forming a separate faction within it and develop and implement their own separate plans outside the collective method and program of work, then no matter how much they indulge in grandiloquence to make their piety credible, and no matter how attractive an appearance they adopt, the result can be nothing but harm to Islamic society, incitement to unbelief, and the creation of division.

Eventually, on the Messenger’s instruction, this impure den of corruption built in the sacred name of a mosque was burned to ashes, so that along with it its despicable history might also be erased. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, Vol. 4)

In short, the Jewish group that claimed an exclusive right to Allah’s guidance and claimed to be the heirs of the prophets and messengers never missed an opportunity to create provocation. But far more destructive than all these troubling subversive activities were the conspiratorial activities they carried out during every battle to damage the Islamic defense system. We shall provide details of these subversive activities later.

Obstructing the Judicial System

The proper administration of any system of government depends on the efficient performance of two tasks. First, its defense system must be strong. Second, its judicial system must function properly and its laws must be implemented. The first task is to protect the country from external aggression, and the second to keep it safe from internal problems. But the government of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) faced resistance from the Jews and the hypocrites in carrying out both these tasks. Here I wish to mention how these two opposing forces obstructed the judicial system of the Islamic state and what schemes they devised to weaken the civil administration. If a new state’s civil administration is not given the opportunity to become established, it can neither control its internal problems nor confront external powers. In such circumstances, its existence may be destroyed in its very infancy. History contains countless examples of conquerors or revolutionaries who, wherever they established a new government, initially had to employ extraordinary strictness and force to establish the civil administration. But the government of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was founded on a moral ideology and a judicial system that left no room for extraordinary or unlawful harshness. For this reason, the Fifth Column of Medina found an opportunity to resort to a measure of cunning and hypocrisy.

Under the constitutional pact of the Islamic state of Medina, through which the Muslim Muhajirs, the Ansar, and the Jewish tribes had been integrated into a single political entity, it had been acknowledged that supreme authority in political and judicial matters (Final Authority) would rest with Muhammad (peace be upon him). That document is still preserved, and it contains the following two clear clauses:

(Arabic *******)

After this constitutional pact was concluded, it became the legal, moral, and political duty of the Jewish tribes that had signed it to give their fullest cooperation toward making the legal and judicial systems of the Islamic state successful and to express complete loyalty to the administration led by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him). Bringing an unorganized and chaotic society within the bounds of orderly civic discipline on the basis of the rule of law was one of the Messenger’s extraordinary and priceless achievements, and applying the natural and eternal principles of justice without discrimination to eradicate crime and wrongdoing was an immensely beneficial measure. As a result, a sound, pure environment of peace and security benefited the Jews just as it benefited others. Moreover, establishing Allah’s law was also a national objective of the Jews. Apparently, the Jews had voluntarily and gladly accepted the obligations of this constitutional pact. Yet whenever they felt that some interest of theirs was about to be obstructed by the law of the Islamic state, or one of their people was about to be harmed, they would completely deny the political, legal, and ethical obligations entrusted to them under the pact, and utterly disregard the overall interests of society and humanity. Once, a married Jewish man committed adultery with another married Jewish woman. The Jewish leaders heard about it. They sat down to deliberate and sent a man to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) to ask what punishment could be given for such misconduct. They had previously decided among themselves that if Muhammad (peace be upon him) ordered the customary punishment of tahmiyah—smearing the face with soot and parading the offender through the area on a donkey—they would accept Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a king and obey his command. But if he ordered rajm in accordance with the Book of Allah, they would understand that he was a prophet—in knowledge, courage, and obedience to Allah’s command—and in that case Muhammad’s order must not be obeyed, because whatever remained of their influence and authority as leaders would then disappear. In any event, the messenger arrived and conveyed the Jewish leaders’ message. The leading Jewish authorities also proposed that they would accept him as judge. Their proposal contradicted the constitutional pact, because under that pact the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was permanently Medina’s chief judge. Perhaps for this reason, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) rose and went directly to the Jews’ religious center. There he said, “Call your learned men.” Abdullah ibn Suriyyah was immediately brought in. According to some accounts, Abu Yasar ibn Akhta and Wahb ibn Yahud were also part of the group with Abdullah. During the discussion, everyone unanimously described Abdullah ibn Suriyyah as the person most knowledgeable about the Torah. The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) called Abdullah ibn Suriyyah aside, first reminded him to fear Allah, recalled the golden age of the history of the Children of Israel, and asked, “Do you know that when a married person commits adultery, the Torah commands that he be stoned to death?” He replied, “By Allah, yes.” The information known to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) through revelation thus received confirmation even from his opponents. But in the general assembly, the Jewish leaders and scholars began making confused arguments. They insisted that the punishment for adultery prescribed by our religious law was tahmiyah. According to the meaning of this term, Jewish adulterers had their faces blackened with soot, were mounted on donkeys, and paraded through the settlements. They had shelved the Torah’s provision of rajm, or stoning to death. When the disease of adultery spread among them and even people of high standing became involved, society began assisting the criminals instead of upholding religious law and reduced the punishment. The Jewish leaders of Medina feared that if the Torah’s provision of rajm were reinstated, no one would remain safe. One person would be punished today, and another tomorrow. That was why they wanted the punishment of rajm abolished. Therefore, compelled to do so, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) publicly asked them to produce the Torah. The Torah was brought, and a Jewish scholar read from the relevant passage. The verse concerning rajm was present intact in that copy of the Torah. So the wicked scholar covered the relevant verse with his hand and read the verse before it and the verse after it. Abdullah ibn Salam, a renowned Jewish scholar who had accepted Islam, leapt forward, moved his hand aside, and pointed it out to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), saying, “O Messenger, here is the verse concerning the provision of rajm!” [The Gospel written by John contains clear evidence that the original Torah prescribed rajm for a married adulteress. Consider this statement in John 8:5:

“Moses commanded us in the Torah to stone such women to death.” Despite the mixture of Jewish exegetes, jurists, and corruptors found in the commonly circulated versions of the Torah, in some cases they mention killing and stoning to death as the punishment for adultery. For example: “If a man is caught committing adultery with a woman whose husband is alive, both of them must be put to death.” (Deuteronomy, chapter 21, verses 21–22)

“If a virgin girl becomes betrothed to someone, and another man finds her in the city and has intercourse with her, you shall bring both of them to the outskirts of the city and stone them to death.” (Deuteronomy, chapter 22, verse 23) Verse 26 also declares the death penalty for a rapist. The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) severely rebuked the Jewish scholar for this falsification and imposed on the offender concerned the Torah’s prescribed punishment of rajm, saying: “I am the first to restore the implementation of Allah’s law and the provision of His Book.” (The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2; Muslim, chapter on implementing rajm against protected Jewish subjects; Zad al-Ma’ad, vol. 3)

This was the scheme of the Jewish scholars of that time. Holding Allah’s law under their arms, they were implementing fabricated, invalid laws. With such character, they sought to obstruct the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), who was determined to implement Allah’s law in its authentic and unaltered form. Addressing them, the Qur’an said: “Until you uphold the Torah, the Gospel, and what has been revealed to you from your Lord, you have no basis.” In other words, as long as such a grave contradiction exists between your beliefs and actions, you are a meaningless and insignificant community. One major sign of the Jews’ pervasive corruption was that their society had become permanently divided into upper and lower classes, and equality before the law had completely disappeared. There were different laws for influential people and for the weak. For example, because of the difference in strength and weakness between Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayzah, a discriminatory system of diyah—the monetary compensation payable in retaliation for killing—was in force. If someone from Banu Nadir killed a member of Banu Qurayzah, one hundred wasaq of diyah was accepted; conversely, if a member of Banu Qurayzah killed someone from Banu Nadir, fifty wasaq was accepted. After the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) came to Medina and the Islamic system of justice was established, when a member of Banu Nadir killed a member of Banu Qurayzah, the killer’s side refused to pay double diyah and pressed for equality to be accepted. Their strength had now increased with the support of Islamic law. As the dispute grew increasingly heated, it nearly led to war between the two tribes. Eventually, both tribes agreed to bring their dispute before the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and accept his judgment.

The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), following the Qur’anic command, permanently abolished this discrimination in diyah and made it equal. (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol. 2; The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2) At the same time, the Qur’an warned those who altered Allah’s system of justice, saying:

“Those who do not judge according to what Allah has revealed are unbelievers.” (Al-Ma’idah)

It would have been manageable if only the Jews of Medina had obstructed the implementation of Islam’s system of justice and penal laws (hudud). The real problem was that discrimination prevailed throughout Arab society as a whole. There was one law for the influential class and another for the weak and ordinary people.

At the conquest of Mecca, a woman named Fatimah from the Banu Makhzum tribe was arrested for theft. Since she belonged to an influential tribe, the Quraysh were distressed by her arrest. They could not even imagine that an elite woman would be subjected to the same legal punishment prescribed for everyone. After consultation, they decided that they would plead with the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) to release her. But a problem arose: who would make the plea? After much thought, they sent Usamah ibn Zayd to intercede. As soon as Usamah presented his case, the Messenger’s face grew pale. He said, “Have you come to intercede regarding a punishment prescribed by Allah?” On hearing only these words, Usamah understood. He asked forgiveness. Finally, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) addressed the assembled people, saying:

“One reason that earlier nations were destroyed was that when an influential person among them committed a crime, they pretended not to see it even though they had seen it. By Allah, I swear that even if my daughter Fatimah were to steal, I would cut off her hand as well. (Sahih Muslim: chapter on the prohibition of intercession against applying penal laws)

A similar attitude arose in the case of another woman named Umm Harithah. This woman had broken someone’s tooth. When the case was brought before the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), he ordered qisas—like-for-like retaliation, a tooth for a tooth. Umm Rabi (probably the offender’s sister, though the reports are unclear on this point), astonished by the order, asked the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), “Will qisas also be taken from her? By Allah, that is impossible.” The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said, “O Umm Rabi! Qisas is Allah’s law.” But the woman continued, “By Allah, it is impossible to take qisas from her.” She simply could not understand how the tooth of a woman of such standing could be broken.

Meanwhile, in practice both sides agreed on diyah. Thus the rule of qisas—which allowed an alternative of diyah—was fulfilled, while Umm Rabi’s statement also proved correct. For this reason, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) remarked humorously, “There are servants of Allah who, when they swear an oath, Allah Himself fulfills it for them.” (Sahih Muslim: chapter on qisas)

The Jews did not obstruct only the work of the Islamic judiciary. Wherever they found an opportunity throughout the civil administration, they tried to create disorder. A notable example is that after the conquest of Khaybar, when, at the request of the Jews of Khaybar, they were retained as sharecroppers on their land in return for half the produce, the tax collector of the Islamic government went to collect the government’s due share from them for the first time, and they attempted to bribe him. They tried to involve the officials of the new administration in the terrible disease of corruption from which they themselves suffered. This tax collector was Abdullah ibn Rawahah. The trustworthy collector sent by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was far above the expectations of the Jews of Khaybar. He said to them plainly, “O enemies of Allah, do you wish to feed me unlawful food?” (The Life of the Prophet, Shibli Numani)

He said, “The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) did not send me to you so that I might appropriate your property. Rather, I was sent to divide it equally between you and the Muslims. If you agree, I will estimate the total and give you half; or, if you wish, you may yourselves estimate it and give half to us.”

Then Ibn Rawahah estimated the total at 40,000 wasaq and took 20,000 wasaq as the Muslims’ due. Some ignoble Jews, enraged by this fair distribution, said, “This is oppression.” But the justice-loving public acknowledged that it was fair. Abdullah ibn Rawahah continued to perform this duty throughout his life. (Bukhari, chapters on sharecropping and partnership)

In short, instead of assisting the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) in transforming a semi-organized society into an orderly state and implementing the principles of justice granted by Allah, the Jewish nation—the original self-proclaimed sole claimant to religion and civilization—continued obstructing him at every step and made the unforgivable attempt to uproot the Islamic system in its earliest days.

Attempts to Create Discord in the Messenger’s Family

The enemies of Islam living in Medina also tried to create discord within the Messenger’s family. In their view, this was the most effective way to cause strife and conflict between the Messenger’s family and his close companions. If the conspiracy to entangle the leader of the Islamic movement in domestic disputes succeeded, its consequences could have been extremely destructive. Ordinary women of Medina already came and went at the Messenger’s house. Whatever they saw, they would then spread among everyone according to the characteristically inquisitive psychology of women. Thus the hypocrites and immoral people could learn very well what kind of hunger and poverty prevailed in the Messenger’s household. The Messenger’s wives were women from noble families, and their tastes were no lower than anyone else’s. On the other hand, although the Messenger was sincerely content with the household’s economic condition, it was far below the standard to which they had previously been accustomed. The Messenger’s wives also patiently endured such circumstances with him. They clearly understood that the architect of a new world was passing through such arduous conditions that complete happiness and peace could not be expected. Yet people are still people. Human beings are always surrounded by their natural emotions, feelings, hopes, and aspirations. It is true that the Messenger’s wives occupied a high rank in faith and character and presented the world with remarkable examples of patience, tolerance, and solidarity. Nevertheless, because they were members of the same family, it was not unusual for them occasionally to be influenced, even slightly, by a sense of mutual rivalry. Moreover, the tradition of women of Quraysh remaining devoted and obedient to their husbands had been observed far more strictly among them than among the women of Medina. The women of Medina, rather, displayed considerable assertiveness toward their husbands. For example, once, when a man as formidable as Umar rebuked his wife while staying in Medina, she boldly answered him back. Astonished, Umar said, “You answered me to my face?”

At that time, he realized that the Medinan environment had already exerted a considerable influence on the Meccan traditions and attitudes in the married life of Muslims.

This situation was clear to the hypocrites and immoral people, and it gave them an opportunity to conspire. They used a number of women as spies to kindle the fire of discord and confusion within the Messenger’s family. One such woman was named Umm Jaldah. Her task was to incite the Messenger’s wives. It was through the conspiracies of such female spies that slander could be spread against Aisha.

As a result of such conspiracies by immoral people, a series of incidents occurred that could have been extremely harmful. But through Allah’s help, the character of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), the support of distinguished Companions, and the graciousness of his wives, the problems were resolved in due time.

The most dangerous of these incidents was the wives’ demand for an increase in their maintenance allowance. This demand led to the occurrence of ila—temporary abstention by the Messenger from intimacy with his wives. It was a special favor from Allah that Abu Bakr and Umar, may Allah be pleased with them, sincerely took the Messenger’s side and sternly rebuked their two daughters instead of encouraging them. Meanwhile, a challenge came from Allah Almighty:

“O Prophet, tell your wives: If you desire the life of this world and its luxury, then come, and I will provide you with a parting gift and send you away graciously. But if you desire Allah, His Messenger, and the Hereafter, then know that Allah has prepared a great reward for the righteous among you.” (Surah Al-Ahzab)

In fact, two paths had been placed before the Messenger’s wives. They could choose either one. By virtue of their inherent nobility, the wives immediately became alert. The Messenger first conveyed Allah’s decision to Aisha, who had led this demand because of her influence, standing, and exceptional intelligence and talent. Aisha was the first to declare, “I want nothing except Allah and His Messenger.” Then, one by one, all the other wives wholeheartedly abandoned their demands.

If discord and conflict arose at some point in a family surrounded by enemies, as a result of the continual conspiracies of evil people and the misdeeds of women serving as spies of the worst kind, that would not be surprising. Rather, the fact that this family remained safely intact despite so many conspiracies is a sign of the strength, solidarity, and nobility of its members.

Now understand how many kinds of webs of conspiracy were being woven around the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him).

The Conspiracy to Assassinate

When the call to truth develops into a movement, its hostile forces, in opposing it unjustly, continue to descend into degradation and baseness. When at last they lose even in argument against the central call, and fail despite campaigns of confusion and violence, their lifelong hatred, malice, obstinacy, and vulgarity create within them a criminal, murderous, and predatory mentality. At this stage, they set out to kill the leader of the Islamic movement. When such scheming enemies occupy positions of power and authority, they inflict political persecution on their opponents and, wielding the sword of the law, stage trials to murder servants of humanity. Those deprived of power, however, choose the direct path of plotting murder. The ignorant leadership of Mecca had chosen the latter path. Now the false religious leaders of Medina also chose this filthy path.

This occurred in the fourth year after the Hijrah. Amr ibn Umayyah al-Damri killed two men from the Amir tribe. The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) went to the people of the Banu Nadir tribe to pay the diyah for this killing and remind them of their obligations under the peace treaty. The people there seated the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) beneath the shade of a wall. Then they secretly conferred, deciding that someone would go up and kill him by dropping a huge stone on his head. Amr ibn Jahhash ibn Ka’b took this responsibility upon himself. The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) detected their evil plan and rose and left in advance. (The Life of Ibn Hisham, vol. 2; Mercy to the Worlds, Qadi Sulayman Mansurpuri; The Political Life of the Noble Messenger, Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah)

The father of the notorious Jewish leader Ka’b ibn Ashraf belonged to the Tai tribe, while his mother was the daughter of the wealthy Jewish leader Abu Rafi ibn Abi al-Huqayq. Through this dual connection, Ka’b ibn Ashraf wielded equal influence over the Arabs and the Jews. On the one hand he was wealthy, and on the other he was a celebrated poet. His heart was filled with poison against Islam. (Fath al-Bari) Another report says that Ka’b invited the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) on the one hand, while on the other he instructed some men to kill him as soon as he arrived. Although this report is somewhat weak in its chain, it seems credible in light of Ka’b’s hostility and his actual activities.

When the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) renewed the treaty with Banu Qurayzah, Banu Nadir sent him a message saying, “You should come with three men, and we will also bring three scholars. Present your case before this gathering. If our scholars support your statement, we will all believe in you.” The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) set out. But on the way he learned that the Jews were preparing to kill him. So he returned.

The Conquest of Khaybar

During the Battle of Khaybar, a Jewish woman named Zaynab bint al-Harith, the wife of Sallam ibn Mishkam, roasted and cooked a goat and mixed poison into it. She then asked which part of the goat the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) liked most. When she learned that he preferred the foreleg, she added an especially potent amount of poison to it. She then sent the meat as a gift for the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) and his Companions. The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) put a morsel of meat in his mouth—perhaps swallowing a little—and immediately spat it out. Then he said, “This meat is telling me that poison has been mixed into it.” He did not eat any more himself, nor did he allow the Companions to eat it. Later, when the Jewish woman was summoned and questioned, she confessed. In reality, many Jews had jointly devised this plot. When the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) called them all before the general assembly and spoke to them, they all confessed. But they cleverly said, “We wanted to test you: if you were truly a prophet, you would discover the truth; otherwise, we would escape your grasp.” (The Life of the Prophet, Shibli Numani, vol. 1, source: Fath al-Bari)

Among the Companions at this banquet was Bara ibn Ma’rur, may Allah be pleased with him. Although he felt the intensity of the poison after putting the morsel in his mouth, he did not spit it out for fear of being disrespectful. He died from that single morsel. (Zad al-Ma’ad, vol. 2; Shama’il al-Tirmidhi; Asahhus-Siyar)

After the return from Tabuk, the hypocrites’ hearts were roasted in the fire of anger by the Muslims’ victory. The hope of all these secret enemies had been that the Muslims would suffer defeat. When that hope failed, they plotted to assassinate the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him). Twelve people took part in this conspiracy. Their names were: Abdullah ibn Ubayy, Sa’d ibn Abi Sarh, Abu Fatir al-Arabi, Amir, Abu Amir al-Rahib, Jallas ibn Suwayd, Majma ibn Jariyah, Mali’h al-Taymi, Hasan ibn Numayr, Tu’aymah ibn Ubayriq, Abdullah ibn Uyaynah, and Murrah ibn Rabi.

At the conspiracy meeting, Jallas said, “Tonight we will not leave Muhammad (PBUH) without throwing him from the mountain, even if Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions are better than us. Yet it is as though we have become goats and they our shepherds. It is as though we have become fools and they have become intelligent.”

He also said, “If Muhammad (PBUH) is truthful, then we are lower than donkeys.” (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, Vol. 2)

Abdullah said, “If you stay awake tonight, you will live in peace for the rest of your lives. Killing this man is your only task today.”

Murrah said, “If we kill just one man, everyone will be safe.”

Among these twelve, Hasan bin Numair’s great ‘achievement’ was that he had plundered charitable funds.

The other, Abu Amer the Monk, appeared to be a Sufi, an ascetic, and detached from worldly life. Yet he was the instigator of the Mosque of Dirar. He plotted against the Messenger (PBUH) with the rulers of Rome and Ghassan. His pious-looking clothing reflected hypocrisy and wickedness.

It was decided that the Messenger (PBUH) would be thrown down when he passed over the mountain. According to this plan, these twelve conspirators followed the Messenger (PBUH). When he reached the mountain, he told everyone that those who wished to take the broad road across the plain could do so. He himself continued along the mountain path. Many of the Companions took the plain route, but the conspirators remained with the Messenger (PBUH). The Messenger’s (PBUH) perception was naturally so keen that it reached the innermost depths of the heart and detected hidden feelings and emotions. The hypocrites had grown up before the Messenger (PBUH); who, then, could know the hypocrites better than he? Moreover, Allah warned him of this conspiracy through unseen signs. He proceeded along the mountain path with Hudhaifah bin Yaman and Ammar bin Yasir. He told Ammar to walk ahead, holding the reins of the Messenger’s (PBUH) camel, and told Hudhaifah to follow behind. When they reached the particular spot, the conspirators came leaping toward them. It was a dark night, and, in addition, the criminals were masked. As soon as the Messenger (PBUH) heard their footsteps, he instructed his two companions to drive away those following behind. Hudhaifah leapt forward and, seeing their camel, shot an arrow at its chin. On seeing Hudhaifah, they thought that the conspiracy had been exposed. They therefore fled backward and mingled with the ordinary Muslims.

When Hudhaifah returned, the Messenger (PBUH) instructed him, “Drive the camel swiftly from here.” He then asked Hudhaifah, “Did you recognize them?” Hudhaifah replied, “I recognized the mounts of so-and-so and so-and-so, but I did not recognize the men.” The Messenger (PBUH) asked, “Did you understand their intention?” He replied in the negative. The Messenger (PBUH) then told him himself, “They intended to throw me down from the mountain.”

The next morning, the Messenger (PBUH) summoned those twelve conspirators one by one by name. He laid before each of them what he had said about his intentions at the gathering where the conspiracy had been devised, and asked each one for an explanation.

All their replies were amusing. Hasan bin Numair, for example, said, “I never firmly believed that you would know these things. But today I have realized that you truly are the Messenger of Allah. Until now I was not a sincere Muslim. Today I have accepted Islam wholeheartedly.”

Each of them offered such excuses and pretexts. Some asked for forgiveness. The Messenger (PBUH) forgave them all. (Asahhus-Siyar—Maulana Abdur Rauf Danapuri)

Several highly reliable reports tell us that the Messenger (PBUH) disclosed the names of those involved in this incident only secretly to Hudhaifah. He did not reveal them before the general Muslim community. Moreover, there is some disagreement concerning several of these twelve men. Some people also say that two or three of them showed no further signs of hypocrisy afterward.

Nevertheless, the basic event is historically established in its proper place. The Qur’an says of it, “They could not accomplish what they intended.”

No other example of the Messenger’s (PBUH) magnanimity can be found in history. He organized a revolution for the service of humanity, laboring with all his might. Yet, at the most delicate moment of conflict, several criminals planned to kill him in order to uproot all his achievements and took steps to carry out their plan. The secret of all their misdeeds was exposed, and they confessed as well. Yet this great man forgave even such a grave offense without hesitation. The Messenger (PBUH) was also told, “Order the tribe of each of these criminals to cut off their heads and bring them to you.” But the Messenger (PBUH) replied, “I do not like the Arabs to say that Muhammad (PBUH) fought the enemy with some companions and, after achieving victory, began killing his own companions.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 2) By this, the Messenger (PBUH) intended to convey that if such vengeance were taken, the essential strength of the Islamic movement would be unable to preserve its distinctive character. Therefore, even when his own life was endangered and he had to confront ever-new conspiracies and acts of sabotage, he endured them. But he did not like force to be used merely to keep circumstances under control, or every instance of disorder to be eradicated through the power of authority and law. Governing and administering human society requires great wisdom, prudence, and insight; attention must be paid to many interests and benefits, and many methods must be applied from different directions to correct difficulties and deviations. One reason the Islamic Revolution is more difficult than other material revolutions is that its extremely delicate and sensitive moral vitality must be preserved at every moment, so that its purity is not stained by ordinary misunderstandings or hostile propaganda.

Among the incidents of personal attacks against the Messenger (PBUH), the Jews’ use of magic is also a noteworthy event. An attacker who attacks openly, though an enemy, is courageous. Even if one intends to kill someone, the just course is to challenge him openly before attacking. But the Jews possessed neither such bravery nor honest courage. Therefore, they adopted the cowardly and diabolical path of secret, devious conspiracies. Yet to sink even lower and attack someone by using magic, incantations, and charms is the work of those who descend to the lowest level of cowardice and bestiality. The Jewish brutes, in the excess of their envy and anger, did not hesitate to commit even this most despicable act against the Messenger (PBUH).

A man named Labid bin Asim of the Banu Ruzaik tribe was an ally of the Jews and a crypto-Muslim. It was through him that the magical attack was carried out. A Jewish boy, attracted to the Messenger (PBUH) by his innate goodness, used to serve him. Some Jews forced him to obtain strands of the Messenger’s (PBUH) hair and teeth from his comb. They recited magical spells over the hair, tied twelve knots in it, and placed it in a well called Dharwan.

Various hadiths relate that, as a result of this magic, the Messenger (PBUH) experienced a strange change of state. He would think that he had done something even though he had not done it. Its effect was also noticeable in his natural attraction toward his wives. Through revelation, he was informed about this magic. The hair was removed, and he returned to his normal state. (Towards Understanding the Qur’an, Vol. 2, note 114)

A debate has continued regarding this incident: can magic affect a prophet? One view is that it cannot happen at all. Applying this view, a group that rejects hadith has declared the science of hadith itself unreliable. Yet just as a prophet’s human body may be affected by illness, injury, poison, and so forth, his mental faculties may likewise be helped or harmed by all kinds of hidden and visible activities. For example, when Prophet Moses saw the magic of Pharaoh’s magicians, it produced a psychological reaction in him. Seeing their ropes take the form of snakes, he became afraid: (Arabic ********)

“Moses felt fear within himself.” (Surah Ta-Ha: 67) However, what is meant when it is said that magic does not affect prophets is that magic cannot impair their prophetic activity. No one else can establish control over their minds, nor can they lose control over their willpower.

Without paying attention to this debate, there is no obstacle to acknowledging that the Jews truly carried out a magical attack against the Messenger (PBUH). Their crime is an incontrovertible established fact.

When these incidents come before us, we understand why the Muslims in the Medinan period remained anxious and on guard over the Messenger’s (PBUH) life. Whenever he had to go outside his home at night, his companions would become extremely worried. It was because of this situation that, during his final illness, Talhah bin Barra left instructions that if he died at night, no one should inform the Messenger (PBUH). For his life was at risk from the Jews. God forbid that he should suffer any harm at the hands of the enemy while coming to attend my funeral prayer. Whenever, by chance, the Messenger (PBUH) went out of the Companions’ sight, they would become alarmed and set out to look for him.

This situation is reflected to some extent in a famous hadith of Abu Hurairah, in which it is stated that entry into Paradise is assured merely by bearing witness to the oneness of Allah. Abu Hurairah said:

“We were sitting around the Messenger (PBUH). Abu Bakr and Umar were also present in that gathering. The Messenger (PBUH) rose from among us, went somewhere, and was delayed for a long time. We became deeply concerned that, since none of us was with the Messenger (PBUH), some harm might come to him. We all became restless and went out in search of him. I was the first to become alarmed, so I immediately set out to find him.” (Mishkat, Book of Faith, Chapter 3)

While searching, Abu Hurairah reached the garden of an Ansari from Banu Najjar. He went around the wall, looking for a door anywhere. But the wall was perhaps long, and because of his fear and haste he could find no nearer route. At last he saw a small water channel emerging beneath the wall. Crouching very tightly—by his own account, curling up like a fox—he entered through the channel into the enclosure. Finding the Messenger (PBUH) there, he felt reassured. Abu Hurairah then spoke with him. It was on this occasion that the Messenger (PBUH) gave that famous glad tiding.

From this account by a distinguished Companion, we can understand what the atmosphere in Medina was like, and how much danger threatened the Messenger’s (PBUH) life because of the Jews’ and hypocrites’ continual assassination plots. Yet reliance on Allah was so strong there that, once, because of these fears and anxieties, the noble Companions arranged guards around the Messenger (PBUH). But since Allah had promised the Messenger (PBUH) that: (Arabic ********)

“Allah will protect you from mankind.” (Surah al-Ma’idah: 67) he himself put his head out from inside the tent and said to the guards:

“Go away. Allah Himself has taken responsibility for my protection.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 2)

This faith also inspired the Messenger (PBUH) to release another criminal who had been arrested while coming with the intention of killing him. He said, “Let him go, for even if he intended to kill me, he could not have done so.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir)

Consider for a moment how broad-minded this great architect of the edifice of humanity was: although assassination plots against him continued all around him, he remained firm and unmoving like a mountain. In Medina, some spiders seemed to be continually spinning webs to capture this bold tiger.

Meanwhile, Mecca’s volcano was increasingly on the verge of eruption. The lava of brutality and ferocity deep within Mecca was growing ever more intense. The great collective conspiracy to assassinate the Messenger (PBUH) on the eve of the Hijrah took the form of major aggressive wars after the Hijrah. But the failure of those open aggressions provoked them to devise secret assassination plots.

In the Battle of Badr, the Messenger’s (PBUH) small Muslim band had taught the children of ignorance such a severe lesson that they could not forget its pain for a long time. There was hardly a family in Mecca whose chosen young men or chiefs had not been killed in that battle. Yet it was even more humiliating to cry out in pain after being defeated by a handful of impoverished revolutionary Muslims. Therefore, the Quraysh leaders issued an order that no mourning should be held for those killed at Badr. Three sons of al-Aswad were killed in that battle. Although grief was about to split his heart, he could not utter even a sound. One day, hearing weeping from a nearby house, he sent a servant, saying, “Go and find out whether permission to weep has been granted.” The servant investigated and returned, reporting that a woman was crying because she had lost her camel. On hearing this, al-Aswad could no longer restrain his emotions. He spontaneously recited a poem. This poem became highly esteemed in Arabic literature. The translation of three of its lines is as follows:

“That woman is weeping and has lost her sleep because a camel has gone missing? Do not weep for a camel. If you must weep, weep for the unfortunate events of Badr. If you must weep, weep for Aqil. If you must weep, weep for the lion-hearted Harith.”

In such a mournful atmosphere in Mecca, Umayr bin Wahb and Safwan bin Umayyah sat together, weeping for those killed at Badr. Safwan said, “There is no pleasure left in living.” Umayr said, “If I were not in debt and did not have to worry about my children, I would go right now and kill Muhammad (PBUH). My son is still imprisoned in Medina.” Safwan undertook responsibility for his children and debts. Umayr immediately returned home, smeared poison on his sword, and set out for Medina. When he reached Medina, Umar understood his intention from his facial expression and seized him by the neck, taking him to the Messenger (PBUH). The Messenger (PBUH) told Umar to release him. He then called him closer and asked, “What brings you here?” He replied, “I have come to secure my son’s release.” He was asked, “Why are you wearing a sword?” Umayr said, “What of it? Did swords accomplish anything at Badr?”

The Messenger (PBUH) now brought out the secret in his heart and placed it before him. He said, “You and Safwan sat in a room and plotted to kill me. But Allah did not allow your conspiracy to succeed.”

Hearing this, Umayr was stunned. He said, “By Allah, you truly are a prophet. No one knew of this matter except Safwan and me.”

Umayr returned to Mecca as a Muslim. He boldly preached Islam and caused many people to accept Islam. (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, Vol. 2)

At the conquest of Mecca, Fudalah bin Umayr, driven by a desire for revenge, secretly resolved to kill the Messenger (PBUH). The Messenger (PBUH) was circumambulating the Kaaba. Suddenly Fudalah appeared. When he came near, the Messenger (PBUH) called out, “Who is it—Fudalah?” He replied, “Yes, Fudalah.” The Messenger (PBUH) said, “What intention have you conceived in your heart?” Alarmed, Fudalah replied, “Nothing. I was only remembering Allah.”

Hearing his reply, the Messenger (PBUH) smiled and said, “Ask Allah for forgiveness.” As he said this, he placed his hand on Fudalah’s chest. Immediately, his heart became calm. Fudalah said, “After the Messenger (PBUH) lifted his hand from my chest, no one in all of Allah’s creation was dearer to me than the Messenger (PBUH).” After this psychological revolution, Fudalah returned home. (The Seerah of Ibn Hisham, Vol. 2)

The man who came intending to kill the conqueror of not only Mecca but all Arabia returned with a new life. He who had come to strike a blow instead departed with balm to heal his own wound.

The Quraysh, the Jews, and the hypocrites all plotted to the best of their ability. But Allah fulfilled His promise and ultimately protected His servant and Messenger.

The purpose of all these conspiracies was not merely to kill one person; all of them wanted to kill the entire Islamic movement. They wanted to send to the killing ground that radiant dawn of truth and justice whose emergence was a death knell for darkness. They wanted to strangle to death that unprecedented and remarkable social order which sought, for the first time, to crown the oppressed and exploited people of hundreds of years with the pulse of life, equality, freedom, and dignity.

Destructive Treachery

The misdeeds of the anti-Islamic forces in Medina that I mentioned above amount, morally and legally, to the most heinous crimes. If the severest punitive measures had been taken for them, that would, in the light of religion and politics, have been the finest justice. But the Messenger (PBUH) behaved with extraordinary calm and patience. A movement whose true objective is the moral correction and reconstruction of humanity cannot depend entirely on the weapons of power and law. No matter how much baseness and brutality people display, the Islamic movement never despairs of human nature; rather, it advances on the basis of long-term optimism. Its true strength lies in teaching, explaining, and educating, not in punishment and threats. No state system can preserve its existence without applying the power of government and law to some extent. But changing people’s character and mentality cannot be achieved with swords and sticks; it is achieved through moral appeal and reason. In this regard, restraint is more effective than anger, and patience and tolerance more effective than revenge and retaliation. The greatest friend of humanity, the Messenger (PBUH), wished to illuminate the arena of history with the light of moral conduct and to overcome the enemies’ excesses and devious conspiracies through the highest degree of patience. No example of such great forgiveness as he displayed in this matter can be found in history. A few people wanted to destroy, by creating turmoil and disorder, whatever success the Messenger (PBUH) had achieved through years of effort. They wanted to paralyze law, order, and administration. They devised assassination plots and harassed him in the vilest ways. Yet this head of the first new Islamic state, based on its own model in the entire world, calmly guided his boat to safety from amid the storm of calamity and conspiracy, offering the waves a faint smile.

Even so, the hostile forces did not stop before reaching the limits of criminality and sinfulness. Not once but repeatedly, they acted rebelliously and treacherously, and did so openly with extreme insolence. They paid no heed to the state of which they had become citizens through a constitutional agreement, although obedience to it had become their obligatory duty in both religious and political terms. Treachery and rebellion are acts whose punishment has never been, and still is not, less than the loss of citizenship and the death penalty. Yet the man who had come to change the destiny of civilization displayed the utmost patience even toward such grave and serious crimes. Until the final moment, he continued trying to awaken a sense of civility among the hostile forces, revive their powers of thought, turn them back toward reason, and give them the chance to reform—even if not the first time or the second, then the third. But those who had been led down crooked paths did not open their eyes until they had fallen into the abyss of failure, with only a few exceptions.

Here I present several noteworthy examples of destructive treachery, through which it will be understood how difficult and thorny is the path that those who establish the rule of truth and justice must follow.

It is well known that the sincere believing servants who pledged allegiance by placing their hands in the hand of the Messenger (PBUH) at the meeting of the Second Pledge of Aqabah did so knowingly, understanding that the Messenger’s (PBUH) departure for Medina and the establishment there of the center of the Islamic movement meant nothing less than war. For various reasons, this event would become a great challenge to the Quraysh, who, overwhelmed by intense emotion and agitation, would take up arms. It was therefore clear that the Messenger’s (PBUH) life, the survival of the group he had established, and the preservation of the other centers of the Islamic movement depended entirely, under Allah’s help, on the cooperation of the people of Medina. For this purpose, the Messenger (PBUH) obtained pledges from representatives and energetic young men of the Ansar, and for this same purpose he concluded treaties with all the Jewish tribes in the very first year of the Hijrah. The Ansar, as a whole, honored their pledge until the end of their lives. But the custodians of the Book of Allah, the heirs of the prophets, and their devotees repeatedly violated the treaties they themselves had made.

The first and most significant act of treachery was this: recognizing the hypocrite Abdullah ibn Ubayy as the most suitable person, the Quraysh of Mecca sent him a secret letter. Through this letter they issued an all-out appeal to bring under their influence all the evildoers, unruly people, and weak believers of Medina. They wrote in the letter:

“You have given refuge to our man—that is, Muhammad (PBUH). By Allah, we say that you must either kill him or drive him out of Medina. Otherwise, we will all attack you, kill you, and make your wives our pleasure companions. (Sunan Abu Dawud)

If Abdullah ibn Ubayy had been an honest and faithful man, he would immediately have delivered this letter to the Messenger (PBUH) and sincerely wished to organize the self-respect of all the people of Medina in response to the Quraysh threat. But treachery was rooted in his very being. Determined to fulfill the Quraysh’s desire in revenge for losing his power, he knew that Medina contained a large number of criminals opposed to the Islamic movement. But the secret of this letter was soon exposed, and the Messenger (PBUH) himself learned of the matter. He went personally to Abdullah ibn Ubayy and explained to him that his own sons, nephews, and nieces were carrying the banner of Islam with the full strength of youth. If an undesirable situation arose, he should see that his own children would stand against him. He would have to fight his own children. Abdullah ibn Ubayy understood the point and abandoned his plan. It should be noted that after the Battle of Badr, the Quraysh sent another letter of this kind to Abdullah ibn Ubayy.

At an extremely delicate moment, this scheming leader committed a seriously treacherous act. Because of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir’s repeated breaches of promises and acts of sabotage, when they were given an ultimatum to leave Medina within ten days and Banu Nadir began preparing to do so, Abdullah ibn Ubayy sent them a message: “Beware! Do not obey this order, and do not leave your homes.”

I will help you with two thousand men. On one side, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayzah will help you, and on the other, the Arab polytheist tribe of Ghatafan is already your ally. The result of this assurance was that Banu Nadir informed the Messenger (PBUH), “We cannot leave here. Do whatever you wish.” Ultimately, the Islamic government was compelled to take military action to enforce its order.

Then, at the most delicate and decisive moment of the Battle of Uhud, this man committed blatant treachery. As soon as the Muslim army left Medina and reached a place called Shuta, he returned to Medina with three hundred hypocrites. This act was tantamount to stabbing the Muslim army in the back. He said, “Why should we needlessly sacrifice our lives when decisions are not made according to our opinion and authority is concentrated in the hands of others?” Abdullah ibn Ubay was in favor of fighting from within Medina rather than going outside it. (Asahhus Siyar, Abdur Rauf Danpuri)

The second person involved in the treacherous conspiracy was Abu Amir. I have already introduced him in connection with the Mosque of Dirar. Enraged by the news of the Messenger’s (PBUH) victory in the Battle of Badr, this schemer traveled to Mecca and met Abu Sufyan, urging him to take revenge. Thus, he too contributed to kindling the fire of the Battle of Uhud. He himself joined the battle in support of the Qurayshi army. He thought that, at his urging, the Aws tribe would abandon its support for Islam and side with the Quraysh. He called out to the Aws on the battlefield, but the reply he received dispelled his delusion. Not to speak of others, his own son, Hazrat Hanzala, was prepared to sacrifice his life with utmost devotion at the command of the Messenger (PBUH). After Uhud, he went to the Roman Emperor Heraclius to persuade him to attack Medina. Meanwhile, he secretly assured the hypocrites, “Stay ready; I am bringing a supporting force.” This man had pits dug near Hunayn to harm the Messenger (PBUH). The Messenger (PBUH) fell into one of the pits and was severely hurt. (Asahhus Siyar and Sirat-un-Nabi: Shibli)

The third treacherous person was Ka’b ibn Ashraf. He too has been discussed earlier. On the one hand, this man created a paid mercenary network in Medina by paying people salaries; on the other, he incited the Meccans to attack Medina. For this purpose, he made extensive use of his influence, wealth, and poetic talent. At his instigation, Abu Sufyan and others held the covering of the Kaaba and pledged to take revenge.

In this atmosphere of conspiracy, the Muslims were compelled to adopt special defensive measures. The Messenger (PBUH) himself would stay awake at night and ordered his Companions to take turns keeping watch at night. On one occasion during this period, he said at a gathering, “Let a capable man keep watch tonight.” Hearing this, Hazrat Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas armed himself and kept watch throughout the night. During this time, the Companions slept with their weapons from evening until morning. It was probably at this time that he said:

“Keeping watch for one day in the path of Allah is better than the whole world and all the resources within it.” (Mishkat)

He also said: “Keeping watch for one day and one night in the path of Allah is better than fasting for a month and praying at night for a month.” (The same source)

Regarding this act of keeping watch, he further said that its reward continues to increase until the Day of Resurrection and that it also grants relief from the punishment of the grave. (Riyad as-Salihin)

These fifth-column turncoats in Medina found their most effective opportunity to stab the Islamic movement in the back during jihad. The Messenger (PBUH) spent ten years in Medina, most of them amid warfare. But whenever the clash between truth and falsehood took the form of full-scale war (as happened repeatedly, with brief intervals), the Jews and hypocrites began conspiring. Alongside the economic crisis, these wars and the mischief of these treacherous internal enemies combined to create a severe trial for the guardians of the Islamic state.

We mentioned a little earlier, regarding Uhud, that while the Islamic army was on its way to the battlefield, the mastermind of the conspiracy, Abdullah ibn Ubay, returned to Medina with three hundred fighters. If any materialistic force other than the Messenger (PBUH) and the noble Companions had faced such a situation, it would have lost heart and immediately retreated. The enemy army numbered three thousand, whereas the Muslim army marching to confront it numbered only one thousand in all. Of these, three hundred turned back. Among the remaining seven hundred were also some fifth-column hypocrites. In this situation, the mujahids of Banu Salama and Banu Haritha began considering a retreat. But the advice of the Companions restored their courage, and they remained in the field. Faith in Allah, belief in Islam’s superiority, confidence in the success of moral strength, and reliance on unseen assistance—these were the true capital of the Islamic army. As a result, no weakness remained in their hearts. With firm resolve, they set out toward the field of Uhud. Then, when a grave situation arose on the field of Uhud and rumors spread that the Messenger (PBUH) had been martyred, the hypocrites proposed that Abdullah ibn Ubay should be brought back by pleading with him and asked to obtain protection from Abu Sufyan. To correct some of the Muslims’ shortcomings on this battlefield, Allah granted a kind of defeat. The hypocrites used it to say, “If he had been a prophet, he would not have been defeated.” It was just like the situation of other kings of the world—sometimes victory and sometimes defeat. As a result of this malicious propaganda, doubts arose in the minds of some Muslims. Some began to think, “Even after going to fight in Allah’s path under the leadership of Allah’s Prophet, we have had to suffer defeat—how can this be?” In reply, the Quran says, “This calamity is of your own making”—that is, it was the result of your own shortcomings.

After that, at the beginning, middle, or end of every battle, the hidden enemies continued to commit treachery. Wherever it was impossible to accomplish anything in practice, attempts were made to weaken the Islamic movement through propaganda.

The fifth column displayed its schemes most extensively during the Battle of the Trench. The Quraysh had suffered a severe weakening of their strength in the Battle of Badr. To take revenge, they attacked after making extensive preparations, resulting in the Battle of Uhud. But they were forced to withdraw without completing their victory. In the fifth year after the Hijrah, they surrounded Medina with a huge army of their own, the conspirators from Medina, and men incited from various tribes. This was the final battle. Afterward, the strength of the Quraysh and the other enemies was completely shattered. The Muslims then abandoned a policy of self-defense and adopted an offensive policy to neutralize the enemies of Islam. In fact, the way to the conquest of Mecca had opened on the very day the Battle of the Trench ended.

Among the most active scheming groups that contributed to provoking this final battle were the Jews of Banu Nadir. Those among them who had settled in Khaybar kept watch on the situation and lay in wait for an opportunity. When they learned that the Muslims had suffered a severe setback in the Battle of Uhud and that, although the Quraysh had not achieved complete victory, they had returned displaying considerable strength, they became active and decided to accelerate the course of history. The prominent leaders of Banu Nadir—Salam ibn Abi al-Huqayq, Salam ibn Mishkam, Huyayy ibn Akhtab, and Kinana ibn al-Rabi, among others—set out, taking with them Hawdha ibn Qays, Abu Imara, and others from Banu Wa’il. They went to Mecca, encouraged the Quraysh to attack Medina, and assured them of their full support. Then they went to Banu Ghatafan and incited them as well. Afterward, they visited other tribes. The Quraysh organized the other tribes, and thus ten thousand soldiers besieged Medina. (Asahhus Siyar, Sirat Ibn Hisham)

Before the battle began, Huyayy ibn Akhtab, in collusion with Ka’b ibn Asad, caused Banu Qurayzah to break its treaty with the Messenger (PBUH). (Sirat Ibn Hisham) When the Muslims heard this news, they became extremely anxious. They feared that Banu Qurayzah might attack at any moment. The Messenger (PBUH) assigned three hundred soldiers to protect the children and women. Meanwhile, the hypocrites began spreading rumors that created uncertainty and fear, and many of them started fleeing the base under the pretext of protecting their families. They began this propaganda: “On the one hand, Muhammad (PBUH) shows us dreams of conquering the Roman and Persian empires; on the other, our condition is such that we cannot even go out safely to relieve ourselves.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

On one occasion, during the fighting, adequate protection had not been arranged for the women’s quarters, and a Jew was seen suspiciously moving around nearby. Hazrat Safiyyah bint Abd al-Muttalib took a piece of wood and killed him. (Sirat Ibn Hisham)

This was the most alarming situation for the soldiers of the Islamic movement. Yet they received special help from Allah Almighty. First, there was the new defensive strategy of the trench; second, the astonishing skill of Nu’aym ibn Mas’ud in breaking the collusion between the Quraysh and Banu Qurayzah; third, the robust, mujahid-like role of the Messenger, his well-trained leaders, and the entire Muslim community; and fourth, the sudden whirlwind sent by Allah, which drove the enemy forces from the field.

Another such event was the Tabuk expedition. At that time, Medina’s scheming fifth column displayed some of its most refined tactics. The Roman Emperor Heraclius had been enraged ever since receiving a letter containing the call to Islam from the Messenger (PBUH). Meanwhile, the masterminds of the conspiracy also reached the emperor’s court and tried to provoke him. Then news suddenly arrived concerning Heraclius that he had sent a huge army of forty thousand soldiers to attack Medina.

An extraordinary situation prevailed in Medina at that time. It was a period of famine, although the trees were laden with ripe fruit. The weather was intensely hot. A large number of soldiers had to be sent a great distance, while the government’s financial condition was weak. There was a dire shortage of necessary equipment, camels, horses, and provisions. For this reason, the force undertaking the Tabuk expedition was called “Jaysh al-Usrah,” the “Army of Hardship.” Seeing this situation and judging the prospect of obtaining spoils of war to be low, the hypocrites adopted a policy of noncooperation. They stayed at home, offering various false excuses. In this respect, the expedition was also called “Ghazwat al-Fadihah,” meaning the “Expedition that Exposed the Hypocrites.” A striking example of the ridiculous excuses the hypocrites offered comes from Jadd ibn Qays. He came to the Messenger (PBUH) and said, “People know that I am somewhat overly attracted to women. I fear that seeing the beautiful Roman women, I will be tempted. So permit me to remain at home.” These hypocrites not only stayed behind themselves instead of setting out for jihad; they also told others, “Oh, stay at home and remember Allah. Have you gone mad that you want to go to jihad in such scorching heat?” They held their consultation meetings at the house of a Jew named Suwaylim. Those who came there were discouraged from going to jihad. Eventually, this meeting place was completely abolished.

Meanwhile, the ever-active Abdullah ibn Ubay formed a separate army of Jews and hypocrites at a place called Thaniyyat al-Wada, intending to achieve sinister aims. This army was also quite large. However, it could not set out with the Messenger (PBUH).

After the army began its journey, they created another disturbance. The Messenger (PBUH) had left Hazrat Ali in Medina as his personal representative to look after his family. Seeing this, the hypocrites began spreading propaganda: “Nowadays Muhammad (PBUH) is displeased with Ali. That is why he did not take him along.” This dealt a severe blow to Hazrat Ali’s sense of honor. He immediately armed himself and joined the Messenger (PBUH), informing him of the hypocrites’ provocative activities. The Messenger (PBUH) explained the matter to him, persuaded him to return to Medina, and said that there was a fear that those people might cause trouble there.

After reaching Tabuk, the hypocritical fellow travelers (some hypocrites always joined military expeditions in order to create trouble) began intimidating the Muslim mujahids, saying, “You have mistaken the formidable warriors of the Roman army for Arabs. Tomorrow, when all of you are captured as slaves, you will realize how wrong your idea was.” When they were called to account for this misleading propaganda, they said, “We were only joking; it was nothing important.” (See Asahhus Siyar, pp. 361–385)

The Roman army did not come to the battlefield at all. Nevertheless, this expedition made the Romans realize, on the one hand, that Medina was fully alert and capable of confronting them; on the other hand, because the areas called Ayla, Jarbia, and Dumat al-Jandal came under Muslim influence as a result of the expedition, the danger of external attack was reduced.

During this expedition, the Messenger (PBUH) prohibited the Muslim army from drinking water from roadside ponds at two places. But some hypocrites violated the prohibition and revealed the disease in their hearts.

During this expedition, an unsuccessful conspiracy was made to assassinate the Messenger (PBUH) in a mountain pass. I have already given an account of this incident.

Despite all the treachery and conspiracies of the hypocrites, the Messenger (PBUH) returned victorious from this expedition and continued forgiving the hypocrites without hesitation. Three devoted Companions of the Messenger (PBUH)—Ka’b ibn Malik, Hilal ibn Umayyah, and Murarah ibn al-Rabi—remained in Medina out of laziness. They admitted their offense. Nevertheless, while awaiting Allah’s command, they had to remain socially ostracized for fifty days. They passed this test completely successfully, and their repentance was accepted. But the hypocrites said, “How foolish these men are! If they had offered any excuse like ours, the matter would have been settled. Instead, they have needlessly left themselves in trouble. Now let them see what happens.”

This shows how difficult the circumstances were that the Islamic state and the Islamic movement had to face. The one who showed humanity the path of welfare had to endure what kinds of treachery and conspiracies from the hypocritical followers of Moses and the hypocrites they created.

But the expansion of the Islamic state did not stop because of this; rather, it continued to grow. Sincere faith blossomed in full splendor, while treachery and hypocrisy were uprooted completely.

The Quraysh’s Despicable Retaliatory Activities

In the early period in Medina, before the wars began, Sa’d ibn Mu’adh, a prominent leader of the Aws tribe, went to Mecca to perform Umrah. Since Sa’d had a long-standing relationship with Umayyah ibn Khalaf, he stayed at his house. He began circumambulating the Kaaba with Umayyah. By chance, Abu Jahl arrived there. He called Umayyah and asked, “Who is that man with you?” Umayyah replied, “Sa’d.” In an angry voice, Abu Jahl said to Hazrat Sa’d, “You have given refuge to those who have abandoned their religion, haven’t you? It is intolerable to me that people like you should set foot in the courtyard of the Kaaba. If you had not been under Umayyah’s protection, you would not have returned alive today.” (Sirat-un-Nabi; Shibli Numani, vol. 1, with references to Sahih Muslim and Bukhari)

Note how political spite had so inflamed the arrogance of the Quraysh leader that he was ready to prohibit Allah’s servants from entering His House. He wanted to deprive them of acts of worship such as Hajj—as though the Kaaba itself were their property. In reality, they had turned their custodianship of the Sacred Mosque into an instrument of their political power. The doors of the Sacred Sanctuary had already been closed to the Companions whom the Messenger (PBUH) had forced to migrate. But by openly declaring Sa’d ibn Mu’adh unfit to enter the Sacred Sanctuary, Abu Jahl exposed the ugliness of his unjust position in the most repulsive manner. Sa’d ibn Mu’adh, for his part, was no self-respecting hermit. His Islamic sense of honor was fully alive within him, and he understood the meaning of Medina’s political sovereignty. He gave such a brief reply that a terrible danger appeared before the eyes of Abu Jahl and the Quraysh. Sa’d said, “If you prevent us from performing Hajj, we will block your route to Medina.” In other words, this was a threat of an economic blockade against the Quraysh. This threat alarmed all the people of Mecca. Later, Medina’s policy was determined in accordance with Hazrat Sa’d’s statement. As a result, the Quraysh, finding themselves completely without recourse, prepared to enter into a final test of strength.

Although Abu Jahl had uttered those words in the heat of agitation, this unwelcome threat dealt a severe blow to their influence and prestige. The Holy Quran strongly condemns their exclusive control over the Sacred Sanctuary, for they used it as a pretext to bar Allah’s servants from entering Allah’s House. Allah says:

“Who is more unjust than one who prevents Allah’s name from being mentioned in His mosques and strives to destroy them?” (Al-Baqarah, 114)

“They ask you about fighting in the sacred month. Say: Fighting in it is a grave offense. But preventing people from the path of Allah, denying Him, preventing Allah’s servants from reaching the Sacred Mosque, and expelling its inhabitants from it are greater offenses.” (Al-Baqarah, 217)

“Why should Allah not punish them when they bar the way to the Sacred Mosque, while they are not its rightful custodians?”

These statements of the Quran gradually spread throughout Arabia, and the religious image of the Quraysh grew increasingly weak.

At the time of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (in Dhu al-Qadah of the sixth year after the Hijrah), the Quraysh intensified their efforts to prevent people from reaching the Sacred Mosque. After receiving an indication from Allah Almighty, the Messenger (PBUH) set out toward Mecca solely to perform Umrah. No declaration of war had been made. The Companions set out for Umrah entirely of their own accord. Sacrificial animals were also taken along. Rather than being armed for military purposes, the caravan departed with only ordinary weapons for self-defense. At a place called Dhu al-Hulayfah, the sacrificial camels were marked according to the established practice and garlands were placed around their necks. At first sight, anyone could infer that these camels were being taken to be sacrificed at the Sacred Sanctuary and were not military transport. On the way, through the messenger Bishr ibn Sufyan al-Ka’bi, they learned that the Quraysh were preparing for an all-out war and would not allow them to enter the Sacred Sanctuary under any circumstances. When the Messenger (PBUH) reached Hudaybiyyah, he sent word: “We have come not to fight, but to perform Umrah.” Budayl ibn Warqa of the Banu Khuza’ah tried to mediate. Then Urwah ibn Mas’ud advanced the discussions somewhat. After that, Hulays, a man from Banu Kinana, hurried over to mediate. When he saw with his own eyes a huge caravan of garlanded camels grazing in the field, he was deeply moved. When he went and expressed his reaction to the Quraysh, they discouraged him harshly, saying, “You are just a rustic man; what do you understand about these matters?” Hulays was deeply hurt. He said:

“O Quraysh, this is not the agreement between us and you. Nor did we establish an alliance on its basis. On what grounds should people who have come to honor Allah’s House be prevented from entering it? By Allah, let Muhammad (PBUH) do what he intends to do. Otherwise, we will take all our people back.”

This man appreciated the Messenger’s (PBUH) straightforward and transparent policy. His ability to distinguish good from evil began to function, and his conscience became active against the Quraysh’s unjust actions. Eventually, to preserve his feelings, he was calmed with the words, “Our purpose is to impose some reasonable conditions. Remain quiet for a while.” Then such conditions were imposed that, among other things, the Umrah of the Messenger (PBUH) and his Companions in the sixth year after the Hijrah was effectively postponed for a year. (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol. 4; Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 3; Asahhus Siyar)

At this point, see how the Quran stripped bare the mean mentality of the custodians of the Kaaba:

“They are the ones who rejected the truth, prevented you from reaching the Sacred Mosque, and prevented the sacrificial animals from reaching their place of sacrifice.” (Al-Fath, 25)

The Quraysh’s interference with and alteration of the religious rites and customs that had been unanimously followed since the time of Hazrat Ibrahim severely damaged their image. Through sheer foolishness and obstinacy, they created a negative public opinion about themselves throughout Arabia. The people understood that there was not even the slightest trace of honesty, piety, or courtesy among the Quraysh, and that everything they did was driven purely by stubbornness.

The greatest proof that the Quraysh’s desire for revenge had descended to the lowest level of brutality is that, to satisfy their resentment, they forced two of the Messenger’s (PBUH) daughters to be divorced by their husbands. This was a grievously venomous sting directly into the heart of the liberator of humanity.

Hazrat Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum had been married to Utbah and Utaybah, the two sons of Abu Lahab. According to the prevailing custom, their relationship with the family of their nearest relatives had existed since before the prophethood. The extremely hot-tempered Abu Lahab had not even the slightest sense of courtesy that would lead him to place ideological disagreement above personal relationships and avoid mixing the rights of kinship with conflict. His jealousy and hatred were always excessively intense, and his conduct was extremely base and vile. When Surah al-Lahab was revealed because of his despicable actions, containing the curse, “May the two hands of Abu Lahab perish,” he became enraged. The destruction of the two hands meant that, despite carrying out every kind of oppositional and harmful act, he would not be able to cause the slightest damage to the Islamic movement, and that the power of truth would break his two hands to pieces. Realizing this meaning, he became inflamed with rage. He began pressuring his two sons, saying that it could no longer be lawful for them to keep Muhammad’s daughters in their homes. They had to divorce them. Hazrat Ruqayyah was spending her days in extreme distress in her own home. At her father’s prompting, Utbah divorced her. She later married Hazrat Uthman. The other chiefs of Quraysh also made considerable efforts to incite Abu Lahab and make his two sons commit this despicable act. They would discuss among themselves that these days the efforts to harass Muhammad had diminished considerably. Therefore, something new had to be devised. They decided that his daughters must be divorced by their husbands. This would at least create some difficulty for Muhammad. They told Utbah, Abu Lahab’s son, that whichever Qurayshi girl he wanted would be provided for him. The only condition was that he send Muhammad’s daughter away. Utbah divorced her without delay. Utaybah displayed even greater insolence. After divorcing Hazrat Umm Kulthum, he went to the Messenger of Allah like a thug and bully. Then he said with extreme impertinence, “I have rejected your religion, divorced your daughter, you do not love me, and I do not like you either.” Then, with utmost disrespect, he reached out, pulled part of the Messenger’s garment, and tore it. The young son-in-law not only divorced the innocent and respectable girl at the command of his jealous father, but also behaved like a thug. In his grief, a spontaneous supplication came from the Messenger’s lips: “O Allah, set one of Your beasts upon him.” When Abu Talib heard what had happened, he said, “Now no one can save you from my nephew’s curse.” Later, while Utaybah was spending the night in Syria with a commercial caravan, a tiger came from somewhere in the darkness and, singling him out from the entire caravan, chewed off his head. (Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah, vol. 1, p. 197)

After the death of Hazrat Ruqayyah, the Messenger also married this second daughter of his, Umm Kulthum, to Hazrat Uthman. For this reason, he was given the title “Dhun-Nurayn.”

Just as the schemers of Quraysh had pressured Utbah, Abu Lahab’s son, they also pressured Abu al-As, the husband of Zaynab, the Messenger’s third daughter, and tempted him by saying that if he divorced Muhammad’s daughter, any beautiful girl he wanted would be given to him. Abu al-As possessed clear signs of nobility. He said, “Fie! It can never be that I abandon my own wife. I do not want any other woman to enter my home in place of Zaynab.” Later, the Messenger praised Abu al-As for this steadfastness of character. In return for his gentlemanly conduct, he showed him great favor on two occasions. First, when Abu al-As came among the prisoners of war at Badr, the Messenger returned the necklace sent by Hazrat Zaynab as ransom and released him without ransom. Second, when his merchandise had been distributed among the Muslims as war booty, all of it was returned to him intact at the Messenger’s indication. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 296)

After the Battle of Badr, when the Messenger released Abu al-As without ransom as a special favor, he obtained a promise from him in the course of their conversation that he would allow Hazrat Zaynab to come to Madinah. This promise was kept secret from the general public. When the appointed time came for Hazrat Zaynab to depart for Madinah, two Companions were sent: Hazrat Zayd ibn Harithah and an Ansari. The Messenger instructed them to wait at a place called Yajij (a place eight miles from Makkah) and to bring Zaynab with them when she arrived there. Meanwhile, Abu al-As prepared Zaynab and arranged her belongings. When her brother-in-law, Kinana ibn al-Rabi, set out at dawn after placing her on a camel, the Quraysh learned of the matter. Those beasts thought that Muhammad’s daughter leaving their midst safely in this manner would be disgraceful. Some men pursued her and caught up with her at Dhu Tuwa. A man named Hبار ibn al-Aswad shot an arrow at Zaynab’s howdah. Hazrat Zaynab was pregnant at the time. Struck by the arrow, she suffered a grave injury and miscarried. When her brother-in-law immediately brandished his bow and arrow and shouted, that cowardly thug from Makkah fled at once.

A short while later, Abu Sufyan also arrived. From a distance, he called to the attackers, saying, “Listen to me.” He said to Kinana ibn al-Rabi, “Why did you undertake such a thing as traveling openly with this woman? You know what kind of hostile atmosphere prevails. This unwelcome situation over our heads exists because of Muhammad. By taking such a step at midday, you make the people of Makkah feel humiliated. By my life, we have no intention of stopping Muhammad’s daughter from traveling. Now take her back. Take her secretly at some other time.”

This shows the abject vileness to which the people of Makkah resorted in order to hurt and harass the Messenger. Kinship had no importance in their hearts. They felt not the slightest shame in oppressing a woman. They lacked even the sense to recognize oppression as oppression. In their eyes, no value or right of humanity remained. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2; Asahhus-Siyar)

Now listen to another incident. It reveals the extreme bloodthirsty mentality of the enemies of Islam. As part of the process the Messenger had begun of sending teachers to spread Islamic education in the areas surrounding Madinah, he sent a group of six shortly after the Battle of Uhud, in the month of Safar, at the request of the tribes of Adal and Qarah (Banu Hudhayl). There was a terrible conspiracy behind this request. When the six men sent by the Messenger reached a place called Raji, four of them were martyred. The remaining two, Hazrat Khubayb and Zayd ibn al-Dathinnah, were taken captive and sent to Makkah. (The remaining details of the incident of Raji and accounts of the other teaching missions will appear later.) The Quraysh had two prisoners from Banu Hudhayl. These two were exchanged for the other two. Huzayr ibn Ihab al-Tamimi took Hazrat Khubayb for Utbah ibn Harith ibn Amir, so that he could avenge Harith. Hazrat Khubayb had killed Harith at the Battle of Badr. Safwan ibn Umayyah purchased Zayd ibn al-Dathinnah to avenge his father, Umayyah ibn Khalaf.

Those who proudly boasted of courage and manliness, after suffering a humiliating defeat on the battlefield at the hands of a small number of poorly equipped Muslims, now wanted to satisfy their vengeance by killing these two helpless prisoners. Although these two valuable members of Islamic society were martyred, the comparative picture of the character of both sides that emerged through this episode spread its influence throughout the veins of history.

Safwan handed Zayd ibn al-Dathinnah over to his slave Fustas and ordered him to take him to Tan’im, outside the Sacred Sanctuary, and kill him. A crowd of Quraysh had gathered at the scene to enjoy watching this entertaining spectacle. Abu Sufyan himself was among them. Abu Sufyan approached Zayd and asked him, “If you were released now and went to live happily with your children, while we killed Muhammad in your place, how would you feel about that?” Death was smiling before Zayd, yet from the extraordinary heights of faith he replied:

“By Allah, we would not like it even slightly if a thorn were to prick Muhammad wherever he may be, while in exchange we were released and given the opportunity to return and live with our families.”

Abu Sufyan was stunned by this reply. He said, “I have never seen anyone loved by his companions as Muhammad is loved by his companions.” Then this embodiment of devotion and sincerity was made the prey of the sword. Although Zayd was martyred, who can say how many people have kept his character bright in their memories, or how many souls have cried out against the Quraysh’s oppression and brutal savagery? (Sirat Ibn Hisham; Asahhus-Siyar)

Hazrat Khubayb remained captive for some time afterward. The example of faith and character he displayed in captivity produced, among other results, the later conversion of Mabiya, the slave girl of Huzayr ibn Ihab, into the Islamic community. It was from her that the account of Khubayb’s captivity became known. Mabiya related that, as the time of Khubayb’s execution drew near, he once asked for a razor in order to shave. A razor was given to him. But then I saw a scene that made the ground seem to slip from beneath my feet. I saw the razor in Khubayb’s hand and my little child sitting in his lap. When a prisoner is about to be unjustly killed, and an enemy’s child comes within his reach while he has a suitable weapon in his hand, the danger that might arise needs no explanation. Khubayb understood my fear and assured me, “Under no circumstances will I kill this innocent child.” He then moved the child away from his lap. Did such noble character not shine like a torch in the darkened atmosphere of Makkah?

He was then taken to Tan’im to be crucified. There, after obtaining permission, he performed the last voluntary prayer of his life with profound concentration. Thus he set a splendid and majestic example for those proceeding to the place of martyrdom, an example that has continued to be followed to this day.

He then quickly completed the prayer and said, “Do not think that I am prolonging the prayer out of fear of death.” He then supplicated as follows:

“O Allah! We have conveyed the message of Your Messenger. You too inform the Messenger of what kind of oppression is being inflicted upon us. O Allah! Reduce the number of these enemies, destroy them by plunging them into conflict and discord, and do not leave any of these savage beasts alive.”

Khubayb was crucified. At the end, Abu Mughira extinguished his life with a spear. A few verses were spoken from his lips moments before his death. The most famous line among them is this:

(Arabic********)

“Since I am being killed for being a Muslim, I do not care what pain I suffer at the time of death.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 3)

By killing these two men, the Quraysh may have thought that they had greatly weakened the power of Islam. But they could not even imagine how greatly every drop of the blood of these oppressed martyrs had increased the harvest of faith. Alongside these vile acts of retaliation, we are also presenting the political treachery of the Quraysh, which they committed by violating the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. This historic treaty had established that any Arab tribe wishing to become an ally of the Quraysh could do so, and any tribe wishing to become an ally of the Muslims could likewise do so. The tribes would remain completely free in this matter. No one could exert force upon anyone else. In accordance with this provision, Banu Bakr immediately formed an alliance with the Quraysh, while Banu Khuza’ah formed an alliance with the Muslims.

Since the pre-Islamic era, a sinister cycle of revenge following revenge had continued between those two tribes over a killing. By then, several killings had occurred between the two tribes. It was now Banu Bakr’s turn to take revenge, and they were preparing for it. At that time, the Islamic movement created the most powerful upheavals in history and drew the attention of all the tribes toward itself. Consequently, those tribes temporarily suspended their mutual disputes and united to oppose this new call. The external unity produced among them by opposition to and hatred of the Islamic movement began to lose its force after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. They began remembering their old disputes. Banu Wa’il was a branch of Banu Bakr. Several sons of a man of Banu Wa’il named Aswad ibn Razan had been killed by the tribe of Banu Khuza’ah. To avenge that killing, the chief of Banu Wa’il, Nawfal ibn Mu’awiyah, mobilized the entire tribe. Taking advantage of the truce resulting from the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, they attacked Banu Khuza’ah. The first victim of this attack was an innocent Khuza’i stationed near a watering place called al-Watir. Seeing this unexpected violation of the treaty, the other members of Banu Khuza’ah fled in confusion. The attackers pursued and killed them as well.

The Quraysh supplied weapons to Banu Bakr, openly disregarding their obligations under the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, while secretly making peace with the Khuza’is under cover of night. Banu Khuza’ah took refuge in the Sacred Sanctuary, called out to the chief of Banu Bakr, and said, “O Nawfal! Look, we have now entered the Sacred Sanctuary. For Allah’s sake, stop the attack.” But they had become blinded by the intoxication of victory. Nawfal said, “There is no Allah today. O Banu Bakr, take complete revenge. For the honor of the Sacred Sanctuary, will you forget to avenge your humiliation?” In the end, Banu Bakr shed blood even after entering the Sacred Sanctuary. A number of Khuza’is barely escaped with their lives and hid in the house of Budayl ibn Warqa and his slave Rafi.

The Quraysh had done this under the influence of intense excitement arising from tribal rivalry. But it was such immense folly that they immediately suffered its consequences. This incident led to the conquest of Makkah. The Quraysh had not considered at all that, in confronting the growing strength of the Islamic movement, their own strength was moving toward complete decline, both morally and politically. They should therefore have proceeded with extreme caution. Because of this incident, the Quraysh’s violation of its promise could not avoid widespread condemnation in Arabia’s tribal society. Their reputation was gravely damaged. Moreover, the extreme acts of persecution carried out by Banu Bakr with the Quraysh’s encouragement, and the horrific oppression suffered by Banu Khuza’ah, alerted every tribe of Arabia that Qurayshi leadership was incapable of guaranteeing peace and justice. Furthermore, by defiling centuries-old tradition and trampling so disgracefully upon the sanctity of Allah’s name and the Sacred Sanctuary, this incident created widespread agitation and unease among the people. In this disorder and turmoil, the Quraysh encouraged the oppressive side and cast their own honor and dignity into the dust. The Quraysh may have thought that if they destroyed Banu Khuza’ah, the ally of the Islamic state, they would at least partially satisfy their desire for revenge against Muhammad. But they did not consider that by doing so they were themselves destroying the unity of the tribes that supported the system of ignorant society, and might even send some neighboring tribes to seek refuge in Madinah.

In fact, the usual fate of every age-old social system and every old leadership that possesses neither a higher ideal or goal nor moral values and constructive culture, and whose only resource is the negative objective of suppressing and destroying every constructive and reform-minded force, is generally this: its own intelligence leads it toward folly; its own strength casts it into the deep abyss of weakness; its own sense of nobility makes it a victim of extreme disgrace and humiliation; and its own progress makes its backwardness, and its own advancement makes its decline, inevitable.

Amr ibn Salim of Banu Khuza’ah set out for Madinah. Upon reaching the Messenger, he related the tragic story of the oppression and persecution inflicted by Banu Bakr and the Quraysh. The Messenger was seated in a gathering at the mosque. There, in accordance with the traditional Arab custom, Amr ibn Salim expressed his mournful story in a heart-rending poem:

(Arabic********)

“O Allah! I shall remind Muhammad of the treaty that was concluded between us and his ancient clans. O Prophet, help us and call upon the servants of Allah to gather for our assistance. March into the field with a vast army like waves of a sea piled high with foam. For the Quraysh have violated your treaty. They attacked us near al-Watir in the darkness of night. They attacked us while we were asleep. They struck us while we were bowing and prostrating.”

The reply came: “O Amr ibn Salim, you will be helped.”

The Quraysh now realized what destructive action they had taken. Abu Sufyan hurried to Madinah in order to revive the treaty. But the atmosphere there was such that when Abu Sufyan went to his daughter’s house and was about to sit on the bed, she folded it away and said, “This is the bed of Allah’s Messenger. You cannot sit on it as an impure polytheist.” Abu Sufyan returned unsuccessfully, and only a few days later he saw a huge army arrive in Makkah. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 4; Asahhus-Siyar; Sirat-un-Nabi by Shibli Nomani, vol. 1)

These events have made it clear that, in this historic conflict, every step, conspiracy, retaliatory effort, and retaliatory act of the negative force of the leadership of ignorance progressively weakened it further and further. On the other hand, the positive and constructive force—the Islamic movement—continued to gain strength and advance.

On the other hand, consider the conduct of the Messenger. War was taking place between both sides. At that time, the ruler of Yamamah embraced Islam and permanently stopped the supply of grain to Makkah. A famine was raging in Makkah precisely then. Thinking of the poor, Muhammad, the savior of humanity, personally requested that the supply of food grains from Yamamah be resumed and sent five hundred gold coins from his own funds for the poor people of Makkah. This magnanimity deeply overwhelmed the people of Makkah. One account says that the people of Makkah themselves wrote to the Messenger: “You instruct people not to sever relations with their relatives, yet you have severed this relationship with us.” Some also wrote: “You are killing fathers with the sword and children with hunger.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 4; Asahhus-Siyar; Rasule Akram Ki Siyasi Zindagi, Dr. Hamidullah)

Chapter 5

The Military Activities of the Friend of Humanity: Principles, Strategy, Events, and Lessons

Whether the Islamic movement emerged from the Sinai Valley or from the stronghold of Paran, its path has always passed through armed struggle.

The revolutionary movement of Islam was winning people’s hearts through the power of reason, building a fraternal society in opposition to tribal unruliness, organizing unstructured human groups, and creating a democratic and constitutional state in place of an anarchic society unwilling to obey the law. The Islamic movement was rekindling inspiration within the dormant intellectual powers of humanity.

It was lighting the torch of knowledge in the darkness of ignorance, reviving the lost vitality of devotion to Allah, and rekindling the extinguished lamp of moral values. It was showing the world, weary of the ancient system of ignorant society, and the socially and economically exploited and oppressed classes, the heavenly path of social justice; and in its embrace the finest specimens of humanity were growing.

Opposite it stood that ignorance which possessed no inspiring ideal, preserved anarchy and disorder, governed society on the basis of selfishness, made religion an object of ridicule, and conducted a sacred trade upon that basis. Even whatever ancient moral values remained in society were being destroyed by this ignorance. In short, it stood in the way of freedom, security, justice, and progress. Because of this very weakness, it was retreating in confusion. Its arguments and proofs had been exhausted. The weapons of its brutality had become blunt. Its conspiracies were failing, and its people were becoming the lowest of human beings.

The principal leaders of ignorance had indeed dealt a severe blow by expelling Muhammad and his Companions from Makkah. But they soon realized that the support the Messenger had received from the Ansar through the Pledge of Aqabah meant that Madinah would now become a strong base for the Islamic movement, a government would be established there, and Islamic society would become a force whose advance could never again be blocked.

Moreover, when, after reaching Medina, the Messenger of Allah concluded political agreements with the Jews and other tribes of Medina, the danger facing the Quraysh increased further. Immediately afterward, the Messenger of Allah began organizing defensive forces. At the same time, he began sending military units on patrol to guard the borders of the state of Medina and monitor enemy movements in the surrounding areas. This caused many more frightening apprehensions to arise in the minds of the Quraysh. Their trade route toward Syria ran close to Medina. As a result, there was a fear that their entire commercial system might be brought to a standstill. Indeed, when Abu Jahl prevented Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh from performing ‘Umrah, he clearly threatened him, saying that if he did so, their trade route would be blocked. Previously, the Messenger and his Companions had been trapped in the Quraysh’s net. But now he was free from their grasp. Before, he had merely preached the message. Now he was also seated upon the throne of power. Before, he had been oppressed, and silently enduring every act of oppression had become his habit. But now he had become capable of remedying and resisting oppression. In fact, after passing through the various stages of the Quraysh’s opposition to the call of Islam, the next stage they reached could be nothing other than war and armed conflict. After inflicting the most brutal persecution upon the leaders of the Islamic movement and plotting to kill the Messenger, they had inevitably developed a murderous and bloodthirsty mentality. Meanwhile, if the small capital that the Messenger had accumulated in Medina with the aim of creating a new era were looted, it would mean that all the success achieved thus far would be ruined and the hope of seeing the Islamic state flourish and bear fruit would be completely destroyed. In developing and defending this state, it was extremely important to keep the passage of time in view. If every danger is not perceived at the proper time and measures are not taken to remedy it in time, no greater incompetence or incapacity can be imagined in a leader. Likewise, it is essential that a measure be taken at the best time for it—and, within that best time, at the earliest possible moment. Otherwise, time, flowing at lightning speed, never waits for anyone. No call or movement can look only to itself; rather, it must compare itself with the strength of its opponent and determine who is moving ahead or behind, and by how much. The greatest friend of humanity, the Noble Messenger, and his wise Companions knew very well that after the Hijrah, jihad was now the inevitable next stage before them. They understood that if they were to survive, they would have to survive by fighting the Quraysh. Therefore, immediately after the resettlement of the Muhajirun and the restoration of the balance of the new power in Medina, the Messenger, as the head of a state, devoted his full attention to its defense system.

The Islamic Perspective on War and Jihad

Here I consider it necessary to state briefly a fundamental principle. The principle is that just as establishing police and courts to suppress crime is a natural function of any state, jihad is likewise one of its natural functions. But for a new state, a newly established society, and a government creating a distinct new era, passing through a stern age of jihad is not merely natural; it is also inevitable. Especially when a new social system is built upon a revolutionary ideology, it is inevitable that the old anti-revolutionary forces will unite and rise against it. For a revolution of this kind, defense alone against hostile forces is not sufficient; unless those forces are destroyed, no revolution can preserve its existing boundaries and standards. Therefore, Islam’s doctrine of jihad is not merely a defensive measure, requiring one to confront an aggressor only when attacked. Rather, Islam also directs the callers to the Islamic Revolution, on the one hand, to remain prepared to sacrifice their lives and wealth completely, when necessary, to protect every inch of their state’s land, all its resources, and the lives and honor of its citizens. On the other hand, it directs them to overthrow the forces opposed to the revolution in order to complete the revolution by rescuing the countless servants of Allah from oppression, exploitation, ignorance, economic hardship, and moral decline. A state founded upon a revolutionary ideal has no alternative but to undertake this task. [In this connection, it seems very important to say that, no matter at what stage reformative and constructive work is undertaken, the use of force in some form or another inevitably becomes necessary for it. Just as parents use force, alongside reason, good counsel, education, and training, for the welfare of their children, and governments use force for the welfare of their people, so the standard-bearers of constructive and reformative revolutions are also compelled to use some degree of force. It may be asked: whatever structure and method of tribal rule prevailed in the Age of Ignorance in Arabia, and whatever condition the people lived in under it, what right did others have to change it? Can organizing a revolution with reformative and constructive aims, then bringing it to completion, and using force for this purpose be accepted as lawful at all? If this question is given even the slightest consideration, on what basis can any father or mother be granted the right to place a particular idea in their children’s minds, forcibly teach them a particular kind of manners, morals, conduct, and customs, or impose a particular moral consciousness upon them? And on what basis can any government be granted the right to use force to prevent citizens from certain acts and compel them to perform others? By what right may it employ corrective measures against ignorance, wrongdoing, uncleanliness, and moral dishonesty, and remove the obstacles posed by those who resist the use of such measures? It is impossible to imagine any sphere in which reformative and constructive work will face no obstacle and will require no force to remove that obstacle. If you give obstructing forces unrestricted freedom, no reformative or constructive work will be possible. Human nature itself, in all its strength, stands in support of every reformative and constructive endeavor. When a constructive revolution is organized to rescue a country or nation from a fallen state and lead it toward welfare, human nature—its innate disposition, good will, and conscience—presents the greatest evidence in its favor. This evidence builds public opinion in favor of that revolution. The question that must then be answered is this: since the demands of human nature are unclear, what is the conclusive method for determining whether a revolution is constructive and reformative or misleading and destructive? The answer is that the conclusive method is the ideal given by the Noble Prophet and the law of Allah. Among the countless grandiloquent claims of human beings, the infallible way to test which is beneficial and which harmful is the path shown by revelation. Bringing the Arab nation from anarchy to an organized state system, uniting a nation divided into tribes and transforming it into a single national entity, adorning millions of people with knowledge and virtuous character, and presenting them with a new era of strength, security, and justice—this is such a great and sacred work that if the use of force for it is not lawful, then no just and lawful place for the use of force remains anywhere in human history.] If Allah grants the opportunity, we shall discuss this subject in detail in the volume of this book intended to provide a detailed analysis of the military expeditions during the era of the Messenger.

On this subject, the West has raised a misleading controversy with an extremely devious mentality. As a result, the Western-oriented section of self-forgetful Muslims has also fallen into grave error. The objectors have interpreted the military expeditions as meaning that military attacks were used to impose a religion upon people by force. Yet this was not merely a matter of religion. It was a comprehensive revolutionary movement. This revolution had begun the work of rebuilding humanity at the cost of many precious sacrifices of life and property, while selfish opponents of the revolution sought to annihilate it before it could achieve complete success. The aim here was to build a state. To establish this state, its founders endured extreme persecution for thirteen years; afterward, they abandoned their homes, lands, and property and, completely dispossessed, confined themselves to such a small territory where they could live according to their preferred way of life and show the people of the whole world the path of peace and security.

Preparations were under way to inaugurate this new golden chapter of history with great ceremony. But the Jews of Medina, the hypocrites, the Quraysh of Mecca, their dependent tribes, and several major rulers from outside all wanted to destroy this undertaking in its bud. They did not want to give the Muslim revolutionaries even the opportunity to carry this revolution to the golden summit of success. It is true that the religion of Islam was an important part of the Islamic movement (though in a meaning different from the distorted meaning commonly given to religion today), but many other important elements joined with it to form the movement. That is why the Islamic state of Medina guaranteed non-Muslims complete religious freedom within the limited sphere of religion. It did not take up the sword to impose religion; rather, it took up the sword in the interests of the movement, the comprehensive way of life, and the Islamic state. Its real problem was to ensure the stability and sound development of its own sacred political structure, since the welfare of the entire Arab nation and of all humanity lay in that. The arena of the Muslims’ all-encompassing struggle and conflict was political. They had begun to acquire a new and remarkable experience of practicing politics upon the moral foundations of honesty and God-consciousness. It was precisely this noble work that the Quraysh, the Jews, and the Bedouin tribes sought to ruin. In such circumstances, how could this pointless question even arise—whether the Messenger and his Companions had used the sword to preach religion? How could the question arise whether the Messenger’s military expeditions were defensive or offensive? Nevertheless, our sensitive Muslims agreed to discuss these matters. Accepting the unjust and meaningless arguments of the Westerners, they thought that by doing so they could erase certain supposed stains from the pages of their history. Having lost all self-confidence, they began presenting their apologies before the Orientalists with folded hands. They had internalized a completely false and limited conception of Islam and had also distorted the doctrine of jihad. The position of their Western mentors is this: the vile wars waged by their religious leaders merely to satisfy personal interests and by their kings merely to expand their kingdoms are still considered matters of glory in their poetry and literature. They always regard the unjust measures taken to enslave various independent countries as sources of pride. If the crimes of their naval piracy helped establish colonies, they turned the pirates into heroes. But when the Islamic state of Medina, surrounded by threats from every direction, engages in a completely selfless struggle to preserve its new system of government and society, resist several destructive forces, and become adorned with rare treasures such as unity, discipline, peace, security, justice, freedom, and democracy, the West’s greatest talents continue tirelessly working to draw up an indictment against it and prove it guilty. The time has now come to bring a case in the court of history against all these claimants and their supporters. The time has come to prepare the charge sheet that will expose their deception and fraud. To meet this national need, the young students of history and the science of Sirah must step forward to fulfill this responsibility.

The doctrine of jihad in Islam was not at all formulated on the basis of the conventional concept of defense. It is defensive, however, in the sense that its purpose is to preserve the Islamic state and Islamic society, and to preserve the ideal upon which the Islamic legal system is founded. Its aim is to resist every effective destructive force that seeks to destroy the achievements of the Islamic Revolution and obstruct its completion, and its purpose is to uproot every oppressive system of government that stands in the way of the development and progress of civilization and the welfare of humanity.

The Qur’an’s Philosophy of War

There is no room here for a detailed discussion. However, it is necessary to consider several extremely important passages of the Qur’an:

“Permission to take up arms has been granted to those against whom war is waged, because they have been wronged. Allah is fully capable of helping them. They were driven from their homes unjustly for no reason other than that they said, ‘Allah is our only Lord.’ If Allah had not, in this way granting permission for war, enabled some people—who are the leaders of corruption and misguidance—to be driven from power by others—who bear the banner of constructive and reformative work—then monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which Allah’s name is mentioned abundantly, would have been destroyed because of the growing power of the forces of evil. Allah will surely help only those who support the cause of Allah. Indeed, Allah is All-Powerful and Almighty in helping them. They are those who, if We establish them in the land, will establish prayer, pay zakat, enjoin what is right, forbid what is wrong, and with Allah rests the ultimate outcome of all affairs.” (Al-Hajj: 39–41)

“Fight in the way of Allah—for the implementation and preservation of His just law—against those who fight you. But do not transgress. [There is no opportunity here for a detailed discussion of tafsir. However, it is necessary to offer this indication: the prohibition against transgression means that force must not be used against peace-loving people while suppressing those who seek disorder and anarchy. Second, military activity should not extend beyond the limits of genuine necessity. Third, during war, Islam’s moral rules and laws of warfare must be observed].”

Allah does not love those who transgress. Kill them wherever you encounter them, and drive them out from wherever they drove you out, for persecution—resistance to and obstruction of the establishment of truth and justice—is worse than killing. Do not fight them at the Sacred Mosque. But if they fight you there, then fight them. If they truly engage you in combat within the boundaries of the Sacred Sanctuary, then fight them without hesitation or reluctance. This is the fitting punishment for such disbelievers—for the enemies of the Islamic Revolution. If they desist, then Allah is certainly Forgiving and Merciful. Otherwise, continue fighting them until every obstacle to establishing Islamic law has been removed and the entire way of life has become subject to Allah’s law. If they desist from obstructing, then no further action shall be taken against them. But the matter of the oppressors is different.” (Surah Al-Baqarah: 190–193)

“What is wrong with you that you do not fight in the way of Allah, and especially to rescue from oppression those helpless men, women, and children who pray, ‘Our Lord, bring us out of this town whose people are oppressors. Appoint for us from Yourself a protector, and appoint for us from Yourself a helper’?” (Surah An-Nisa: 75)

“Then, if they break their treaty after making it and mock your religion—and thereby prove that they are determined to conspire—then fight the leaders of those anti-Islamic forces. In their view, their treaties and pledges have no value. Perhaps they will desist. Will you not fight those who break their treaties, plot to expel the Messenger from Medina, and attacked you first?” (Surah At-Tawbah: 12)

“If you do not go forth—for jihad—Allah will punish you severely and replace you with another people in your place; you will not be able to harm Him in the least. Allah is capable of all things.” (Surah At-Tawbah: 39)

There are many other important verses in the Qur’an worthy of study concerning Islam’s doctrine of jihad and the principles of warfare followed by the Messenger. But from among them I have quoted only those verses that are exceptionally clear and from which only the fundamental principles can be derived. The points explained in these verses are as follows:

1. As a whole, the Muslims had been suffering persecution for years, and the final blow of collective oppression was struck when the Messenger and his Companions were expelled from Mecca. From the very beginning, the opposing side had behaved oppressively, because they would not allow Muslim society to exist at all. They did not want truthful people to accept Allah as Lord and Sustainer and build their lives under His command. They deprived them of the freedom and right to hold beliefs and opinions, express independent thought, call people toward the truth, and form organizations. For several consecutive years, they repeatedly inflicted barbaric and savage blows upon the innocent, decent, peace-loving, and patient Muslim revolutionaries, making their lives unbearable in their own homeland.

2. Islam gives its opponents the greatest possible opportunity to understand its message and change their conduct, and for this very purpose it makes its followers pass through a long age of patience and forbearance. But it can never tolerate that its patient followers remain forever only oppressed and persecuted while increasing the pride and arrogance of the oppressors. Islam’s purpose is not to provide easy prey for nurturing a few savage human beasts in human society. It develops the patient precisely so that they may remove the tyrants and open the way of liberation for humanity.

3. Uprooting the destructive forces that inflict persecution, oppression, and exploitation is an extremely important social and cultural necessity. If these anarchic groups are not removed from power and authority by force, and are given unrestricted opportunity to operate permanently, then all values of honesty, justice, love of peace, and devotion to Allah are bound to be destroyed.

4. When necessary, Islam’s revolutionary ideology seeks to take power by armed force from those who sponsor disorder, ignorance, wrongdoing, corruption, injustice, and oppression. It then seeks to entrust power to those who will establish obedience to Allah, prayer, and the zakat system, spread and develop honesty and justice, and resist injustice and falsehood.

5. “Fight those who fight you” does not mean that defensive action should be taken only after the enemy has attacked you. What is indicated here is that there is no need to pursue those among the enemies of Islam who are not active in opposition and resistance. But against those who constantly obstruct your work and, by launching attacks, seek to destroy you, your social system, and your state system, there is no alternative to taking up arms. It is not necessary to sit and wait for the moment when they actually attack the Islamic state. Rather, wherever they can be brought under control, they may be eliminated there. A clear and decisive argument has also been given in support of this: bloodshed is not in itself a good act. However, conducting destructive activities against the Islamic movement, organization, society, and state, creating disorder and turmoil, and establishing blockades and resistance are much greater wrongs. If the enemies of Islam are allowed to continue such activities, they will uproot Islam itself. Therefore, to avoid the greater wrong, it is essential to undertake armed jihad and take active measures. This armed struggle must be pursued with every available strength until those who create resistance and blockades in the path of truth and justice have been completely eliminated and the complete religion of Allah has been established in every sphere of life.

6. On the one hand, strict instructions have been given to show due respect for sacred religious places, times, and rites. On the other hand, Muslims have been protected from the mistaken notion of piety that, even if enemies trample upon the honor and sanctity of these sacred things and slaughter Muslims, they should not utter a word and should continue to be slaughtered without resistance, giving priority to the obligation of honoring forbidden and sacred places and months. It has been stated that if they attack by violating the sanctity of any place or time, that attack must be resisted with all strength.

7. The religious and moral duty of Muslims has not been confined to protecting their own lives, property, and honor. Rather, if weak and helpless people in another region are being crushed by persecution and are desperate to escape the grasp of their oppressors, it is the duty of the Islamic government to respond to their cries. In other words, Islamic power has been appointed as the liberator and savior of all humanity. Its broader and fundamental duty is to preserve the finest values of religion and civilization.

8. Making treaties to remove oppression and injustice is also a peaceful means. The Messenger made full use of this means as well. But concerning those who break treaties and pledges, the Qur’an has issued the strict command that they must be disciplined through the use of force. In particular, those who break their pledges, conspire to destroy the Islamic center, overthrow the established system or administration, destroy the existing order, create anarchy, and give the first provocation must have each such activity treated as a declaration of war, even if they have not openly declared war. They must not be allowed to continue it without resistance.

9. In this connection, the special point to which the Muslim government has been directed to give attention is that the true purpose of military activity is not to kill or wound innocent and unarmed civilians, but to eliminate the principal leaders of the forces opposed to the Islamic Revolution and of the forces of unbelief.

10. A warning has been given about the terrible consequences of slackness and indifference in fulfilling the obligation of jihad: if you become indifferent to jihad, this state, government, and power of yours will all be destroyed. If you do not advance courageously, your opponents will attack you, drive you out, trample you underfoot, and establish their own rule. Then you will merely stare blankly and will not even be able to utter a sound. Consider what painful punishment you will have to endure in such a situation.

The Nature of Islamic Wars and Armed Conflicts

Without properly understanding the theory of Islamic jihad in light of the foregoing discussion, it is impossible to understand the nature and character of the wars fought between the organizers of the Islamic Revolution and its enemies. The fundamental point to understand is that two historical forces of Arabia had engaged in conflict with each other. One force sought to liberate the people from the false and oppressive terror of jahili rule and create a new era of peace, security, and justice. The other had become bent on wiping out the Islamic movement in order to preserve the conventional jahili social order exactly as it was. No lasting understanding or compromise was possible between their ideals and objectives; nor was there any scope for coexistence through mutual dealings. The situation was such that, “Either you will remain, or we will remain.” Or, in the words of the familiar English proverb, “Kill him first, or he will kill you.” The matter was much like that of a diligent farmer who, after great effort, cultivated a barren piece of land and turned it into an orchard. A forest lay nearby, from which wild animals came and threatened to destroy the orchard. If he took no measures against them, his orchard would be ruined. But if he wished to protect it, he had to be harsh toward the wild animals. Whenever an all-encompassing revolution has taken place in history, the emergence of such uncompromising circumstances has become inevitable. Once this point is properly understood, there is hardly any need to enter into the debate over whether the Islamic wars were defensive or not. The senseless propaganda that Muslims used the sword to force people to accept Islam is also discredited. Nor is it necessary to examine each battle separately, identify its immediate causes, and reassure those knowingly engaged in slander that the Islamic government had been compelled to fight that particular war. This fundamental responsibility rests upon the opposing side itself.

Today, when we see that some of our earlier scholars devoted extensive thought to examining the causes of various wars, especially the Battle of Badr, and to drawing a particular picture of the circumstances, we cannot understand why such painstaking analysts failed to grasp this simple point—one statement of which would settle the matter and make further explanation unnecessary. Reading their valuable books on the life of the Prophet gives the impression that the right to deliver the final verdict on what the real cause was or was not belongs to Westerners. It is as though we have the right only to present our defense before them, and nothing more. We wish to change this approach to judgment and analysis. The highest and final authority for understanding and explaining our faith, our history, and the life of our Prophet belongs to us, not to anyone else. The standards and criteria for thought, research, judgment, and evaluation given to us by our faith and our Messenger are the best measures for understanding everything. We are the ones most entitled to assess our own condition. Whether they come from the West or from any other direction, no outsiders are qualified to teach us about our religion and our history. Rather, they should learn from us the significance of the elements of our religion and history. Interpreting the meaning of our past deeds and explaining our terminology is our responsibility, not anyone else’s. The standards created by the ancient Christian Church or by modern materialist civilization are not acceptable to us for evaluating our religion, our history, and the life history of our Prophet. We are not prepared to have our history and heritage judged by those invalid standards.

The Nature of Madinah’s Military Activities

The military activities of the Islamic state cannot be viewed as a conflict between two empires or a clash between two religious sects. There was no plan here for world conquest like those of Alexander and Napoleon, nor any ambition to seize the independence of free countries and establish colonies as Holland, France, and England did. The conflict was between people of the same country and nation: one side was selflessly striving to implement a specific program for rebuilding the nation, while the other was determined to destroy its existence in order to make that effort fail. Against this purest, most unblemished, and most just revolution in history, the Quraysh, Jewish, and Bedouin tribes, swept along by a merely negative and blind emotional current, plotted the vilest deeds, crimes, conspiracies, and murders. After years of stubborn activity, only one final step remained: to enter the field through open armed aggression and, if possible, bring the conflict to an end forever. The Quraysh led the way, and the others followed behind. In the end, however, it was their own existence that was extinguished. These wars resembled, though not entirely and in many respects, the conflicts fought in Russia from the February Revolution up to the eve of the October Revolution, or those between royalists and revolutionaries in the name of the French Revolution. They may also be compared with the American Civil War. The wars of Makkah and Madinah were essentially a kind of civil war. The first cause of this civil war was that, on one side, the Messenger of Allah had abandoned blind imitation of the ancestral jahili system and adopted, by Allah’s command, a sound course of action. On the other side, the Quraysh would not allow him to act according to his freedom of conscience and opinion. The leaders of jahiliyyah sought, through coercive and violent means, to deprive young people of independent opinions and beliefs in their awakened consciences. Those awakened consciences, in turn, were determined to obtain their natural rights and grant them to others.

The nature of the ten years of military activity of the early Islamic state in Madinah becomes clear when we examine the casualty figures. There is no way to deny that the Messenger of Allah followed a policy of minimal bloodshed. With negligible loss of life, he established a state across a territory of one million square miles. By the time the revolution reached its ultimate success, a total of 255 Muslims had attained martyrdom and 759 unbelievers had been killed. (Rahmatul-lil-Alamin, Qazi Sulaiman Mansur Puri, vol. 2, p. 265.) Only 750 opponents had to be killed to open the way to the welfare of hundreds of millions of people. Those who fabricate accusations should place their assumptions in the context of history in light of these figures. If these wars had been waged to spread religion, they would not merely have involved atrocities as monstrous as those committed by the Jews and Christians; far more people would have been killed in each individual war. If the Messenger of Allah had gone to war out of an ambition for world conquest, he could have flooded the Arabian desert with blood just as great military commanders had shed blood without restraint. Even if the conflict had been between two rival states, the loss of life would have been much greater. Similarly, although the number of prisoners of war was 6,564, only two of them were sentenced to death for proven crimes. A total of 6,347 prisoners were released. After extensive research, the author of Rahmatul-lil-Alamin stated that the fate of only 215 prisoners was not clearly known. It might become known later. Most probably, they accepted Islam and merged into Muslim society. In reality, the developing Islamic society and state in Madinah faced internal obstacles, and conflict broke out among related inhabitants of the same land. Within a very short period, the matter was settled through three or four major battles with extremely few casualties. In fact, this settlement was taking place within the wider arena of public opinion.

It is worth considering whether, if some other military commander had stood in the Messenger’s place, he could have ordered his soldiers at Badr not to kill the warriors of Banu Hashim because they had not come willingly but under compulsion; not to kill Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib; and not to kill Abu al-Bukhtari ibn Hisham. (Abu al-Bukhtari was killed by mistake.) Can it be imagined that the victorious ruler of Madinah, so distressed by the suffering of the prisoners of Badr that he could not sleep, would go out in the darkness of night and loosen their bonds? Is it not astonishing that, right in the midst of war, he responded to the people of Makkah’s appeal by releasing a besieged shipment of grain from Yamamah and sending it to Makkah, while also sending five hundred gold coins from his own resources to the famine-stricken people of Makkah? Moreover, if the person whose victorious banner flew on the day of the conquest of Makkah had been anyone other than Muhammad, and if his aim had been anything other than the triumph of Islam, could he have forgotten the heart-rending, dark history of fifteen or twenty years of brutal persecution and declared, “No blame will be upon you today. Go, you are free”? Never. Had anyone else been in his place, the lanes of Makkah would have run with Qurayshi blood.

In reality, the Messenger of Allah had to enter the battlefield against his will, for this path passed through the field of martyrdom. Yet instead of conquering territories, he sought to conquer people’s hearts. Rather than subjugating people’s bodies with the sword, he sought to win their minds through reason and their hearts through beautiful, natural character. His real battle was in the arena of public opinion, where his enemies were continually defeated. In fact, the armed struggle was only a very small part of the conflict in which the Messenger of Allah had to engage with the enemies of the Islamic Revolution.

The Messenger’s Military Strategy

The essence of the Messenger’s military strategy was to give priority to rendering the enemy helpless rather than shedding his blood, until he cooperated or abandoned resistance. Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi, a distinguished scholar of the subcontinent who analyzed various aspects of the Messenger’s blessed life, described his military strategy as follows:

“In reality, the Messenger of Allah preferred compelling the enemy to destroying him.” (Ahde Nabbi Ke Maidanha-e Jang, p. 44)

Elsewhere he wrote:

“The aim of the Messenger’s policy was not to destroy the Quraysh, but to render them incapable and defeated while leaving them completely unharmed.” (Ahde Nabbi Mein Nizam-e Hukmrani, p. 249)

By providing detailed descriptions of the methods employed by the Messenger and reviewing the course of events, the author has established this opinion with precision. Within the framework of this strategy, the Messenger adopted the following practical measures:

“He rapidly developed his defensive force in terms of numbers, organization, exertion, military preparedness, and moral training; thereafter, he kept it constantly active like a machine and used it to keep his opponents frightened and terrified.

He blockaded the trade routes of the people of Makkah and rendered them ineffective.

Through understandings and treaties, he gradually detached various tribes from the enemy and brought them over to his side.

He employed various tactics for military expeditions. Sometimes he adopted surprise attacks, giving the enemy no opportunity to prepare, as in the conquest of Makkah. Sometimes he confused his opponents by taking an unexpected route and concealing the expedition’s destination, as in the Battle of Banu al-Mustaliq. Sometimes he prepared the plan of battle in advance in his own favor, as in the Battle of Badr; at other times he adopted a new defensive strategy of which the enemy had no prior experience, as in the Battle of the Trench.

The entire ten-year defensive system of the state of Madinah is a clear example of the fundamental principle described above. Moreover, when we add to it the Messenger’s magnanimous and generous outlook—which was inspired not by the spirit of a conqueror but by the motivation of a missionary, and which represented the deep goodwill and compassion of a mentor rather than the anger and hostility of an invading military commander—the objections and accusations raised by various quarters appear completely meaningless. Yet, in attempting to defend them, those imitating the West have set about distorting the entire course of events. To express the attitude toward reforming and correcting humanity that was active in the Messenger’s heart, we point to several incidents.

When oppression and persecution in Makkah reached their extreme and the Quraysh’s hostility assumed an excessively aggressive form, the two principal instigators of that hellish terror and violence were Abu Jahl and Umar ibn al-Khattab. No worldly politician could have avoided harboring the utmost resentment toward such staunch enemies and wishing for their destruction in his heart. Yet, despite being continually burned in the fire of their brutality, the Messenger of Allah would supplicate in a distressed voice that Allah grant at least one of these two the ability to accept Islam. This supplication proves that this organizer of humanity gave priority to reforming his enemies over destroying them and continued to hope for their good until the very last moment. His supplication was fulfilled through the conversion of Umar.

The second incident concerns the Messenger’s being humiliated and wounded by the people of Ta’if while seeking their welfare. From a standard-bearer of worldly politics, one could expect nothing but that his heart would be closed to them forever and that, if possible, he would immediately overturn the entire city. Otherwise, he would remain angry and resentful toward them for life and, at the first opportunity after gaining power, destroy such an uncivilized city. The Messenger’s companion, grieved by the persecution at Ta’if, thought along precisely these lines and said, “Pray against these beasts.” Even Jibril, to test his underlying attitude, informed him that at his signal the angels of the mountains were ready to crush Makkah and Ta’if between the mountains. But the Messenger said, “No, they are astray because of their ignorance. Even if they do not believe, their descendants will accept the call to truth and become devoted to the One Allah.”

The third incident took place on the field of Uhud. When the Muslims were made to suffer defeat as a warning from Allah because of certain mistakes, and the Messenger himself was seriously wounded, an atmosphere of intense bitterness arose. In that situation, some understandably distressed Companions asked the Messenger to pray to Allah against the polytheists, so that Allah’s curse might descend upon them. He replied, “I was not sent as a curser. I was sent as a messenger and bearer of glad tidings.” Then he prayed for his enemies: “O Allah, guide the people of my nation, for they do not know.” In other words, despite receiving blow after blow from the Quraysh, he developed no desire for them to be destroyed. Rather, even during the war, he continued to voice the hope that they would attain guidance.

During the expedition to Khaybar, the Messenger gave Ali a special banner for the conquest of the Qamus fortress and said:

“O Ali, if even one person is guided through you, it will be a tremendous blessing for you.”

That is, the true objective is not to cause physical harm to the enemy and shed blood; rather, what takes priority is that as many people as possible undergo a change of heart and mind and accept the new way of life.

We have taken these few incidents merely as examples; there is no shortage of evidence that clarifies the Messenger’s fundamental outlook. Warmongers are usually extremely hasty and hot-tempered. By contrast, we find the Friend of Humanity, the Messenger of Allah, to be extraordinarily calm, resolute, and ambitious. In his policy, strategy and concern for welfare were active instead of the use of force. What greater miraculous proof of political skill and wisdom could there be than that, immediately after going to Madinah, he laid the foundations of the Islamic state through discussions with people from various walks of life? Perhaps no parallel can be found in the entire history of humanity for establishing a state in this way, without shedding a drop of blood for a revolutionary ideology. This alone was a truly bloodless revolution, at whose foundation not a single drop of human blood was shed and not one corpse fell. Such an astonishing event reflects the extraordinary character of prophethood itself.

It should also not be forgotten that all the military activities of the Islamic state were directed against the Quraysh and the Jewish tribes, who had forcibly dragged it into the battlefield. All the other Arabs, apart from the Quraysh and the Jews, were occupied with their normal lives. Except in a few limited areas, no war took place anywhere in Arabia. Rather, the general population of Arabia silently observed the aims, character, and political strength of both forces. Once the Muslim power had proved its superiority in every respect, delegations from different regions and tribes came forward and accepted Islam. No thoughtful person could fail to notice the further truth that all the major battles—Badr, Uhud, and the Trench—were initiated by the enemies themselves, who came as aggressors to the vicinity of Madinah. Thus, they themselves compelled the Messenger to subdue the sources of the enemy’s power. For this reason, only one final expedition was launched from Madinah to weaken the power of the Quraysh and their subordinates; after the conquest of Makkah, the battles of Hunayn and Ta’if completely eliminated the opposing power. On the other hand, the centers of Jewish power were also uprooted with minimal loss of life.

A Widespread Misconception

Because of the long lists of military expeditions called ghazwah and sariyyah found in books of hadith, sirah, and history, not only non-Muslims but even many Muslims themselves have fallen prey to serious misconceptions. In fact, ghazwah and sariyyah are technical terms used in books of hadith and maghazi—the military history of Islam. Each of these two terms has a distinct meaning. Whenever a detachment was sent for any of various purposes—such as a defensive military expedition, patrol or guard duty, suppressing rebels and criminals, spreading education and conveying the call, or concluding treaties—even if it consisted of only two men, it was called a sariyyah. A military force in which the Messenger himself participated was called a ghazwah. Whether or not such a force actually became involved in a clash or any other activity, it was called a sariyyah or ghazwah in either case. Leaving aside the minor expeditions, only a few significant major military campaigns remain: Badr, Uhud, Ahzab or the Trench, Khaybar, and Makkah, including Hunayn. It should be noted that the Jaysh al-Usrah (“the Difficult Expedition”) sent to Tabuk and the surrounding region was dispatched solely because of the fear of an attack by the foreign government of Syria, and its nature was entirely different. I shall now briefly discuss these military expeditions.

The first issue that comes to attention is how the conflict began. To answer this, I shall first review the position and role of both sides.

The Quraysh’s Aggressive Mindset

The Quraysh’s mindset becomes clear from a single incident. When they plotted collectively to kill the Messenger, the leaders of Makkah openly expressed their attitude during their deliberations. One proposal was to lock the Messenger in an iron prison so that he would struggle inside and die. Hearing this proposal, an elderly man who had come from Najd—the Shaykh of Najd—said, “If you imprison him, his call will spread to the distant horizons through the closed doors of the iron prison and influence his companions. It is even possible that they will take him out. Then they will outnumber you and defeat you.” Another proposal was, “We will expel Muhammad from the country. Where he goes or where he stays after being expelled is none of our concern. It is enough that he disappears from our sight; we can then restore normal relations among ourselves and preserve our mutual affection.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 94.) The analysis by the Shaykh of Najd for rejecting this proposal was extremely important, and it was accepted by the assembly. The Shaykh of Najd said:

“No, by Allah, that is not suitable for you at all. Do you not see the sweetness and eloquence of his speech, by which he has established his influence in the hearts of the people? By Allah, if you do this, you will never be free of his grasp. He may find a place among any tribe of Arabia, then influence the people through his words; they may become his followers, and with those followers he may attack you, enter your settlements, seize power from you, and deal with you as he pleases. Therefore, adopt another strategy.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 94.)

Reading these words of the Shaykh of Najd, one can appreciate how clever and cunning he was. He made no mistake at all in understanding the Messenger’s personality. These discussions also make it clear that, after thirteen years of experience, the leaders of Makkah had begun to regard the Messenger’s personality, nature, message, and charm of character as a distinct political danger and grave threat. Their arrogance had reached such a point that they were unwilling to tolerate the Deliverer of Humanity remaining alive anywhere in the world and continuing his missionary work in any land. Otherwise, they knew that one day they would have to answer for the oppression they had inflicted and for the crime of driving Muslim youths from their homes. The way they agreed to kill the Messenger, then rushed about to capture him when he escaped with his life and announced a substantial reward, proves conclusively that, had it been within their power, they would not have allowed him to remain alive for even a moment. His very existence had become a threat to them, and his life had become a challenge. There was no reason why the Messenger could not immediately have learned of this attitude of the Quraysh.

Go a little further back in this account. At the time of the Second Pledge of Aqabah, Abbas warned the Ansar: “If you can fulfill the purpose for which you are inviting the Messenger, and if you can confront the opposition that will be directed against him, then it will be right for you to undertake this difficult responsibility.” Moreover, these opening words in the language of that pledge were highly significant: “You will protect me as you protect your own children and families.” Then the Ansar’s reply is noteworthy: “Rest assured, we are a people of war.” They also asked: “Because of you, many of our treaties will be annulled. Will it not then happen that we endure all this hardship for your sake, you become victorious, and then leave us to return to your own family?” The Messenger’s assurance—“I am of you, and you are of me”—was highly significant. Abbas ibn Ubadah al-Ansari’s warning to his companions was also deeply meaningful: “You are taking the risk of waging war against all the white and black people of the world. Beware lest, after seeing much of your wealth destroyed and the leading figures of your tribes killed, you surrender the Messenger to the enemy. Consider everything carefully and decide now.”

The significance of these discussions is that, in light of the situation created by the Quraysh, not only the Messenger and Abbas, but also the Ansar who had come from distant lands, understood unequivocally that the pledge they were about to make was tantamount to a declaration of war.

A devil overheard the conversation at this pledge meeting and informed the Quraysh. Then the leading men of the Quraysh went from house to house in the settlements of the Ansar, saying, “We have heard that you met Muhammad (PBUH) and want to take him away from here. We have also heard that you pledged allegiance to him to fight us. Yet, compared with fighting any other tribe in Arabia, we dislike fighting you far more. In other words, if the Ansar take the Messenger (PBUH) out of Makkah and provide him with a safe refuge among themselves, the people of Makkah will regard it as a declaration of war against them. If the people of Madinah truly do this, then the Quraysh leadership’s position in this regard is clear.” Thus, advance notice of a declaration of war was given. However, some people did not know about the incident. Those who did kept it concealed.

After the Ansar who had given the pledge left Makkah, the Quraysh deliberated over the matter. In the end, it was decided that they should pursue them. The pilgrimage caravan from Madinah departed safely. However, the people of Makkah seized Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah and Mundhir ibn ‘Amr and beat them. This incident also shows how unbearable it was to them that the Messenger (PBUH) should leave Makkah unharmed, and how angry they were with those who had pledged to provide him with a safe refuge.

The Quraysh’s attempts to bring back the emigrants to Abyssinia and, at the outset, to prevent those emigrating to Madinah from migrating also show that they were unwilling to let the Islamic movement establish roots in any other land. They were determined to thwart any such possibility.

All these incidents make it as clear as daylight that, even before the Hijrah, the Quraysh had challenged any power that would give refuge to the Messenger (PBUH) and allow the Islamic movement to sow its fruits in its territory. The organizers of the Islamic Revolution were not such fools as to ignore this challenge.

At last, news of this unwritten declaration of war reached Madinah from Makkah in the form of a conspiratorial letter. Delivered to ‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy, the leader of Madinah’s hypocrites, the letter threatened all the Ansar and Jews of Madinah: either you voluntarily expel Muhammad (PBUH) from Madinah, or we will attack Madinah, kill you, and make your wives our pleasure companions.

Thereafter, in collusion with the Jews, the Quraysh directly told the Muslims, “Do not rejoice at having been able to leave Makkah safely. We will come to Madinah and teach you a lesson.”

At this time, Abu Jahl prevented Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh from circumambulating the Ka‘bah and openly said, “I do not like you setting foot in the precincts of the Ka‘bah.”

Nevertheless, small military units continued to leave Makkah at this time to commit mischief and plunder. As soon as the Messenger (PBUH) learned of this, he began sending patrol groups as a countermeasure. On several occasions, these Madinan patrol groups spotted those Makkah units. But as soon as they sensed the presence of the Muslim forces, they fled.

A sensational incident occurred in the thirteenth month after the Hijrah. Kirz ibn Jabir al-Fihri came to Madinah, raided it, and drove away the Messenger’s (PBUH) livestock, government camels, and other people’s animals from Madinah’s grazing grounds. The clear purpose of this incident was to show: “Even from three hundred miles away, we can come and plunder your state’s property in this manner.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 238; Asahhus-Siyar, p. 125; Rahmatullil-‘Alamin, vol. 1, p. 140)

The Messenger (PBUH) himself pursued the raiders with a small military unit, appointing Zayd ibn Harithah as the temporary governor of Madinah. Even after reaching Wadi Safwan (near Badr), he was unable to catch them. This was such insolence on the part of the enemy that it could not be tolerated in any way. Officials of a government who possess even a little courage and valor, and who have the slightest respect and love for their independence and homeland, cannot endure such audacity. Although this was robbery, politically it was tantamount to an attack. Madinah now faced an inevitable era of war and a blood-soaked future.

There was a serious reason why Makkah’s attack on Madinah was delayed until the second year after the Hijrah. Had the Quraysh faced no obstacle, they would have attacked earlier and given the new Islamic state of Madinah no time to prepare its defenses. The territory of the Banu Kinana lay between Makkah and Madinah. They had a long-standing enmity with the Quraysh. First, there was concern that the Banu Kinana would not allow the Quraysh to pass through their territory. Even if they did allow them through, there was a second concern: seeing Makkah undefended, the Banu Kinana might attack it. At the very least, there was a fear that at a critical moment they might cut off communications between Makkah and the Qurayshi army attacking Madinah. Suraqah ibn Malik al-Madlaji al-Kinani was the chief of this intervening area. When he learned that the Quraysh could not attack Madinah because of these fears, he went to Makkah on his own initiative and assured the Quraysh of his cooperation. It was as a result of this alliance that the Battle of Badr took place.

Thus, it is clear that the Quraysh were neither waiting for an attack from the Muslims nor looking for an opportunity to launch military aggression. Their aggressive attitude and resolve were fully active. (Rahmatullil-‘Alamin)

Madinah’s Defense System

Let us now examine the condition of the second side.

When we examine the condition of the Messenger (PBUH) and his revolutionary organization, evidence from every perspective shows that war was the least desirable thing for them. For one thing, they were a destitute group who had arrived in an unfamiliar place without means or support; moreover, half of them had been economically devastated and were struggling to resettle themselves. In addition, the organizers of the Islamic Revolution simultaneously faced the task of shaping a new environment suitable for the Islamic Revolution, establishing bonds of brotherhood among the various tribes, providing them with moral and psychological training, and, above all, establishing a new Islamic state and developing the administration of all its departments. Each of these programs demanded sustained attention and labor over a long period. A small group surrounded by such difficult problems could never desire war. On the other hand, they had a tremendous mission concerning all humanity. Ensuring the welfare of people throughout the world was their sacred goal. To illuminate the entire civilization by kindling the torch of life’s greatest truth—the lordship and sovereignty of the One Allah—they had sacrificed all the comforts and peace of their lives. They were moving forward after acquiring the risky and difficult qualities of patience and putting others first. The great truth of Islam was the only capital of their lives. They were very few in number, and the state of Madinah was entirely new. Their entire future was tied to this small amount of capital. The natural eagerness they nurtured to preserve this state was like a hen’s frantic and intense desire to forget everything and cover her chicks with her feathers and wings upon seeing a kite flying in the sky. Even with their emaciated, withered bodies, they were ready to clash with mountains. Forgetting every pleasure, enjoyment, and personal interest, they possessed intense passion and energy to clip the wings of every power that viewed the goal and purpose of their lives with hostility. Even after coming to Madinah’s lively air and gardens and its incomparable atmosphere of brotherhood, they never forgot the sorrow and pain of Makkah for even a moment, slept carelessly, or breathed a sigh of relief. Their eyes never shifted for a moment from the swords of Makkah’s powerful men, with no assurance of when they might fall victim to a surprise attack. Neither did the Messenger (PBUH) show any negligence in adopting defensive measures, nor did his Companions fall short in performing their duties. They were not ascetics or monks; rather, they were extremely discerning and industrious people who wanted to build a new world. Such history-making people did not lack the intelligence and judgment necessary to answer the strength of their opponents with counterforce.

The Messenger’s (PBUH) Defense Strategy

Let us now see what defensive strategies the Messenger (PBUH) adopted.

The emigrants who came to Madinah with the Messenger (PBUH) were not people who merely sought a place of peace and security for themselves. Nor had they left their homeland to fulfill economic ambitions. Rather, they had come for a higher and nobler objective. Forgetting that objective, they did not devote themselves to securing their own worldly interests and fulfilling economic ambitions. The Messenger (PBUH) resettled them in an orderly manner and established social and economic brotherhood between them and the Ansar. He then brought them under organizational discipline through the mosque-based cultural center. He immediately began training them mentally, practically, and morally through worship, sermons, Qur’an education, and other means, and expanded and developed this work with great speed and efficiency. At the same time, he united them through the state administration. Thus, those helpless emigrants joined with the Ansar and became an invincible force, which continued to grow stronger. In other words, human strength was given priority and prepared.

Incidentally, it is very important to mention a significant fact here. Like Makkah, Madinah too was extremely suitable for defense. Moreover, Madinah’s geographical position was so excellent that it lay directly opposite important locations in Syria and Iraq. It was situated beside Arabia’s finest commercial road and only seventy to seventy-five miles from the sea. The city was a strong natural fortress. A little vigilance, the inhabitants’ organization, and suitable defensive tactics could make it even stronger. The city of Madinah extended across a plain approximately ten miles long and ten miles wide, with small settlements of various tribes scattered at intervals. This area was called the “belly of Madinah” and the “haram,” or restricted area. In the midst of this uneven plain stood a mountain called Sala and several other small mountains. The two mountains of ‘Ir and Sur surrounded it. The tribal settlements contained strong natural defensive structures called ajam and atam. At one time, there were as many as one hundred such structures.

The part of Madinah known as Madinat an-Nabi was situated in the center of Madinah. It contained the Prophet’s Mosque, the residence of the Prophet’s family, and the capital. Dense gardens lay to its south; to the southeast were the settlements of Quba and Awali, together with gardens and orchards. To the east, Jewish quarters extended from Quba to Uhud from east to west. There were also numerous settlements and gardens to the southwest. The Banu Sa‘idah tribe lived near a gate of Madinah’s ancient wall called Bab ash-Shami (in whose courtyard, surrounded by awnings, the appointment of the first caliph was completed). In front of it, on Mount Sala, lived the Banu Haram. To the northwest, numerous gardens extended along the edge of Wadi al-‘Aqiq as far as Bir Rumah; high mountains lay to the south, and difficult routes passed through many highlands and plains. There were rocky plains to the east and south of Madinah. Those plains were suitable neither for establishing military camps nor for becoming battlefields. Only the northern approach to the city was militarily open. Therefore, the Quraysh chose that direction for the battles of Badr and Uhud. Yet, attacking from the north was militarily difficult for the Makkans and advantageous for Madinah.

However, to take advantage of Madinah’s location and environmental suitability, it was essential to bring all its manpower under discipline. For this purpose, the Messenger’s (PBUH) second greatest achievement was that, through a treaty, he brought the Jews, Aws, Khazraj, and other tribes under one discipline despite their religious, cultural, and economic differences. Transforming mutually opposed people in a completely unfamiliar environment into citizens of the same political unit, namely a state, within a few months was a brilliant sign of his political wisdom and skill. An even greater indication of his ability was that the written constitution of this political unit, or state, clearly entrusted the Messenger (PBUH) with all authority over adjudication, legislation, the conduct of war, and criticism, while reflecting the fundamental concept of Allah’s sovereignty. All participants in this political document were made to pledge that the polytheists and Jews who joined the Arab tribes would be followers of the Muslims and would assist them in wartime. They would neither protect the lives and property of the Quraysh of Makkah nor obstruct the Muslims when they attacked the Quraysh. It was also agreed that war and peace would be collective matters. Any war would be a war for all, and participation in military operations would be essential and obligatory for everyone. However, each ally would bear the expenses of its own share of the war. It was unambiguously agreed with the Jews that they would make peace and treaties with those with whom the Muslims made peace and treaties. They would participate equally in the defense of Madinah. If anyone attacked the Muslims, the Jews would assist the Muslims; conversely, if anyone attacked the Jews, the Muslims would assist them. (Ahde Nabawi Mein Nizame Hukmrani: Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi)

The relevant clauses of Madinah’s constitutional document indicate that the Messenger (PBUH) clearly sensed the danger of military aggression from the Quraysh and was taking politically appropriate preventive measures in advance to confront it.

Declaring Madinah a haram, that is, a safe city or City of Peace, was a highly important step. This decision was also recorded in that constitutional document. Religiously, it meant that the entire environment was sacred and that its inhabitants had an essential duty to respect it. Politically, it meant that just as the Quraysh were protected in a safe city, the Messenger (PBUH) had likewise provided the citizens of the state of Madinah with a secure place of residence. In this respect, the condition of Makkah and Madinah was equal. It was an implicit challenge to the people of Makkah: if you violate the sanctity of Madinah and wrong its inhabitants, you too will not remain unharmed within the enclosure of Makkah’s security and sanctity.

Madinah’s security perimeter also marked the boundaries of the Islamic government’s headquarters, or capital. The Messenger (PBUH) paid special attention to permanently defining this boundary. He ordered Ka‘b ibn Malik to build tall towers around Madinah’s borders. Following this order, he built symbolic pillars at various places: on the hill of Dhat al-Jaysh (reportedly situated with Mount Hufayrah in the middle of Bayda, on the Makkah–Madinah road), on Hushayrib (connected to Dhat al-Jaysh), on Mount Makhiz (on the road to Syria), at Hufayyah (in the forest north of Madinah), at a place called Dhu al-‘Ushayr (located at the edge of Hufayyah), and on Mount Taym (east of Madinah). Their remains still exist. This marked enclosure was approximately one manzil long and one manzil wide. (Ahde Nabawi ke Maidanha-e Jang—Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi, pp. 11–12)

After establishing internal order in Madinah, the Messenger (PBUH) immediately turned his attention to the neighboring tribes. He traveled several times in the southwest of Madinah and the regions along the Red Sea coast. His first journey was to a place called Dhu‘an, located seven miles from Abwa on the road to Makkah. There he formed an alliance with Banu Hamzah. Similarly, he quickly concluded treaties with the tribes living around Yanbu. In this important political region, he obtained the cooperation of the Juhaynah tribe in the first year after the Hijrah, Banu Damrah, Banu Zur‘ah, and Banu Rab‘ah at the beginning of the second year, and Banu Mudlij toward the end of the second year. With some tribes, treaties of mutual defense were concluded: if they were attacked, the Muslims would help them, and if the Muslims were attacked, they would help the Muslims. Some treaties imposed only the obligation that friendship with the Messenger’s (PBUH) enemies was not permitted. In others, only recognition of neutrality was secured: if an enemy fought the Islamic state, the treaty-bound tribe would remain neutral. This means that the Messenger’s (PBUH) political wisdom possessed considerable flexibility. (Ahde Nabawi ke Maidanha-e Jang)

This atmosphere of friendship opened the way for the spread of Islam among all these tribes, and it requires no further explanation that it led to the development of many supporters and workers for the Islamic movement among them.

Later, this political strategy of the Messenger (PBUH) became an independent principle, and he traveled to every area for this purpose. Whether he went on a military expedition or for patrol, whenever he left Madinah, expanding relations of friendship was always among his objectives. I will not give the details here; an opportunity for that will come later. In brief, however, establishing these friendly relations was a highly effective means of weakening the enemy, advancing the Islamic movement, strengthening the movement’s own defense policy, and expanding the state’s borders.

Alongside all these strategies, the Messenger (PBUH), the leader of the Islamic Revolution, and his Companions properly understood the reality that the tiny island they had found—barely able to keep its head above water amid a storm-tossed sea—was constantly under threat. Thus, they either had to reverse the storm’s course and calm the sea, or this island too would disappear forever into the sea like a bubble. They transformed themselves into a military force with tremendous speed. They understood the ever-new demands of the Islamic movement in changing circumstances so precisely that they immediately developed within themselves the capacity to advance to new stages. When the call to jihad came in Madinah, they did not hesitate for even a second to shift from their former condition into a new role. None of them ever thought: “We are callers and preachers, so what connection do we have with warfare? That is the business of worldly politicians and conquerors. Is such a thing fitting for reformers like us? Politics and governance, or warfare, cannot be the work of religious preachers!”

The work of preachers, they might have thought, is merely to endure being beaten and set the highest example of patience. If the Islamic group in Madinah had thought this way, the Islamic movement would have ended there. No external power would have been needed to destroy it.

These few Companions were skilled in preaching their religion and were also the most devoted soldiers in defending the Islamic state established on its foundation. They took immediate steps to transform themselves into well-organized soldiers. Madinah, which had been a safe city, a school, and a center for cultivating Islamic civilization, also became a strong military base.

The responsibility of a commander came upon the Messenger (PBUH) from Allah. He fulfilled this responsibility so excellently that countless substantial books could be written simply by discussing this subject.

The Patrol System and Its Objectives

Just four to six months after the Hijrah, the great head of the state of Madinah began sending military units to patrol the surrounding areas. The following military units were sent before the Battle of Badr:

1. A group of 30 soldiers under the command of Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib was sent toward a place called Saiful Bahr. Its purpose was to observe the enemy’s movements. Abu Jahl had set out from Madinah with three hundred men, but upon seeing the Muslims on guard, he turned back. (This was Ramadan, Year 1 after the Hijrah.)

2. A military unit of 60 men under the command of Abu ‘Ubaydah ibn al-Harith was sent to learn about the military situation of the people of Makkah. Two hundred enemy men, led by ‘Ikrimah or Abu Sufyan, were encountered at a place called Thaniyyat al-Murrah. This unit returned safely after patrolling. (This was Shawwal, Year 1 after the Hijrah.)

3. A military unit of 80 men under the command of Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas was sent as far as Juhfah for patrol duty. They returned without launching any attack. (Dhul-Qa‘dah, Year 1 after the Hijrah.)

4. The Messenger (PBUH) himself traveled to the Abwa region with 70 men. The Quraysh’s trade route passed through Abwa. The Messenger (PBUH) concluded a treaty with ‘Amr ibn Fahshi al-Damri and returned without any clash. (Safar, Year 2 after the Hijrah.)

5. The Messenger (PBUH) himself went toward Buwat (the area of Mount Rajwi near Yanbu) with 200 soldiers. On the way, he encountered a Qurayshi caravan of one hundred men led by Umayyah ibn Khalaf. However, no challenge was issued. (This was Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 2 after the Hijrah.)

6. When Kirz ibn Jabir al-Fihri raided and drove away Madinah’s livestock, the Messenger (PBUH) pursued him with 70 soldiers. Kirz escaped with his life. This pursuit nevertheless proved that Madinah was an ever-alert and ever-vigilant power. (Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 2 after the Hijrah.)

7. The Messenger (PBUH) went with an army of 150 men to Dhu al-‘Ushayrah (near Yanbu, between Makkah and Madinah), where he concluded treaties with Banu Mudlij and Banu Damrah. (Jumada al-Thaniyah, Year 2 after the Hijrah.)

8. A military unit of 125 men under the command of ‘Abdullah ibn Jahsh was sent to patrol toward Nakhlah. This force became involved in a clash with a Qurayshi force. (Rajab, Year 2 after the Hijrah.)

All these military expeditions were not sent for the purpose of fighting. Rather, when a clash occurred at Nakhlah under the influence of the immediate circumstances, contrary to Madinah’s established policy, the Messenger (PBUH) expressed his displeasure, released the prisoners, and paid blood money for the slain person. These expeditions had several other, greater objectives. For example:

Guarding the borders of the State of Madinah, monitoring the movements of the enemy, and informing Quraysh and the other tribes that a proper government had now been established in Madinah and that Madinah was its capital. The volunteers of the Muslim revolutionary party were to become familiar with the surrounding areas, settlements and conditions within them, roads and water sources; to command troops, discharge duties while serving as commanders, distribute responsibilities among themselves, divide time, devise strategies, and receive training in making swift decisions. For without this, no system of defence can function. Another objective was to inform Quraysh that their economy had now come under Madinah’s control. Whenever the Muslims wished, they could block their trade routes and halt the movement of their caravans. It may be noted that the Messenger (peace be upon him) had travelled to Busra and Madinah in his childhood and again to Syria in his youth. During that period he had understood the geographical and political importance of Madinah and become familiar with the trade routes of Quraysh. On the basis of this previously acquired experience, he encountered no difficulty in devising a policy of intimidation and pressure. Moreover, as he was one of Quraysh, and especially as he was a merchant, he knew the principal means by which Quraysh earned their income. Even leaving aside the trade of Ta’if, Yemen and Najran, Quraysh earned two hundred and fifty thousand ashrafis annually from trade with Syria and Iraq alone. (Tafhim al-Qur’an)

The training plan under which these military detachments were sent aimed to train the soldiers in conducting warfare, so that they could operate actively like a machine under a central command; to train them to form ranks; to teach them the use of flags and military emblems; and to develop their ability to observe the prayer, fasting and other ordinances of the Shariah even in difficult circumstances. Alongside this, he introduced a powerful system for gathering information. As a result, he could keep track of conditions in Makkah, among the surrounding tribes and in the frontier areas. He also established arrangements for the protection and guarding of the capital and the central offices of government.

Such was the two-sided situation that led Quraysh to decide to wage the Battle of Badr.

Two Actual Reasons

There can be no doubt that the circumstances were fully prepared for a war. The raid by Kirdh ibn Jabir al-Fihri was unquestionably a challenge to Madinah to wage war. For no living, vigilant government can interpret such criminal intrusion by outsiders into its own territory in any way other than as an attack. Then the incident at Nakhlah took place. Although that incident was like a frontier clash, of the kind that occurs between soldiers of two countries without the permission of their governments or commanders, the people of Makkah gained a golden opportunity to spread hostile propaganda. They created a great commotion, saying, “There you see! The champions of the new religion have even trampled upon the sanctity of the sacred months!” Meanwhile, the Messenger (peace be upon him) released the captives detained in that incident, paid blood money for the slain man, and, as head of the government of the Islamic state, absolved himself of responsibility for the incident. At the same time, the Qur’an refuted the people of Makkah’s propaganda by declaring that fighting during the sacred months was indeed wrong, but that their preventing people from accepting Allah’s religion, expelling them from the Sacred Mosque, and obstructing the reform of humanity were worse than war and killing. If the Muslims took up arms to eradicate these misdeeds, that would be a beneficial act on their part. One positive aspect of the Nakhlah incident was that Quraysh had regained awareness. They understood that those whom they had driven out destitute, and whom they had considered easy prey, were capable of answering a stone with a brick. Nevertheless, Makkah’s propagandists gathered fuel from the Nakhlah incident to kindle the fire of anger.

Three Needs of Quraysh

Quraysh faced three major problems in attacking Madinah. First, securing the cooperation of Banu Kinanah. Second, supplying fighting men for the war. Third, meeting the expenses of the war. I have already mentioned how the first problem was solved. The second was solved when Quraysh concluded an agreement with the Ahabish. Near Makkah there is a mountain called Hubshi. The tribes living near that mountain—Banu Nadhir, Banu Malik, Mutayirin and others—formed an alliance with one another. They were called the Ahabish. Compared with the inhabitants of Makkah, the Ahabish possessed much greater martial ability. They served not only on the basis of alliance but also as mercenary soldiers. Because of the haste, however, it was not possible to take them to the Battle of Badr. After seeing the outcome of Badr, the leaders of Quraysh had to regret this mistake. On the other hand, Quraysh had reached an understanding with the Jewish tribe of Banu Mustaliq (comprising twelve branches). (Rahmatul-lil-‘Alamin)

The third problem was solved as follows: the people of Makkah supplied a large amount of capital to the Quraysh trading caravan that was travelling to Syria for commerce. Even housewives brought their jewellery and other savings. Abu Sufyan testified that there was no man or woman in Makkah who did not participate in this undertaking. (Sirat-un-Nabi, Shibli, vol. 1, p. 292) The objective was to invest the greatest possible capital, earn the maximum profit, and use those earnings to wage war and destroy the Islamic state in Madinah.

The Trade Caravan Was the Advance Force of the Army

It goes without saying that, alongside the other preparations for war—news of which the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) received immediately—the adoption of this strategy meant that this Quraysh trade caravan was itself the advance force of a military expedition. In other words, the caravan had set out to procure a golden sword with which to cut the throat of the Islamic movement. When circumstances are such, no civilised government in the world today would allow an adversary to move safely by land, sea or air routes bordering its frontier. Aircraft are shot down; ships are detained or destroyed with torpedoes; property is confiscated; postal traffic is obstructed; and commercial transactions are suspended. Why, then, is this unprecedented demand made only of the Islamic state of Madinah—that it should give its adversary unrestricted permission to drive a knife into its heart? Why is its defensive action called plunder merely because it refuses to grant that permission? When everyone knows that, because there was no treaty-based alliance, the trade route passed through areas under Madinah’s jurisdiction, for what reason would it have been proper for the Islamic government to allow the enemy to pass through its own territory?

There is no need to offer any defence for the interest shown in attacking this caravan from Madinah. There is no justification for regarding such an attack at any level as a political or defensive sin. If the Muslims had any intention of attacking the caravan, it was entirely legitimate. If Abu Sufyan had developed such apprehensions, they were completely natural. In an atmosphere filled with such apprehension, a rumour spread in advance, owing to some action by Madinah, that preparations were under way to attack the caravan. Abu Sufyan had also assessed the atmosphere in Madinah while travelling to Syria, and on the return journey he proceeded with extreme caution. After observing the situation, when he sensed that mysterious activity was taking place and danger was imminent, he sent a messenger to Makkah to request military assistance and changed the caravan’s route. When the messenger reached Makkah, he followed the Arabs’ special dramatic procedure: he cut the camel’s ears, slit its nose, overturned the saddle on its back, tore his shirt, and, according to tradition, cried out naked: “O people of Makkah! Come out to save your caravan from Muhammad’s grasp; do not delay until the caravan is destroyed before you arrive.” This familiar theatrical appeal created tremendous excitement throughout Makkah. Within a short time a huge army was assembled. All the senior leaders except Abu Lahab were personally present in this army, and all were armed. The army leaders’ aim was not merely to rescue the caravan and bring it back; from their behaviour it appeared that they wanted, at the first opportunity, to annihilate the Muslim power and rid themselves of this nuisance forever.

If the Muslim power had shown the slightest weakness at that time, sat quietly and taken no military action, it would not only have allowed the caravan to reach Makkah safely; the Quraysh army would also have entered the area of Madinah, displayed its courage, and returned safely. The result would have been the complete disappearance of the influence and authority of this young Islamic state. The arrogance and pride of the hypocritical and Jewish forces in Madinah would have increased further; the Islamic state would have had no importance in the eyes of the surrounding tribes; and, quite apart from expanding alliances, it would have become difficult even to protect the lives, property and honour of its few citizens. A power engaged in conflict and confrontation must pass through many stages: despite its small population and limited resources and its difficult problems, it must accept the challenge of circumstances with great courage. Such opportunities rarely arise. When one does arise, failure to use it properly and perform the responsibility of the moment courageously can force such a miserable retreat that it cannot be remedied even after many years. Sometimes, falling behind the times causes the entire work to be ruined forever. When such a historic confrontation arrives, action and campaign plans are not made merely by looking at the number of soldiers and the quantity of weapons, ammunition and supplies. Rather, one must consider whether, by falling behind the times, the current of history will roll over one’s head. In such circumstances the quality of leadership is tested and the ability of the followers is determined. A similarly historic moment had come to Madinah. If the small Islamic state had possessed sufficient strength, it should not have allowed the caravan to proceed safely, nor should it have failed to teach the Quraysh army an appropriate lesson. But it was beyond its capacity to accomplish both tasks at once. Therefore, Allah’s decision was that one of the two must be defeated. Allah wanted, if war took place, for it to occur in such a way that it would demonstrate truth as truth and falsehood as falsehood, and uproot unbelief.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) was being informed through his intelligence network of the movements of both the caravan and the army. At last he convened a council at Wadi Dhafaran. He presented the council with the full picture of the situation and asked whether the Muslim army had the strength and courage to take a very great risk. [Among modern writers of the Sirah there has been intense disagreement over whether the Messenger (peace be upon him) convened a special meeting of the Muhajirun and Ansar in Madinah and set out to fight the Quraysh army, leaving the caravan aside, or whether, when he left Madinah, he intended to attack the caravan and, after reaching Wadi Dhafaran and learning that the caravan had taken another route, convened an emergency meeting there and decided to fight the Quraysh army. The reason for engaging in this debate is the disgraceful allegation by Orientalists that the government of Madinah—Allah forbid—was attempting to resolve its economic crisis through plunder. For this reason, an effort has been made, in complete opposition to the works of tafsir, Hadith and history, to prove that the Messenger (peace be upon him) did not set out with the army to attack the caravan, but instead decided while sitting in Madinah, after consultation, to fight the Quraysh army. The foremost advocate of this view was Mawlana Shibli Nu‘mani. He believed that the Qur’an supported his opinion. Yet neither the Qur’an, reliable reports nor the course of events supports his view, and the allegation that gave rise to this debate is also incorrect. We shall discuss this in detail at the appropriate place, God willing. In fact, the second view is correct.] He himself possessed the courage and resolve to commit whatever strength was available to a struggle of life and death. Before the council he presented both possibilities: on one side was the Quraysh army and on the other the trade caravan. He proposed attacking either one of them. A large number of Companions supported the proposal to attack the caravan. According to the Qur’an’s indication, some people in this group favoured taking the easier course, and financial interest was sufficiently important to them. The Messenger (peace be upon him) raised the question again. This meant that he did not favour attacking the caravan. Understanding this indication, Abu Bakr, Umar and Miqdad ibn Amr, among the Muhajirun, assured him of their unconditional support, saying, “Wherever you proceed by Allah’s command, we shall remain with you. We shall not sit here like the Children of Israel saying, ‘Go, you and your Lord, and fight; we are sitting here.’” The Messenger (peace be upon him) repeated his question. This meant that he wished to know the view of the Ansar. At the Pledge of Aqabah, they had undertaken only that they would repel an attack on Madinah. They had set out with the Messenger (peace be upon him) solely to attack the caravan. But the subsequent circumstances made a full-scale war unavoidable. He therefore needed to know their attitude. Understanding his purpose, Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh spoke on behalf of the Ansar with complete religious fervour: “Act according to your own will. We are ready to plunge into the sea with you.”

Finally, on 12 Ramadan of the second year after the Hijrah, the ruler of the State of Madinah (peace be upon him) personally left the city with more than three hundred fighting men—86 Muhajirun, 170 Khazrajis and 61 Awsis, a total of 317, although the commonly reported number is 313. The Messenger (peace be upon him) set out with such prudence that his intention to attack from either direction was apparent. One eye was on the caravan, so that Abu Sufyan would understand that the road was dangerous; the other was on the Quraysh army. But it was necessary to know which way the caravan had gone, which way the army had gone, and how far apart they were. It was also unknown whether the two would unite, whether the caravan had stopped behind or gone towards the seacoast. At last, when he reached a place called Safra, he sent Bisbis ibn Amr al-Juhani and Adi ibn al-Raghba towards Badr to seek news of the caravan, while he himself proceeded to Wadi Dhafaran. It was learned that the caravan had left the road to Badr, taken the long coastal route, and gone far ahead. Consequently, the Messenger (peace be upon him) set out towards Badr.

Meanwhile, after Abu Sufyan reached the coastal area and found himself safe, he sent a message to the Quraysh army: “I and my caravan are now out of danger, so return.” But Abu Jahl was absorbed in a different dream. He became determined to go to Badr and attack the Muslims. The chiefs of the Muhrah and Adi tribes had been brought along to protect the caravan from a possible Muslim attack. Therefore, they began pressing to return. When they were not listened to, they went back with their own people. Hakim ibn Hizam and Utbah tried to turn Abu Jahl away from the war. But Abu Jahl became furious when he heard their request. He severely abused those who advocated peace and at the same time stirred up the emotions of Amir, the brother of Khadrami, who had been killed in the Nakhlah incident. Amir created a tremendous uproar. Finally, the Quraysh army, equipped in full battle array, arrived at the field of Badr.

Following the Companions’ advice, the Messenger (peace be upon him) occupied a relatively advantageous position and, after preparing an appropriate battle plan, decided how the army would be deployed. He gathered secret information about the enemy army’s numbers and important individuals. When he learned the names and identities of every fighter in the Quraysh army, he told his companions, “Makkah has brought its very heart and kidneys before you.” The enemy army consisted of one thousand fighters, including six hundred armoured men and one hundred cavalrymen. They had numerous camels, a great quantity of weapons and provisions. For the warriors’ entertainment there were many jars of wine and groups of singing girls. To send into the field against them a little more than three hundred men, lacking in material resources, was an inconceivable act of daring. A military force consists of many elements besides soldiers and weapons. The Messenger (peace be upon him) knew very well that the soldiers he was placing in the field at a ratio of one against three possessed the ardour of the oppressed, unwavering confidence in the truth and purity of their respective ideology, and organizational and moral superiority. They were imbued with the awareness that the question was not merely victory or defeat in one battle, but whether the entire movement would survive or be destroyed. Their past, present and future had all converged on the field of Badr. Above all, they possessed unbroken faith in Allah’s help. In their view, this help from Allah was the true decisive force. Then Allah’s help perhaps became utterly imminent when the Messenger (peace be upon him), with tearful eyes, an anguished voice and a sorrowful expression, supplicated:

“O Allah, these are the Quraysh, who have come rushing forward intoxicated with pride in their nobility, solely to turn Your servants away from obedience to You and to prove Your Messenger a liar. O Allah, send now the help You promised me. O Allah, destroy them tomorrow.” Then he also said, “O Allah, if these few lives are destroyed today, You will no longer be worshipped until the Day of Resurrection.” When a person of the Messenger’s stature brought the entire capital of his movement to the battlefield and knocked at Allah’s Throne with such a heart-rending supplication, how could the hosts of angels fail to descend? Thus, at this stage, the glad tidings of victory truly arrived.

The Results of the Battle of Badr

Perhaps the whole history of the age had become concentrated on the small field of Badr. The two kinds of forces that set this history in motion, fully animated by their respective consciousness and inspiration, had taken up positions facing one another. One side was inflamed with rage to defend ancestral religion, ancient customs, leadership and economic interests. On the other side was a flood of light stretching to the horizons, seeking to spread throughout every sphere of human life the new dawn radiating from the sky of Madinah, and regarding the rending of the breast of the darkness of ignorance as a sacred duty. In this battle, fathers and sons, uncles and nephews, brothers, and fathers-in-law and sons-in-law forgot their blood relationships and stood facing one another to defend their own ideals of life. In this matter the Ansar gave the Messenger (peace be upon him) their wholehearted and complete support, even knowing that they would become targets of the arrows and swords of all Arabia. It was an extremely difficult test. The Messenger’s beloved Companions passed this test and proved that they were the true and selfless standard-bearers of the Islamic movement. In terms of its unimaginable outcome, this battle has no equal in human history. It may be said that, in history, it was another example of an army of elephants being destroyed by a flock of birds. The battle took place on 17 Ramadan. Twenty-two heroic warriors of the Islamic army gave their lives for their ideal and demonstrated that they were devoted witnesses to the supreme truth. On the other hand, they killed seventy enemy fighters and, without allowing any of their own men to be captured, took another seventy as prisoners of war. In addition, they seized a large amount of war booty. Utbah, Shaybah, Abu Jahl, Abul-Bukhtari, Zam‘ah ibn al-Aswad, As ibn Hisham, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, Munabbih ibn al-Hajjaj and many other renowned Quraysh chiefs became prey to the swords of the Muslim mujahids. The ranks of the enemy soldiers fighting under their leadership were shattered one after another. In reality, Quraysh’s back was broken and its pride in its power was crushed in this very first battle. As a result of this battle, the Islamic movement suddenly gained the ability to raise its head and look towards a new world in the future. For this reason, the Qur’an called the day of the Battle of Badr Yawm al-Furqan—the criterion separating and sorting truth from falsehood. In reality, this battle settled whether the pagan system beloved by Quraysh would survive and deserved to survive, or whether the Islam presented by Muhammad (peace be upon him) was entitled to endure. That is why the Qur’an said in its assessment that, among those two ideals, only the one possessing conclusive proof of the legitimacy of its continued existence had the right to survive. The people, too, would accept whichever of the two ideals they wished to adopt on the basis of proof. Thereafter, they could either be cast into the deep pit of destruction or rise to Islam’s lofty path.

The captives were released in exchange for a ransom of four thousand dirhams per person. (A still higher ransom was taken from some of the chiefs.)

Thus Quraysh had to pay a financial penalty of more than two hundred and fifty thousand dirhams. This economic blow further weakened their power. Politically, the unexpected outcome of Badr—from Quraysh’s point of view—had the effect that, in the eyes of the Arab tribes, the importance and prestige of the Islamic movement and the Islamic state of Madinah increased greatly. This power became worthy of being regarded as the centre of hope for the future. (According to one report) some Jewish tribes of Madinah joined the constitutional pact of Madinah only after the Battle of Badr, not before it. A large number of the inhabitants of Madinah embraced Islam after this battle. It was only after Badr that Islam, in the true sense, became a universally acknowledged and popular Islamic state. The Almighty Allah says: “Remember the time when you were few in number. You were regarded as weak in the land, and you feared that people might annihilate you. Then He provided you with a place of refuge, strengthened you with His help, and provided you with good sustenance, so that you might give thanks.” (Surah al-Anfal, 8:26)

This verse clarifies the two principal phases of the Islamic movement in every age. One is the phase of small numbers, weakness and fear. The other is the phase of strength, power, victory, success and economic prosperity. Just as the first phase in Islam is natural and inevitable, so is the second natural and assured. This is the logical outcome of such a beginning. But the conception of Islam that leaves individuals and nations permanently in the first-mentioned condition, satisfies and contents them with it, and opens no path for them to advance towards the bright era of the future, is not the Islam taught by the Messenger (peace be upon him). Rather, such a conception arises from deviation and distortion of it.

At this stage the unbelievers were challenged with admonition: “If you were seeking a clear decision, then here it is—the decision has come before you. Now desist; that is better for you. But if you return to your folly, We too shall return, and We shall teach you an appropriate lesson.” …” (Surah al-Anfal, 8:19) Then, addressing the Muslim community, it was said that there could be no question of loosening the enemy’s belt. Rather, do not stop until you have rendered powerless and incapacitated those who initiated war against you: “Fight them until there is no more persecution and disorder, and everyone submits to Allah alone.” (Al-Anfal, 8:39) In other words, the work of establishing the religion could not reach completion until the fire of war kindled by Quraysh had been completely extinguished.

The Difference Between the Two Forces

The reason Allah Most High calls the Battle of Badr “Yawm al-Furqan,” that is, “the day of distinguishing and separating truth from falsehood,” the reason it is said, “Here, the decision has come,” and the reason it is stated in Surah Aal-e-Imran that there is a lesson for you in the clash between the two armies, and that there is a lesson in it for people of insight, is that the great ideological and moral difference between these two armies became clear through their conflict. One army, forgetting worldly interests and aims and tribal and genealogical distinctions, entered into a desperate struggle solely to promote the true welfare of humankind in the path of Allah, while the other advanced under the sway of its own leadership, domination, hereditary aristocracy, political interests and blind emotion. The former army entered the battlefield humbly before Allah, absorbed in prayer, bowing and prostration, with the pleasure of Allah as its aim. One army advanced while enjoying lavish feasts, drinking parties, musical gatherings and dancers’ performances, whereas the other came to the battlefield despite its small numbers and inadequate weapons, stronger and more firmly established in faith, unity, discipline and character. One army was large in number and powerful in equipment, but utterly weak and ineffective in moral strength. Then Allah made the verdict of victory and defeat between them so clear that even the blind could see which side deserved to be annihilated and which deserved to survive, flourishing and adorned with success. This difference becomes even clearer when several incidents are considered.

At this time, two young Muslim men named Abu Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman and Abu Hayyal were traveling from Makkah to Madinah. On the way, the unbelievers stopped them and said, “We will not let you go to help Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him.” They were released after pledging not to take part in the battle. They came to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and told him the whole story. Because of their small numbers, the Muslims were in such a precarious situation at that time that even the help of an ant would have been considered valuable. Nevertheless, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, decided that they must honor the pledge they had made. “Allah Most High Himself will help us.” How many such glorious examples can be found in history?

The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, dug a pit and buried in it the bodies of the Quraysh leaders killed in the Battle of Badr. He did not allow any body to be dishonored.

Regarding ghanimah, that is, war booty, the prevailing custom was that whatever fell into a person’s hands became his. Because of this custom, as soon as signs of victory appeared, disorder, looting and brawling would break out. But the Qur’an introduced a new rule concerning booty. The essence of this rule was that all booty belonged to Allah and His Messenger. Therefore, distributing it was the duty of the Islamic government. Under this new rule, all the booty was piled before the commander. Then one-fifth of it was set aside to meet the collective needs of the Islamic state, and the remainder was distributed among the soldiers.

Under the Jahili system, prisoners of war were at the mercy of the victorious side. They were generally subjected to oppression, torture and mistreatment and turned into male and female slaves. Even in today’s civilized age, prisoners of war are treated brutally. But the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, invested prisoners of war with a new dignity. He ordered that they be kept comfortably. Some Companions, in following this order, would eat dates themselves and feed the prisoners their fill of fine food. Abu Umayr, a prisoner of war in the Battle of Badr and the brother of Mus‘ab ibn Umayr, reported that the Ansari with whom he was kept would eat dates themselves and give him good food. He felt deeply embarrassed by this treatment. Clothing was given to prisoners who had insufficient clothes. Because Hazrat Abbas was relatively tall, no one’s shirt fit him. Therefore, the hypocrite leader Abdullah ibn Ubay sent him his own shirt. In return for this kindness, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, gave his own shirt to shroud Abdullah. Suhayl ibn Amr was also among the prisoners. He used to deliver forceful speeches against the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. Hazrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, advised that the man’s front teeth be broken so that he would no longer be able to speak forcefully. Anyone else might not have hesitated to treat a helpless prisoner in his custody as badly as possible. But the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “If I mutilate any part of someone’s body, then, despite being a prophet, Allah will punish me by mutilating that same part of my body.”

A victorious power generally becomes intoxicated with pride and extremely indecent and rude. But no trace of such disgraceful conduct can be found among the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and his companions. Even when the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, received news that Abu Jahl had been killed and his head was brought before him, he praised Allah.

Even when the victorious force marched toward Madinah, no music was arranged and no celebration was held upon reaching Madinah. Everyone’s heart was simply filled with gratitude. Everyone expressed gratitude on the basis of the feeling that this victory was Allah’s reward.

So that the Muslim soldiers would strive to remove their own mental and moral weaknesses rather than become intoxicated with power, their commander, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, drew their attention in the light of Qur’anic verses. He conducted a critical review of their military activities and pointed out their undesirable aspects. In this way, he inspired them to undertake more constructive and reformative work.

Although I know that it is not possible to discuss all the military activities in detail here, I have devoted somewhat greater attention to the first battle. The purpose is to enable the reader to acquire the perspective without which the subsequent battles cannot be understood. (Sources: Tafhim al-Qur’an—Sayyid Abul A‘la Maududi, introduction and notes to Surah Al-Anfal; Sirat-un-Nabi by Shibli Nomani; Asahhus Siyar; Ahde Nabawi ke Maidan-e-Jang; Hadith-e-Difa.)

After the Battle of Badr

Although in the Battle of Badr a small force of the Islamic state, under the leadership of the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, defeated the Quraysh and taught them a fitting lesson, at the same time a continuous process of future conflict and confrontation became inevitable. Once Makkah’s sword had been drawn from its sheath, only one means of establishing peace remained: that sword had to be broken into pieces and the hand that raised it had to be rendered powerless. A wounded enemy becomes vengeful like a snake with its tail cut off. It had become as clear as daylight that the Quraysh leadership had suddenly fallen almost to nothing in the presence of active, intelligent and prudent chiefs; its economic future had come under threat, and the influence and prestige it had acquired over many years had begun, for the first time, to be overthrown. Yet it is also a self-evident principle of history that whoever holds religious, political or economic power and dominance fights with all his might until the last moment to preserve it. In particular, individuals or classes that have acquired hereditary dominance over society do not, as long as they have life in their bodies, allow any force to establish itself in society if its growth would inevitably bring their leadership to an end. They fight an all-out battle to survive until the final moment of life. Thus the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, understood very well how great a responsibility the victory at Badr had brought for the defense of the Islamic state. He knew that the Quraysh would use its entire religious and political influence and prestige, its old alliances and all its economic power to keep its military banner raised. Having come outside Makkah for the first time under that banner, it could not leave it lying in the dust and return to Makkah to sit peacefully. In these circumstances, the caller to constructive and reformative work and bearer of the banner of truth and justice had no choice but to keep his small group constantly alert and prepared for ever-new battles alongside his constructive work. That is why, after the Battle of Badr, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, had to conduct continuous military operations. Only seven days after returning from Badr, he had to go on a military expedition to a place called Ma’ul-Kabaar. News had come from there that some men of the tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Ghatafan had gathered a force for battle. But the opposing side did not appear. After maintaining a siege for three days, he returned. Later, news again arrived that those men had gathered. Ghalib ibn Abdullah went with a military detachment to suppress them. There was a brief clash, and the anarchists fled. While the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, was outside Madinah for the Battle of Badr, Banu Qaynuqa violated the treaty and caused a great disturbance. That did not mean the incident could be ignored. Ignoring it would have meant exposing Madinah to destruction in the future. Therefore, in Shawwal of the second year after the Hijrah, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, conducted a kind of police operation against them with military force, and arbitration was arranged according to their wishes. In accordance with that arbitration, this group was sent outside Madinah.

Two months after the Battle of Badr, in Dhu al-Hijjah, Abu Sufyan came to the Madinah region with two hundred men. He secretly met Salim ibn Mushkam and wanted to conspire to provoke a war. But, finding no way to succeed, he destroyed some vegetation at a place called Arid and killed an Ansari man before fleeing. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, pursued him as far as Qarqarat al-Kudr. But the raiding party managed to escape. While fleeing, they threw down some sacks of roasted barley flour to lighten their load, and these fell into the hands of the Muslim force. For this reason, the expedition became known as the Ghazwah of Sawiq. The remaining days of Dhu al-Hijjah passed in Madinah. But in Muharram of the third year after the Hijrah, it became known that Banu Tha‘labah and Banu Muharib were gathering to attack. At the end of the month, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, went to Najd and remained in that area for almost the entire month of Safar. The enemy did not come out to confront them, and they returned without any clash. The purpose of remaining there so long was to expand alliances in that area, so that the Quraysh would not have access to the trade route from that direction. This expedition is also called the Ghazwah of Dhu Amar and the Ghazwah of Anmar.

In Rabi‘ al-Thani, the threat of an attack by the Quraysh arose. Therefore, leaving Ibn Umm Maktum, may Allah be pleased with him, as his deputy in Madinah, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, went as far as Buhran to repel a possible attack and established a military camp to protect the frontier as far as Jumada al-Ula. He also returned from there without any clash. In the third year after the Hijrah, another Quraysh trade caravan set out. Preventive military activity was conducted along its probable route. Zayd ibn Harithah reached the location with one hundred soldiers in Jumada al-Thaniyah. The caravan’s guide, Qurat ibn Hayyan, was captured and joined the Muslim group. Silver worth one hundred thousand dirhams was seized from the caravan.

Thus the situation gradually moved toward the Battle of Uhud.

The Second Great Battle: Uhud

Whenever two positive and negative ideological forces clash in human history, with one seeking to lead humankind toward welfare and progress and the other seeking to preserve the system of laws followed by its forefathers, great enthusiasm and fervor are observed on both sides in such a conflict. The same enthusiasm and fervor were seen in the clash between Islam and Jahiliyyah in the Battle of Uhud. Of all the irreparable losses the Quraysh suffered at Badr, their economic loss was among the most serious. More than two hundred and fifty thousand dirhams had to be paid merely as ransom for the prisoners. In addition, the cost of taking the caravans along the longer route had increased, while profits had fallen below their previous level. Moreover, trade remained permanently threatened for the future. The Muslims had seized silver worth one hundred thousand dirhams from a Quraysh trade caravan. All international trade and transport of goods between India and Europe passed through Yemen and Makkah, and through the route controlled by the Quraysh of Makkah. The Quraysh of Makkah imposed guard taxes through their treaty-based system of conduct and earned enormous sums of money. Even excluding the commercial income of Ta’if and other areas, the Quraysh earned two hundred and fifty thousand ashrafis annually solely from the Syrian route. Now clouds of terrible economic paralysis began gathering over Makkah. In such circumstances, the desire for revenge for Badr gradually ripened within them.

Preparations for a new war began very quickly. The profits from the Syrian caravan were collected in full and deposited in the military treasury. Renowned poets such as Amr Jamhi and Musafi used their poetic talents to the fullest to stoke the fires of war. The women of Makkah, distraught with grief over their lost brothers and sons, began making strange vows. Some vowed, for example, that in the next battle they would drink the blood of Muslim martyrs, and so on. In fact, prominent women from the leading families began traveling toward the battlefield with the Quraysh army. Among the notable ones were Hind (daughter of Utbah, wife of Abu Sufyan and mother of Amir Muawiyah), Umm Hakim (wife of Ikrimah, son of Abu Jahl), Fatimah (sister of Hazrat Khalid), Barzah (daughter of Mas‘ud al-Saqafi, leader of Ta’if), Rita (wife of Amr ibn al-As), and Hannas (mother of Hazrat Mus‘ab ibn Umayr), among others.

In addition to preparing their own volunteers, the Quraysh did not forget to bring the Ahabeesh with them this time. They also sent Amr ibn al-As, Abdullah ibn Ubayy al-Zabari, Hira ibn Abi Wahab, Musayf ibn Abd Manaf and Amr ibn Abdullah al-Jahmi to encourage and inspire various Arab tribes to fight against Madinah. Thus a vast force was assembled. An army of three thousand soldiers, including seven hundred armored men and two hundred cavalrymen, was itself terrifying. After a full year of preparation, this huge military force set out from Makkah. Reaching the pastures of Madinah, they freely fattened their animals on the grass and vegetation, then spent several days on the road and camped at Uhud on Wednesday. The Messenger’s uncle, Hazrat Abbas, was sincerely loyal and devoted to him and a supporter of the Islamic movement. He was staying in Makkah with special permission to keep watch on the enemy’s internal situation. He sent swift messengers to inform the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, of these Quraysh preparations. Moreover, through his own special intelligence network, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, learned on 5 Shawwal that the Quraysh army had reached the vicinity of Madinah. He also learned that their animals had consumed the pastures of Arid. In addition, he received accurate reports concerning the number of soldiers in the Quraysh army and its strength and capabilities. A night watch was immediately arranged in Madinah. In the morning, he sought the advice of the Companions. Most of the Muhajir and Ansar leaders proposed confronting the enemy from within the city. But the young men who had been unable to participate in the Battle of Badr, overcome with enthusiasm, expressed a stronger desire to fight outside the city. After hearing both viewpoints, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, went home and returned wearing armor. This made it clear that he had accepted the proposal to fight outside Madinah. Abdullah ibn Ubay also favored fighting from within Madinah. Everyone knew that he was in collusion with the Quraysh. Even before this second great Battle of Uhud, the Quraysh had established close relations with him. Since the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, knew this, he quietly accepted the second viewpoint without discussion. After the Friday congregational prayer, one thousand Muslim soldiers set out under his leadership. Abdullah ibn Ubay went with them. After his first proposal was rejected, he made a treacherous proposal that an independent battlefront be opened. When the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, rejected this proposal as well, the conspirator became dejected. At a place called Shawt, he led three hundred soldiers away and returned. His complaint was: “When our advice is not accepted and we have no share at all in governing the state, why should we fight?” This act of treachery also affected others. For example, the tribes of Banu Salimah and Banu Harithah, brokenhearted, were about to turn back. But wise Muslim leaders persuaded and calmed them and strengthened their morale.

Before going outside Madinah and entering the battlefield, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, inspected the condition of the soldiers. Several adolescents, inspired by jihad, also set out for the battle. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, ordered them to return. Yet they left no stone unturned in trying to participate in the battle. The young Rafi‘ ibn Khadij stood on the balls of his feet, trying to appear taller and prove that he was fit to fight. Another boy, Samurah, defeated Rafi‘ in wrestling and proved his own strength. Because the new generation had been raised in a pure and truthful environment, such strength of character and willingness to sacrifice their lives had emerged among them. Although jihad was not obligatory upon Muslim women, the extremely delicate situation facing the movement created a spontaneous surge of emotion among them as well. Finally, Hazrat Aishah, may Allah be pleased with her, Umm Salit (mother of Hazrat Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri), Umm Sulaym (mother of Hazrat Anas), Umm Ammarah and several other women set out with the Muslim army. They made significant contributions on the battlefield. The total number of Muslim soldiers was seven hundred, one hundred of whom wore armor. They were about to engage an army twelve times larger and fully equipped, empowered solely by the strength of faith.

With Mount Uhud behind him, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, devised an excellent battle plan. He entrusted the Islamic flag to Mus‘ab ibn Umayr. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam was appointed commander of one division, and Hazrat Hamzah commander of the unarmored soldiers. Fifty archers were stationed in the pass behind Mount Aynayn (Jabal al-Rumat). Abdullah ibn Jubayr was appointed their leader. The Quraysh, also drawing on their experience at Badr, adopted the disciplined method of warfare followed by the Muslims. The right-wing fighters (maymanah), left-wing fighters (maysarah), cavalry and archers were each organized under separate commanders.

At the beginning of the battle, fourteen Quraysh women, led by Hind, began beating drums and singing war songs. The power of these songs to create enthusiasm for battle can be gauged from the following poem:

(Arabic******)

(Arabic******)

“We are daughters of the stars, graceful in our walk; if you advance, we will embrace you, but if you retreat, we will part from you forever.” On one side, such poetic, amorous, erotic and titillating encouragement was taking place, while on the other there was nothing but the desire for Allah’s pleasure.

Suddenly, a false holy man named Abu Amir entered the battlefield. The Ansar knew about his hypocrisy. He resembled the Quraysh in their ignorant, idolatrous and utterly depraved culture. As soon as they saw him, the Muslims cried, “You sinner, we know you!” It is extremely rare in human history that Abu Amir’s son, Hazrat Hanzalah, asked the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, for permission to attack his own father. But the Messenger’s mercy and compassion did not grant permission. He did not consider it proper for a father to be killed by his son. Then Talhah began shouting challenges. Hazrat Ali immediately advanced and extinguished his life. Then his son Uthman came forward reciting poems about his own bravery, with a group of female singers singing behind him. Hazrat Ali’s sword finished him as well in an instant. Then a fierce battle began.

The entire Muslim army made up for its shortage of numbers and equipment through the fervor and enthusiasm of faith. The bearers of the message of a bright future continued fighting the darkness of Jahiliyyah in this manner. Among them, the desperate fighting of Hazrat Hamzah, Hazrat Ali and Hazrat Abu Dujanah was the most spectacular. In the end, the worshipers of Jahiliyyah were defeated and their female singers fled. The Muslim army realized that it had won. Therefore, they began seizing the enemy’s weapons, provisions and other possessions in order to leave them without resources for the future. Discipline on the battlefield collapsed and chaos spread. The soldiers became inattentive to the central command’s instructions. Most dangerously, the archers abandoned even the most vulnerable mountain pass. Yet they had been given strict instructions: whether victory or defeat occurred, they must not leave that position under any circumstances. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, had said: “Even if you see sinners tearing the flesh from our bodies piece by piece and eating it, you must not move from here.”

But the Muslims forgot these instructions and became busy gathering the fruits of victory. They had to suffer the extremely terrible consequences of this preoccupation. Their victory was transformed into defeat. The Quraysh army still had a shrewd and formidable warrior like Khalid ibn al-Walid. Seeing the disorderly state of the battlefield from a distance, he led several horsemen in a surprise attack from behind the mountain through the unguarded mountain pass. More warriors from the Quraysh army then joined the attack. Seeing swords suddenly above their heads amid the joy of victory, the Muslims woke up to the danger. Meanwhile, the enemy assembled troops to attack the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, himself. He began running about and calling to the Muslims: “O servants of Allah! Come to me.” But the Muslim soldiers could hear nothing. At one point, only eleven Companions remained around him. Seizing the opportunity, Abdullah ibn Qumay’ah struck his blessed face with a sword. His helmet shattered, and several pieces entered his jaw. On another attack by the enemy, he fell into a pit and suffered some injuries. The way the few companions fought recklessly to save the life of the central leader of the Islamic movement is rare in history. In such a cataclysmic clash, the Messenger’s standing firm, indeed defending himself skillfully and wounding Ubayy ibn Khalaf in the neck with a spear, was an extraordinary display of courage. Nevertheless, because the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, was wounded and disappeared from sight after falling into a pit, and because the Companion Jumayr ibn Umayr, who resembled him in appearance, was martyred, the opponents found an opportunity to spread the rumor that the Messenger had been killed. This spread even greater agitation and despair among the Muslims. The rumor had two kinds of effects. Hazrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, threw down his weapon and said, “If the Messenger has been martyred, then what is the use of fighting anymore?” His love for the Messenger was so intense that, in his view, after losing such a priceless jewel, no matter how great a victory might be achieved, it no longer seemed a victory. Ibn al-Nadr, the father of Hazrat Anas al-Ansari, heard him and said, “What will we do by remaining alive after the Messenger?” He then fought so fiercely that he was martyred after receiving nearly eighty wounds. Because of this disorder, some Muslims were also killed or wounded by the hands of their own comrades. The father of Hazrat Hudhayfah was martyred at the hands of the Muslims themselves.

Then the situation began to change. Every Muslim soldier was surrounded by swords in his own position and was anxious to see the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. Hazrat Ka‘b ibn Malik was the first to see the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. He called everyone and informed them that the Messenger was alive. When this good news reached everyone, they all began rushing toward the center. When the enemy crowd thinned, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, went to the summit of the mountain. When Abu Sufyan advanced in that direction, the Companions drove him back by throwing stones. The enemy now became apprehensive that the victory they had achieved by surprise might slip from their hands again. Therefore, the Makkah army began to withdraw rapidly.

Abu Sufyan climbed a nearby mountain and tried to obtain certain information about the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. He called out loudly by the names of the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, Abu Bakr and Umar, asking whether any of them was still alive.

No answer was given from that side for strategic reasons. Then he exclaimed, “They are all dead.”

Hazrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, could no longer remain silent. He said, “O enemy of Allah, we are all alive.” Abu Sufyan called out a slogan:

“Hubal, hold your head high.”

A counter-slogan was shouted from the other side:

“Allah is eternally mighty and supreme!”

Abu Sufyan called out again:

“We have al-Uzza with us; you have no al-Uzza.”

A reply came from the other side:

“Allah is our Master; you have no master.”

In fact, through these small slogans, the two ideologies whose clash had produced such great turmoil in history had become vocal. In this battle, 70 Muslims were martyred and 40 were wounded. On the other hand, only 30 men of the enemy forces could be killed. Brave warriors such as the Messenger’s uncle, Hazrat Hamza; his cousin Abdullah ibn Jahsh; and among the renowned Companions, Mus’ab ibn Umayr, Hanzala ibn Abi Amir, Rafi’ ibn Malik ibn Ajlan (the last three had participated in both Pledges of Aqabah), Abdullah ibn Amr al-Khazraji, Amr ibn Jamuh, and a number of Companions who had fought at Badr, watered the finest tree of truth in the world with their blood.

At last, when the Muslim army regained control of itself and its communication with the high command was firmly restored, the enemy soldiers quickly retreated and left the battlefield. Thus, the mask concealing the weakness hidden behind the sudden victory was removed, and the Muslim army regained its confidence.

The Muslims had indeed suffered because of one lapse on their part, but they had not been defeated, nor had their strength collapsed. Therefore, on the Messenger’s orders, a force of 70 fighters pursued the Quraysh army. Meanwhile, when Abu Sufyan reached Rawha and assessed the situation, he deeply regretted what had happened. He realized that, in his haste, he had left the benefits of the victory achieved at Uhud on the battlefield itself. Their objective of destroying Madinah’s power remained unfulfilled. He now began thinking of recovering that lost objective. But it was too late! The opportunity had already slipped away. It was a case of realizing what to do only after the thief had departed. The Messenger had already feared this possibility. Instead of returning to Madinah, he took his entire army as far as Hamra al-Asad, eight miles from Madinah. In the meantime, Ma’bad, leader of the Khuza’ah tribe—which, although it had not accepted Islam, was a devoted supporter of the Islamic government—personally went to Abu Sufyan and frightened him by saying, “Muhammad (peace be upon him) is coming with a huge army.” On hearing this, Abu Sufyan became terrified and hurried away.

Some Notable Aspects of the Battle of Uhud

We shall now turn our attention to the particularly noteworthy aspects of this battle:

(1) Discipline is the real strength of every movement. Its importance is greatest and most fundamental in every kind of war and conflict. The moral quality on which discipline is founded is patience—that is, the ability to remain steady and steadfast without caring about fear or gain and loss. At that time, the Islamic organization was still undergoing training, and it had not yet acquired extensive experience, particularly in strengthening its Islamic character on the battlefield. For only one battle had taken place before Uhud. No human organization, while building a new society on the basis of an ideology, can attain complete success and maturity without ever suffering a lapse. Yet through this minor lapse Allah gave the Muslims a practical lesson that cannot be firmly established through advice alone. This lesson also made it clear that Allah’s natural law operates with complete impartiality and without regard for anyone. Even an utterly upright person does not escape punishment if he violates this law.

In reviewing this battle, the Qur’an severely criticizes the errors and weaknesses that still existed among the Muslims. It instructs them to exercise patience (Al Imran 125). It instructs them to renounce the greed for wealth that prompts usurious transactions and creates impatience for gaining spoils on the battlefield. It indirectly makes them understand that, with a usurious and greedy mentality, one cannot exercise patience, maintain discipline, or wage a historic struggle to attain a higher goal. Against this mental backdrop, usury was made completely unlawful (Al Imran 130). They are told that only those can carry the banner of the Islamic revolution who, instead of being blinded by usury and the fascination of wealth, spend their wealth for noble purposes and, rather than being swept along by emotion, control their emotions (Al Imran 134). They are also told that whoever works to obtain worldly interests will receive in this world whatever he gains—and that will be his final gain; he will have no share in the Hereafter. But whoever seeks the welfare of the Hereafter at the expense of his worldly interests will be given the appropriate value for his deeds (Al Imran 145). They are also made to understand that, after suffering one blow, they must not sit devastated and anxious. If they have suffered a blow today, the enemy too suffered a blow at their hands yesterday. Every conflict and confrontation necessarily includes ups and downs, victory and defeat. But remain certain that the final victory will be yours (Al Imran 139–140). They are then warned in unequivocal language that Allah’s pleasure and Paradise are not cheap commodities. This good fortune can be attained only by those who can sacrifice their lives and wealth in Allah’s path and demonstrate patience and steadfastness. The sifting out of true believers and those qualified to bear witness to the truth can be accomplished only through such difficult trials (Al Imran 140–142). Criticizing the extremely despairing reaction caused by the rumor of the Messenger’s martyrdom on the field of Uhud, it is clearly stated that Muhammad (peace be upon him) is not Allah; he is only a Messenger. Just as the prophets and messengers of the past died, Muhammad too must one day depart from you. Therefore, how could it be permissible for you, upon his departure, to put aside all the programs of the Islamic movement and struggle and sit with your hands folded? (Al Imran 144). In fact, such despair arose precisely because of their devoted love for the Messenger. It is further stated that you should develop yourselves as followers of the example of those who fought alongside the earlier prophets, sacrificed their lives, and were not prepared to bow their heads before falsehood. For Allah loves such patient people (Al Imran 146). After giving these fundamental lessons, the Qur’an portrays the tragic situation that befell the Muslim army because it violated discipline:

“Allah fulfilled the promise of help He had made to you. At first, by Allah’s command, you were killing them. But later, when you lost courage and disputed among yourselves, and when He showed you what you desired, you disobeyed your leader’s command. For some of you were seeking the world, while some of you desired the Hereafter. Then He made you retreat from the unbelievers in order to test you. Even then Allah pardoned you, for Allah is most gracious to the believers.

Remember when you were fleeing, without even having the sense to look back at anyone, while the Messenger was calling you from behind. Then Allah repaid you for this by giving you sorrow upon sorrow, so that you might learn a lesson for the future and might not grieve over what you lost or whatever calamity befell you. Allah is aware of all that you do.” (Al Imran 152–153)

Observe this criticism and review, made through the Messenger concerning the Muslim army’s conduct and role in the Battle of Uhud, and consider how different its nature and tone were from those of the imperialist warlord rulers of the world. It neither gave the soldiers unrestricted permission to do whatever they pleased, nor attempted to cast them into self-deception, nor made any effort to misinterpret the events. It was an unapologetically severe criticism. Fear of Allah was the guiding principle of this criticism, and moral training was its purpose.

(2) The way a small number of the Messenger’s Companions in this battle displayed a willingness to risk their lives, love, and sincere spirit of sacrifice will continue to inspire the Muslim ummah, until the Day of Resurrection, to sacrifice their lives and wealth in Allah’s path. In fact, whatever the movement may be, the personality of its first caller and supreme leader is its principal strength. But in the Islamic movement, deep love for the caller and leader is demanded. Especially when the personality of a prophet and messenger occupies this position, the highest degree of self-sacrificing spirit is essential. The Islamic movement can never advance by bypassing its caller and leader. The strength, power, influence, and authority of the movement and its caller become completely one and inseparable. A group that ignores its own caller and leader, renders him ineffective, or calls him merely “one of us” and seeks to make only the movement’s principles victorious is entirely blind and thoughtless. Both principle and leadership are integral and indispensable elements of a movement. Firm faith and conviction in principle and ideology, and deep love and a spirit of self-sacrifice for the leader, depend on and complement each other. The Messenger’s Companions were always ready to expend their lives and wealth, and everything possible, for his person and personality. The first reason was that he was the Messenger. The second was that they knew and understood that his existence was the soul of the entire movement. For this reason they sacrificed their lives to protect his life, enhance his honor and dignity, and expand his influence and authority. On the battlefield of Uhud, they gave irrefutable proof of their pure and devoted love for the Messenger.

When the enemy began attacking in waves, the Messenger called out loudly, “Who is ready to sacrifice his life for me?” Hearing this call, Ziyad ibn Sakan advanced with several Ansar, and one after another seven lovers of the Messenger sacrificed their lives. When Ziyad was brought to the Messenger in a dying state, he painfully raised his head and touched the Messenger’s feet. When Abdullah ibn Qumaiya struck the Messenger with his sword, the female Companion Umm Ammara leapt forward and stood before him, receiving a deep wound in her own neck. It was because she stood in the way that this blow failed to kill the Messenger. Abu Dujana covered the Messenger with his own body like a shield. Countless arrows pierced his body. Talha blocked the enemy’s sword with his hand, and one of his hands was severed and fell to the ground. Abu Talha stood before the Messenger with a shield and struck so forcefully with it that two or three bows broke. A simple, unsophisticated Muslim happened to come upon the scene while eating dates. Seeing the situation, he too became eager to fight. He asked the Messenger, “If I fight and die, what will my fate be?” The Messenger replied, “Paradise.” He said, “Then continuing to eat these dates will take too long.” Saying this, he threw away the dates, began fighting fiercely, and within a short time joined the caravan of martyrs. No power can suppress a movement in which such intense love for its leader is active. Sa’d ibn Rabi also set a rare example. Since the Messenger himself held deep affection for his Companions and kept watch over each of them, after the battle he asked about each one’s condition in turn. He asked, “Where is Sa’d ibn Rabi?” When they searched, they found him lying nearby, grievously wounded and groaning. At his final moment, he offered greetings, love, and a gift of prayer for the Messenger, and charged his companions: “If, while all of you are alive, the enemy is allowed even to touch the Messenger, then Allah will accept no excuse from you.” He had no concern for his own pain, no thought for his loved ones, and no consideration for the future of his wealth; all his thoughts were only of the Islamic movement and its caller.

(3) The anti-Islamic forces of Makkah, to display their vile mentality, desecrated the bodies of the Muslim martyrs. In particular, their women slit open the bodies to fulfill their vows, cut off their noses and ears, made them into necklaces, and wore them around their necks. Hind, the wife of Abu Sufyan and leader of the women’s contingent, set the worst example of savagery. She mutilated the face of Hazrat Hamza, cut open his chest, took out his liver, and chewed it. The face of Hazrat Abdullah ibn Jahsh was also mutilated. Abu Sufyan himself kept striking Hazrat Hamza’s face with a bow, saying, “Here, enjoy yourself now.” By contrast, the Messenger strictly warned the Muslim army not to desecrate the bodies of the enemy or mutilate their faces. In the principles of the Islamic movement, the teaching of upholding human dignity is of special importance. Islam does not permit its followers to behave in the same vile manner in response when someone else behaves vilely.

When Abu Sufyan heard of his men’s activities, he happily applauded them. But when one of his companions criticized them, he became concerned. He thought that, in carrying out such deeds, they might receive stones in return for bricks and lose their influence and prestige in the eyes of public opinion. When Abu Sufyan came onto the mountain at the end of the battle, it was because of this concern that he said, “These incidents did not take place with my permission. However, I am not distressed by them either.”

Today it is not easy to determine whether this barbaric conduct of the anti-Islamic forces damaged their image in the public mind. However, one incident is known: when a polytheist named Jalيس ibn Zuban al-Kinani saw Abu Sufyan striking the face of the martyred Hazrat Hamza’s body with a bow, he said to the people of his own tribe, “O Banu Kinana, do you see what the chief of Quraysh is doing to his cousin?” Hearing this, Abu Sufyan became aware of himself.

(4) A glimpse of the refined and civilized conduct on the battlefield that the Messenger was teaching the Muslims can be seen in the incident of Abu Dujana. As Abu Dujana advanced, throwing the enemy ranks into disarray one after another, Hind, who had chewed Hamza’s liver, came before him. Hind had taken part in the battle, and her feelings against the Muslims were extremely poisonous. Thus, killing her would not have been wrong. Abu Dujana had also raised his sword, aiming at her head. But immediately he became alert and lowered his sword, thinking that it was not proper to take a woman’s life with the sword given to him by the Messenger.

(5) The faith, courage, patience, and loyalty to the Islamic movement displayed by Muslim women during the Battle of Uhud show that the movement led by the Messenger did not keep women inactive; rather, it made them active, trained them, and put them to work. Consider a few examples.

We have already discussed how Umm Ammara, although a woman, stood as a shield for the Messenger.

When Safiyya, Hazrat Hamza’s sister, reached the battlefield of Uhud from Madinah after hearing the heartbreaking news, the Messenger told Hamza’s son Zubair, “Do not let her go near your father’s body, for she will not be able to bear the sight.” Safiyya said, “I have heard everything. Such a sacrifice is not great on the path of truth and justice.” She was given permission. Safiyya looked at the body with great patience, prayed for his forgiveness, and left.

For Hind al-Ansari, the wife of Amr ibn Jamuh and mother of Khallad al-Badri, this was a trial by fire. Both her father and her husband were martyred. Yet, struggling to bear all these blows, she repeatedly asked only, “Is the Messenger of Allah safe?” When she became certain that he was well, she involuntarily exclaimed, “O Messenger, if you are well and safe, then no calamity is unbearable.”

Even respectable, veiled women such as Hazrat Aisha, Umm Sulaym, and Umm Salit ran back and forth during the crisis, bringing water in water skins and giving it to the wounded soldiers. Having heard the false report of the Muslims’ disaster and the Messenger’s martyrdom, Hazrat Fatimah also came to Uhud. She washed the Messenger’s wounds and bandaged them.

(6) When the Messenger, the friend of humanity, gave his own sword to Abu Dujana, Abu Dujana tied a red scarf around his head and advanced toward the enemy ranks, swinging the sword and strutting as he walked. Seeing this, the Messenger said, “Allah greatly dislikes this kind of gait, but He approves of it in such a situation.” In this way he explained an important matter. In the ordinary activities of life, displaying arrogance in any way is highly undesirable in Islam. But during a confrontation with enemies, displaying pride and boldness is highly desirable. Humility is a very good quality. Yet even on the battlefield, displaying humility before the enemy through the misapplication of an excellent moral rule is extremely foolish. A foolish religious mentality uses certain moral values inappropriately, for an opposite purpose, in the name of love of piety. Through this one statement, the Messenger eliminated that mentality. Not only on the battlefield, but also poetry and eloquence were regarded at that time as among the principal media of political propaganda. He had Muslim poets and orators express pride and boldness. Similarly, during Umrat al-Qada, the Messenger ordered the Companions to display strength by walking with their ranks spread out, and instructed them, while running between Safa and Marwa, to raise their feet and hold their chests out, and to run after walking. Later this became a Sunnah, or tradition. At that time he prayed, “May Allah show mercy to whoever displays strength before the unbelievers today.” Indeed, displaying humility at any stage of conflict and confrontation can bring destructive consequences. A person who cannot correctly apply moral values and principles while understanding the differences of place, time, and circumstance is afflicted by a kind of madness. Whatever else may function through such madness, the Islamic movement cannot.

(7) Honesty and truthfulness are forces that attract people powerfully. A truthful young man named Umar ibn Thabit lived in Madinah. His conduct toward the Muslims was supportive and sympathetic, but he had not yet accepted Islam. The Battle of Uhud awakened his dormant consciousness. He accepted faith, took his sword, joined the battle without telling anyone, and attained martyrdom. Shortly before his death, people from the Banu Abd al-Ashhal recognized him. When they asked about him, he said, “I am fighting for truth and justice, out of love for Allah and His Messenger.” The Messenger gave the good news that, despite never having performed even one prayer in his life, he would enter Paradise. Another example is that of Mukhayriq, a member of the Jewish tribe of Banu Tha’laba. In following the true Jewish religion, he decided to fight on the side of the Messenger. He did not stop at deciding to fight himself; he also called upon the other Jews to fight. His fellow Jews offered the religious excuse that it was unlawful to go to battle because that day was Saturday. But Mukhayriq said, “Today there is no Sabbath.” At last he alone reached the battlefield, fought, and sacrificed his life. A completely different example is that of Qizman. The Messenger had foretold that he would be an inhabitant of Hell. He joined the Muslims and fought fiercely against the Quraysh army. After the battle, when he was found wounded, people praised him, saying, “You displayed extraordinary courage and valor.” He said, “I fought only to defend our national honor.” The unfortunate soldier, unable to bear the pain of his wounds, committed suicide. Allah made him fight against the unbelievers, and he was also killed, but his destination was Hell. May Allah protect the believers from such a miserable fate.

(8) We have already indicated that at this time the negative forces of ignorance were intoxicated with immense arrogance and were excessively energized by their determination to preserve the unbelieving system. Although the standard-bearers of Quraysh were killed one after another and no one could remain standing in place, new men advanced and took their places. At last, when a man named Sawwar raised the standard, he received such a sword blow that both his hands were severed. As the standard fell, he threw himself face down upon it and breathed his last while saying, “I have fulfilled my responsibility.” For a while the standard lay on the ground. Finally, a woman named Umrah bint Alqama advanced courageously and picked it up. This shows that when positive revolutionary forces emerge, enthusiasm can also prevail for some time in the conservative camp. That is what happened at Uhud. There the conservative, entrenched unbelieving power of Makkah displayed its final show of might and authority.

(9) In this battle, many heartbreaking scenes revealed the material poverty and destitution of the Muslim camp. The bodies of seventy martyrs lay there. Yet even arranging shrouds for them was difficult. Only the head of Mus’ab ibn Umayr’s body could be covered with cloth; his feet were covered with azkhar grass. Whenever Muslims later remembered this situation, tears came to their eyes. From this condition it can be estimated how difficult, involuntary yet unavoidable, it was for the Islamic state of Madinah to wage war, and that they could not possibly have taken part in this battle except under the pressure of circumstances and compulsion. But once they were compelled to do so, they made up for every deficiency through firm conviction in their philosophy of life, profound love for their great goal, and the sincere companionship of the Messenger.

(10) Along with warning the Muslims and making them aware of all their faults and weaknesses and advising them to focus on correcting them, the Qur’an also cultivated soldierly qualities in them. It taught them that on the battlefield, moral strength is the real decisive power. The most important part of this moral strength is patience. They were also taught that in the struggle between truth and falsehood, they must put aside completely their lineage-based, tribal, and national emotions and worldly interests, and give priority only to Allah’s pleasure, the victory of truth and justice, and success in the Hereafter. The Qur’an also firmly established in their hearts that the decision of victory and defeat is, in every circumstance, exclusively in Allah’s hands. Only His help can make any force victorious. Therefore, His law and His pleasure must always be given the highest importance. This very matter was taught in the form of a supplication in verses 27 and 28 of Surah Al Imran:

“Say: O Allah, Master of sovereignty, You grant sovereignty to whom You will and take sovereignty away from whom You will; You honor whom You will and humiliate whom You will. All good is in Your hand. Surely You are powerful over all things. You cause the night to enter into the day and the day to enter into the night. You bring the living out of the dead and the dead out of the living, and You provide for whom You will without reckoning.”

The fear of death was removed from their hearts by telling them that death would certainly come at its appointed time, by Allah’s permission. Therefore, failing to perform one’s duty in order to save one’s life would not prolong one’s lifespan. One must therefore continue working while looking death in the eye. Alongside these valuable teachings, another lesson was given: those who sacrifice their lives in the path of Allah while bearing witness to the truth do not die like ordinary people. Their death is immensely honorable. Therefore, do not consider or call them dead like ordinary dead people. They receive new life from their Lord; their souls receive radiant sustenance, and they rejoice in Allah’s immensely valuable gifts and rewards, while being assured and content regarding their like-minded companions. In this way, the profound significance of martyrdom became manifest. Consequently, the meaning of death in the path of Allah changed so completely that, instead of fearing death, people began praying for it. In this regard, the Messenger (peace be upon him) issued the prohibition that the deaths of martyrs must not be mourned with wailing, screaming, or beating one’s chest. When a truthful revolutionary movement takes shape, it introduces special terminology suited to that movement, invests it with particular meanings, and transforms the significance of established ideas. All these teachings show that, in Islam, war is not a worldly or material undertaking. Rather, it is pure worship of Allah and an unadulterated religious obligation.

(11) A number of hypocrites remained behind on the battlefield. Just as they had played a considerable role before the battle, at an extremely critical moment, in creating disorder among the Muslims and causing cracks in the unity of the organization, so after the battle they spread many insinuations, saying that such a disaster would not have occurred if certain things had been done. They also kept saying that if we had had some control over the leadership, the Battle of Uhud would not have produced such a result. The archers stationed in the passage behind them were not sincere either. When they were asked in Medina why they had changed their position, they offered various lame excuses. Hearing these excuses, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, ‘None of that is the case. In reality, you were harboring a false suspicion about me—that I would betray you and would not give you what was due to you.’ The Qur’an has said precisely to remove this false notion: ‘It is not proper to expect any prophet to betray.’ (Al Imran 161)

(12) When the enemies wounded the Messenger (peace be upon him), one Companion advised him, ‘Pray against these brutal people so that Allah may destroy them.’ In reply, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, ‘I have been sent as a mercy to the worlds, not as a curse upon them.’ He then prayed, ‘O Allah, guide my people, for they do not know’ (that is, they do not know me, my aims and objectives, or the facts concerning life and the world). We have already said that this reply and this prayer expressed the viewpoint through which the Messenger (peace be upon him) regarded his opponents. It is clear that he harbored no desire for personal revenge of any kind. He wanted their reform, not their destruction. If he took up arms in response to their military actions, he did so only because he was compelled to; he had no alternative.

After Uhud

Although the Muslims were initially victorious in the Battle of Uhud and later suffered a temporary setback, ultimately the balance began to tilt in their favor. In particular, the Quraysh’s withdrawal without completing their victory, the Muslim army’s pursuit of them, and their departure for Mecca despite Abu Sufyan’s intention to return once more all helped to raise the morale of the Muslim army. In reality, the Quraysh army left the battle suspended without reaching a final decision. Neither side had clearly defeated the other. The meaning of such a situation is always, ‘The rest will be decided later.’ Abu Sufyan, on behalf of the Quraysh, clearly issued the challenge that he would return the following year to confront them on the field of Badr. Just as the Battle of Badr had produced a decisive settlement, no such final settlement emerged from the Battle of Uhud. The final decision was postponed to a later time.

Although the Muslim army was not victorious, it had not been defeated either. Nevertheless, the influence that the Battle of Badr had exerted over the surrounding regions had somewhat diminished, and the hopes and aspirations of the conservative polytheistic tribes again began to revolve around the forces of ignorance. The rebellious conduct of certain criminal evil forces began to re-emerge. The unruly tribes around Medina once again began to conduct rebellious activities arrogantly. But the Muslims’ organization was so cohesive and efficient, and their leadership so strong, that it immediately repelled every hostile activity and gradually restored the situation to its proper course. In this way, the people were made aware that the Islamic government was fully vigorous and would not neglect the preservation of law and order, the lives and property of its citizens, or the integrity of the state. Nevertheless, it took some time to reestablish the authority of the Islamic state.

Among the rebellious forces that began to raise their heads after the Battle of Uhud, Talhah ibn Khuwailid and Salmah ibn Khuwailid of Qutun initiated the hostile activities. They incited the Banu Asad tribe to undertake rebellious activity against Medina. The more reliable view is probably that a kind of armed banditry had been planned. News of this plan became known as soon as the crescent of Muharram in the fourth year after the Hijrah appeared. Immediately, a force of 150 warriors was sent under the leadership of Abu Salamah al-Makhzumi to repel this danger. As soon as they reached Qutun, the bandit group scattered. The Islamic government confiscated the herds they had abandoned and distributed them among the volunteers. On the fifth of Muharram, news came from another direction that Khalid ibn Sufyan of the Banu Khuzayl tribe had formed a force to attack Medina. Abdullah ibn Unays al-Juhani al-Ansari was sent to confront them. Abdullah ended the rebellion and returned with Khalid’s severed head. As a reward for this heroic accomplishment, performed entirely alone, the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave him his own staff.

Two or three weeks later, another incident occurred. At the beginning of Safar, members of the Adal and Qarah tribes came to Medina after devising a conspiracy. They appealed to the Messenger (peace be upon him), saying, ‘Some people among us have become Muslims. Send a few men to teach and educate them.’ The Messenger (peace be upon him) sent ten learned and capable men (this number is given according to the account in Sahih al-Bukhari; historians and biographers state that there were seven). Their commander was MursHid ibn Abu MursHid. As soon as they reached Raji, the homeland of the Hudhayl, the people there killed everyone except Khubayb and Zayd. They sold Khubayb and Zayd to the Quraysh of Mecca, who killed both by crucifixion. We have discussed this incident previously. It clearly shows how greatly the audacity and insolence of the opponents had increased after the Battle of Uhud. Several valuable members of a small group had traveled as teachers and were brutally martyred on the way. It is difficult to describe in words how deeply the Messenger (peace be upon him) was wounded by this. The beasts to whom they had gone to impart Islamic knowledge not only learned nothing from them but cruelly murdered them without cause. But this was not the end. The greatest tragedy of that month occurred at Bi’r Ma‘unah. Abu Bara Amir ibn Malik came from the Najd region and met the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Messenger (peace be upon him) invited him to Islam. He neither accepted nor rejected the invitation. However, with great sincerity, he advised him, ‘Send a group of your Companions to Najd. It may be hoped that the people will accept Islam.’ The Messenger (peace be upon him) expressed concern about Najd. The incident at Raji had occurred only a few days earlier. Abu Bara assumed responsibility for their protection. Expanding the influence and authority of the Islamic government in the Najd region had become necessary in the wider political interest. Therefore, trusting Abu Bara’s word, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a group of seventy men (this is the number cited in Bukhari; according to Ibn Ishaq, there were forty). They included first-rate memorizers of the Qur’an, reciters, and preachers. Their leader was Mundhir ibn Amr. When this missionary delegation reached a place called Bi’r Ma‘unah, Haram ibn Milhan carried the Messenger’s letter from there to Amir ibn Tufayl, the chief of the Banu Amir. Before Amir ibn Tufayl even read the letter, he signaled to one of his men, who killed him. He then announced among the Banu Amir, ‘Wherever you may be, come and attack the delegation that has arrived from Medina.’ But the Banu Amir refused to break Abu Bara’s promise. He then summoned the anarchic branches of the Banu Sulaym—the Ri‘lan, Dhakwan, Usayyah, and Banu Lihyan. They prepared themselves and surrounded the missionary delegation from Medina. The delegation said, ‘We have not come to fight. We do not wish to remain here either. We want to proceed farther, so do not attack us.’ But the murderers listened to nothing. They martyred sixty-nine men. The seventieth member, Ka‘b ibn Zayd, hid with his bloodied body among the pile of corpses and somehow survived, reaching Medina and informing the Messenger (peace be upon him) of everything. Consider how tragic this trial was for a young group surrounded by enemies. Sixty-nine of his well-trained and capable men attained martyrdom with extreme cruelty at the same time. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was deeply grieved and sorrowful after this painful incident. For one month, during the dawn prayer, he prayed against the murderers of his beloved Companions because of this heart-rending event. This prayer is technically called Qunut al-Nazilah.

Now observe the conduct of the Great Prophet (peace be upon him), the savior of humanity, in contrast to the barbaric actions of these beasts. Amr ibn Umayyah, the only surviving member of the seventy-man delegation, saw two men sleeping beneath the shade of a tree while returning to Medina. Believing that the two men were accomplices of the murderers, he killed them. His assumption was mistaken: both men belonged to an allied tribe. The Messenger (peace be upon him) paid blood money for the killing on his behalf. He did so because the Messenger (peace be upon him) had made such sacrifices precisely to end the prevailing reign of oppression and establish the reign of justice.

These external complications could not have been addressed unless Medina was internally stable. But certain scheming evil forces existed there, and their lands, wealth, and large fortresses made them highly influential. From within the Islamic state, they conducted extremely treacherous conspiracies and obstructed every Muslim undertaking. In particular, although the Jewish tribes had signed the treaty concerning Medina’s unity, they engaged daily in rebellious activities. The Banu Nadir possessed the strongest stronghold among them. Intoxicated by recklessness and obstinacy, they were advancing boldly and without restraint. After the incidents of Uhud, Raji, and Bi’r Ma‘unah, their insolence had increased so greatly that, at such a delicate moment, they even openly attempted to assassinate the Messenger (peace be upon him). (I have mentioned this earlier.) When the Jews felt no qualms about making this new, open attempt after their previous misdeeds, it became inevitable to take a final measure against them. The Messenger (peace be upon him) made every possible effort to avoid declaring war on them and causing loss of life. [For, first, the Islamic movement is not violent or militant by nature. Moreover, the matter concerned individuals belonging to a distinct community in the world. The Islamic movement had to operate in an area under that community’s influence. Otherwise, their crimes were so vile that they had no right to remain alive.] Therefore, he merely issued them an ultimatum, notifying them to leave Medina within ten days after their citizenship was revoked. He also informed them that if they did not leave, they would be treated as enemies. Abdullah ibn Ubayy, the leader of the hypocrites, incited them to fight against the Messenger (peace be upon him), promising them sufficient assistance. Influenced by him, the Banu Nadir challenged the Islamic government, saying, ‘We do not care about your ultimatum. Do whatever you wish.’ Consequently, in Rabi al-Awwal of the fourth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) set out with the Muslim army and besieged the Banu Nadir. Abdullah ibn Ubayy did not keep his promise, and no one came to their aid. Helpless, they vacated their settlement. Through the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) mercy, they not only escaped with their lives but were also allowed to carry their valuable belongings away on camels. Even amid this atmosphere of extreme tension, two fortunate men emerged from among the Banu Nadir who recognized both the truth and validity of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) call and the irrational injustice of their own tribe’s conduct, and accepted Islam. They were Yamin ibn Umayr and Abu Sa‘d ibn Wahb.

At this time, the Muslim army was compelled to cut down some trees. This was not a serious matter. But Western propagandists have found material for propaganda even in this. It was an unavoidable military operation. Even today, some armies occasionally have to undertake such actions to build roads, destroy enemy hideouts, and meet other necessities. Police too sometimes have to take similar measures to apprehend criminals. Buildings have to be demolished, and necessary interventions have to be made in fields, farms, and gardens.

Even under extremely perilous conditions, by suppressing the evildoers, the Messenger (peace be upon him) not only reduced his own difficulties but also preserved his authority and reputation among the surrounding people. They understood that the power and authority of the Islamic government remained fully intact.

Following the boastful display he had made at Uhud, Abu Sufyan set out with a powerful army to launch an attack. This time his army consisted of two thousand infantrymen and fifty cavalrymen. As soon as the Messenger (peace be upon him) received the news, he arrived at the field of Badr with 1,500 infantrymen and ten cavalrymen. After setting up camp there, he waited continuously for the Quraysh army for eight days. But Abu Sufyan reached a place called Dahran, or Usfan, only one day’s journey from Mecca, and turned back. Because of the lack of rain, he did not consider that year suitable for war. Finally, upon hearing that Abu Sufyan had returned, the Messenger (peace be upon him) went back to Medina.

As soon as he learned that the two branches of the Banu Ghatafan—the Banu Muharib and the Banu Tha‘labah—were preparing to attack Medina in Muharram of the fourth year after the Hijrah (according to another view, in Jumada al-Ula), the Messenger (peace be upon him) set out with a force of four hundred volunteer warriors (according to another view, seven hundred). It is true that a force had been prepared to confront the Muslim army, but it was not actually capable of fighting. The following incident occurred at this time. A polytheist named Ghurus left home after declaring to his tribe, ‘I will not return until I have killed Muhammad (peace be upon him).’ When he arrived, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was resting alone beneath a tree. His sword was hanging from a branch. Ghurus took that very sword in his hand, raised it, and said, ‘Tell me, who can save you now?’ The Messenger (peace be upon him) replied with complete fearlessness, ‘Allah can save me.’

Dumat al-Jandal was a meeting place for commercial caravans, and Christian and Jewish missionaries and political spies were also active there. Meanwhile, because the Banu Nadir and others had taken refuge in places such as Khaybar, those areas had become bases for various conspiracies against Medina. Of particular political significance was the fact that the Christian leader Ukaidar, operating within an alliance between the Quraysh of Mecca and the Jews of Khaybar, began harassing the caravans carrying grain to Medina. The Messenger (peace be upon him) learned that the enemy wished to gather its forces at Dumat al-Jandal and attack Medina. In Rabi al-Awwal of the fifth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) immediately set out toward that place with one thousand soldiers. As soon as news reached the enemy that the Muslim army had departed for Dumat al-Jandal, they scattered. The Messenger (peace be upon him) saw no need to advance farther. Along the way, he worked to gain allies. At this stage, an agreement was concluded with Uyaynah ibn Hisn. Later, in the seventh year after the Hijrah, Hazrat Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf led a missionary-political expedition, and a positive attitude toward the Islamic state of Medina developed among the Kalb tribe. Then, during the Tabuk expedition in the ninth year after the Hijrah, the victorious banner of the Islamic state was raised over this region.

This time news came that the Banu al-Mustaliq were preparing to attack. Although Buraydah al-Aslami was sent to investigate, the report proved to be true. Consequently, on the third of Sha‘ban, the Messenger (peace be upon him) took military action. Moving with great speed, he reached Muraysi‘ (a watering place). Harith ibn Dirar, the chief of the Banu al-Mustaliq, was eager to fight. But because the Messenger (peace be upon him) arrived there unexpectedly, his soldiers scattered. Only members of his own tribe remained. Harith’s force was completely defeated at the first attack. Large numbers of animals were seized as booty, and all the men and women of the tribe became prisoners of war. One of these prisoners was a woman named Juwayriyyah. She recited the testimony of faith before the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, ‘I have come before you as a Muslim.’ With her consent, the Messenger (peace be upon him) married her. As a result, the Muslim army released all the prisoners of the Banu al-Mustaliq, saying, ‘We cannot keep the relatives of the Messenger (peace be upon him) as prisoners.’

During this very battle, the hypocrites became enraged upon witnessing Islam’s victory. They first provoked a quarrel over water and attempted to create discord between the Muhajirun and the Ansar. On the return journey, they continued inciting the Ansar to expel the Muhajirun from Medina. During this journey, Hazrat Aishah became separated from the caravan and was subjected to slander. I have already narrated all these events.

All these minor incidents occurred after the Battle of Uhud and before the Battle of the Trench. The Islamic state had to take these measures in order to preserve its existence, maintain law and order, and continue the constitutional process. Apart from the incidents involving the teacher-delegations, in all the others troops were sometimes sent only to the frontier, while at other times purely police measures were taken. Genuine military clashes were very few and very small in scale. Describing them in detail and giving them undue importance could create a false impression in the reader’s mind. The actual situation was that Arab society was divided into various small and large tribes. Each tribe, and even each branch of a tribe, was an independent administrative and political unit within its own sphere. Sometimes one tribe rebelled, while another attempted an attack or robbery. When the wrongdoing of one was stopped, another would raise its head. Under such circumstances, whenever an attempt was made to establish a central administration, there was no possibility of success without risking conflict and confrontation with the scattered tribes, large and small.

The Third Major War—The Trench

Although during the Battle of Uhud the Quraysh happened to get an opportunity to show the Muslims a thing or two and apparently took revenge for their defeat at Badr, they understood very well that they had not actually returned home from the field of Uhud as victors. They also realized that, with their present power, they were unable to defeat the Islamic state of Medina. Therefore, they left Uhud resolved to fight after a year’s interval, following greater preparation and the recruitment of more soldiers. Abu Sufyan had openly expressed this resolve. But after a year had passed, they set out from Mecca with troops and then turned back because circumstances were unfavorable. There was a major difference between the Quraysh and the Islamic state. The Quraysh’s camp of ignorance was stagnant and weak in terms of its vitality; it had no capacity for development and growth. Rather, some of its strength was constantly breaking away from it and joining the Islamic state. The Islamic power in Medina was an ideological, missionary, and people-oriented power. It was therefore always active, engaged, developing, and expanding. Because of this fundamental difference, the passage of time was proving advantageous to Medina. In every respect—moral training and purification of character, treaty-based alliances, defensive strength, growth in manpower, and expansion of territorial ownership—Medina was steadily becoming larger, more expansive, and more powerful. The Islamic state had effectively managed to close the Quraysh’s commercial routes. As a result, Mecca was being plunged into economic crisis. Despite suffering many complications for two years after the Battle of Uhud, the Islamic state had made considerable progress. Conversely, because the war that the Quraysh had postponed for a year was delayed, it now demanded that they gather even greater aggressive strength. It was not easy for the Quraysh alone to provide so much of the required strength. But the various enemies of the Islamic state, compelled by circumstances, had found a path toward mutual unity. The Jews expelled from Medina who had settled in Khaybar and Wadi al-Qura were making great efforts to incite the Quraysh to attack Medina. They began their hostile activities by creating obstacles in various ways along the caravans carrying grain to Medina. When these exiled Jews learned the outcome of the Battle of Uhud and heard of Abu Sufyan’s resolve to attack again, their enthusiasm knew no bounds. They promised the manpower-rich Banu Ghatafan the entire harvest of Khaybar’s dates for one year, as well as a specified share in the future, and incited them to attack Medina. After accomplishing this much, they sent a delegation to Mecca. The delegation included such prominent Jewish leaders as Salam ibn Abi al-Huqayq, Salam ibn Mishkam, Huyayy ibn Akhtab, Kinanah ibn al-Rabi‘ (of the Banu Nadir), Hawdhah ibn Qays, and Abu Ammarah (of the Banu Wa’il). They assured the Quraysh, ‘If you launch the attack, we will continue to give you our full help and cooperation until Muhammad (peace be upon him) has been completely annihilated.’ The delegation returned from Mecca entirely successful and, on the way back, also met with the Banu Ghatafan and other tribes. The Quraysh likewise consulted with their allies and supporters and called upon the Ahbash for assistance. In short, this time the forces of ignorance gathered supporters from throughout Arabia.

Four thousand soldiers set out from Mecca under the command of Abu Sufyan. They included three thousand horses and one thousand camels. When this army reached Marr al-Zahran, some of the Quraysh’s principal allies—the Banu Sulaym, Banu Asad, Fazara, Ashja‘, and Banu Murrah, among others—emerged from their respective regions and joined the Quraysh army. The Banu Ghatafan set out under the leadership of Uyaynah ibn Hisn. Thus, there is disagreement about the total size of the Quraysh army. Some say six to seven thousand, others ten thousand, and others twenty-four thousand. Most, however, hold that the number was ten thousand, and this is the preponderant view.

While the Messenger (peace be upon him) was on a journey to Dumat al-Jandal, he learned of these preparations. He therefore returned quickly. A council of consultation was convened. It was decided that the attack would be repelled from Medina itself. For the city’s defense, the advice of Hazrat Salman al-Farsi concerning the digging of a trench, or khandaq, according to the Iranian method was accepted. One benefit was that this novel defensive strategy could put the Arab invaders at a disadvantage. Moreover, the work that could have been accomplished by a high and sturdy wall could be completed through physical labor alone. By this method, a small number of soldiers could hold back a large enemy force. The Messenger (peace be upon him) himself rode out on horseback to determine the trench’s layout. The city of Medina was enclosed on three sides by houses and walled gardens. Therefore, there was no need to dig a trench on those three sides; it was needed only on the open northern side. It was decided to construct a semicircular trench linking Harrah al-Sharqiyyah and Harrah al-Gharbiyyah—the rocky expanses to the east and west—and extending to the western edge of Mount Sila. The digging of this section was carried out under military supervision. However, some tribes extended the trench farther on their own initiative to protect their homes. Consequently, the trench was drawn southward along the western side of the Eidgah (Masjid al-Ghamamah) and extended a considerable distance toward Quba. The three thousand Muslim mujahideen who were later assigned the duty of direct combat served as volunteer laborers in digging the trench. Groups of ten were formed, and each group was assigned ten yards of trench to dig. The trench was made approximately ten yards wide, since some enemy cavalrymen died after falling into it while trying to make their horses leap across. Its depth was probably no less than five yards, and its length was three and a half miles. It is astonishing even to consider how the Muslim volunteers completed such a vast undertaking in only three weeks. Nearly 308,000 square yards of earth had to be dug out and moved. As for equipment, some tools for cutting and excavating the earth were borrowed from Banu Qurayzah under an agreement. Because there were not enough baskets, ordinary Muslims—and even such eminent men as Abu Bakr and Umar—carried earth in their cloaks and gathered-up garments. High observation platforms were built at various points along the trench. From these platforms, every part of the trench could be supervised at once.

No sooner had the digging of the trench been completed than, in Shawwal of the fifth year after the Hijrah, the confederate enemy forces arrived on the outskirts of Medina. The Quraysh, Kinana, and Ahabis troops camped near the Well of Rumah, close to the Valley of Aqiq. The Ghatafan and Banu Asad camped in the east, spreading from a place called Zanb Naqma, near Wadi al-Numan, as far as Mount Uhud. Meanwhile, the Muslim army established its central camp with Mount Sila behind it. A mosque called Masjid al-Fath still stands at the place where the Messenger’s camp was established, as a memorial to him.

Although the enemies of Islam stood in enormous numbers, this trench presented them with a new problem. They had never seen such a defensive barrier before and were completely unfamiliar with this strategy. Their horses and camels were useful only up to the outer edge of the trench. One or two cavalrymen, trying overzealously to leap across it, fell into the trench and died. They would charge from different directions, but the soldiers of the Muslim army immediately took up positions before them without showing the slightest slackness and drove back the enemy archers. Swords and spears were entirely ineffective. Every day, both sides exchanged some arrow fire. Irritated by the siege after several days, the enemy forces launched a vigorous assault one day. They attacked sometimes from one side and sometimes from another, but gained nothing. At last, the renowned veteran cavalryman of the Quraysh army, Amr ibn Abd Wudd, charged forward in a frenzy. He incited Ikrimah, the son of Abu Jahl, Hubayrah ibn Abu Wahb, and Dirar ibn al-Khattab, and took some men from Banu Kinana with him. Finally, finding a suitable place, he made his horse leap across. One or two companions followed him over the trench, while all the others remained standing at its edge. Once inside, he challenged the Muslims to combat. Hazrat Ali advanced to face him and, after receiving only a slight wound, sent him to Hell. That single day was so difficult for the Muslim army that, while repelling enemies approaching from various directions, they missed four prayer times.

The prolonged siege was a source of concern for the Muslims, but it also troubled the enemy. After much consultation, it was decided that, for a final assault, the Jewish tribe Banu Qurayzah would have to be induced to break its treaty with the Messenger (peace be upon him) and attack from within. At Abu Sufyan’s request, Huyayy ibn Akhtab accepted this responsibility. He met Ka’b ibn Asad, the chief of Banu Qurayzah, and presented his case. Ka’b initially refused. He said, “I have always seen Muhammad (peace be upon him) keep his promises. Therefore, breaking our promise to him would be an extremely inhumane act.” But Huyayy ibn Akhtab repeatedly pressed his request with all his might and said, “We have come with countless soldiers. The entire Arab nation has joined us. The whole army is intoxicated with the desire for Muhammad’s blood. We must not let this opportunity slip away. The final hour of Islam has now arrived.” In short, the scheme of incitement succeeded, and the matter immediately reached the Muslims’ ears. The Messenger (peace be upon him) investigated whether it was true. The investigation confirmed it. When a group of Companions testified that the report was true, the only words uttered by the Messenger (peace be upon him) were, “Allahu Akbar! Hasbunallahu wa ni’mal-wakil.” (“Allah is the Greatest. Allah is sufficient for us, and He is the best Protector.”)

The vastness of the battlefield, the prolonged siege, the shortage of soldiers, the lack of equipment, the severity of hunger, and sleeplessness, together with the hypocrites slipping away from the battlefield under various flimsy excuses and even missing prayers amid the overwhelming busyness—all this was no ordinary trial. Moreover, when fear of treachery spread within Medina and circumstances arose in which Banu Qurayzah, capable of supplying more than fifteen hundred fighting men, suddenly assumed the role of a terrifying internal enemy, it is difficult today to imagine the mental state of the three thousand mujahideen prepared to die. Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq reported that after learning this news, fear spread among us that our women and children might be attacked in our homes. Because of this fear, we repeatedly climbed the mountain to see whether anything had happened. When we saw that our homes were peaceful, we praised Allah. The Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a force of three hundred mujahideen to ensure Medina’s security. The picture of the circumstances at that time as presented by the Qur’an is as follows:

“Remember when they came upon you from above you and from below you, when your eyes became fixed and your hearts rose to your throats, and you entertained various thoughts about Allah.”

(Al-Ahzab 10)

Indeed, the Muslims underwent a trial in this event unlike anything they had experienced in either of the two major preceding battles. It is true that they suffered indescribable hardship at Uhud, but everything happened in a single day. This time, however, the suffering was prolonged, and the invaders were not only the Quraysh; there were many others as well. Seeing the Muslims’ distress, the Messenger (peace be upon him) devised a strategy: some part of the enemy force had to be removed from the battlefield through conciliatory efforts. He summoned and spoke with two extremely avaricious chiefs of Banu Ghatafan. He reached an understanding with them by offering them one-third of Medina’s total produce as a settlement, and a draft agreement was prepared. Before signing it, however, he considered it necessary to consult Sa’d ibn Mu’adh and Sa’d ibn Ubadah, the chiefs of Aws and Khazraj. He explained to both of them, “You have been surrounded by such a vast number of enemies that repelling them is not easy. Therefore, no alternative remains except to weaken the enemy’s strength in this way.” Both men’s pride was aroused. They said, “O Messenger, even when we were unbelievers, these tribes could not take our wealth in this manner. Now that we have accepted Islam and become stronger than before, shall we hand over our wealth to them in this way? By Allah, this can never be. We have no need for such an agreement.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) was extremely pleased to hear this reply. When he handed the draft agreement to Hazrat Sa’d, Sa’d tore it up.

Nevertheless, the complexity of the situation remained unchanged. Allah suddenly brought about a solution. It was a remarkable event and one of the clearest signs of the Islamic movement’s moral and intellectual truthfulness. At such a catastrophic moment, Nu’aym ibn Mas’ud suddenly came forward. He went to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, “O Messenger, I have become a Muslim.” Saying this, he publicly recited the testimony of faith and declared the purity of his belief. Then he said, “Since the enemy still does not know that I have accepted Islam, if you permit me, I can take some steps to break the unity of the Quraysh and Banu Qurayzah.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) gave him permission. Nu’aym went to Banu Qurayzah. After some initial conversation, he said to them, “If victory is achieved, that is well and good. But think about what will happen if defeat is your lot. If defeated, the Quraysh and Ghatafan will all leave, and you alone will become the target of Muhammad’s attack. Therefore, tell the Quraysh and Ghatafan to leave some of their men with you as hostages. Cooperate with them only if they fulfill this condition; otherwise, separate yourselves from them.” Then Nu’aym went to the Quraysh leaders. He told them, “I have some information that I consider it important to share with you. Banu Qurayzah has now changed its position. You will soon have proof of this. They will ask you to leave some men as hostages.” Consequently, the Quraysh informed Banu Qurayzah, “We can no longer endure this prolonged siege. If you cooperate with us now, we will launch a final assault.” Banu Qurayzah demanded that they leave some men as hostages. At this point, the Quraysh believed Nu’aym’s words and no longer trusted Banu Qurayzah. As a result of this strategy, the entire picture of the war changed.

The enemies of Islam began to feel exhausted because their unity had been fractured. Nearly a month had passed since they had left home. Their work had suffered greatly, and much money had already been spent, yet they had gained nothing. Meanwhile, supplying such a huge army and its animals became an acute problem. A large portion of the Quraysh provisions was seized on the way by a Muslim force. In addition, the weather became unfavorable. The cold became unbearable. In such historic events, natural factors often have a very serious impact. A slight indication of Allah’s will can bring about the final solution to a problem. History bears witness that natural forces sometimes join together to tip the scales of truth in an extremely precarious situation. One night, a storm suddenly arose so fiercely that the invaders’ tents were uprooted, their fires went out, their pots and utensils were scattered, and the animals were terrified. In a word, their enthusiasm and spirit froze completely. They became extremely frightened and began thinking of abandoning the war and fleeing. Regarding this unseen aid, Allah says:

“Remember Allah’s favor to you when forces came against you, and We sent against them a wind and forces you could not see.” (Surah Al-Ahzab 9)

Seeing the widespread terror and despair among the soldiers, Abu Sufyan realized that they could not hold out much longer. Thus, they suddenly departed from Medina. The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “The era of the Quraysh’s attacks has now ended.” In other words, they had tested the strength of their own forces at Badr and Uhud. At the Trench, they had launched a united attack with allies from throughout Arabia. That attack had also failed. Since it would no longer be possible for them to assemble such a force in the future, how could the Quraysh wage war again? Future battles would require even greater strength.

There were very few casualties on either side in this battle, and far fewer among the Muslim army. A total of six Muslims were martyred. Among them was the extraordinary Sa’d ibn Mu’adh. He was wounded by an arrow and died several days later.

Some Important Lessons from the Battle of the Trench

The instructive points of this battle are as follows:

1—The greatest faith-inspiring feature was the self-sacrificing enthusiasm of the Muslim volunteers. They not only demonstrated supreme patience and unshakable courage throughout that terrifying situation, but completed the digging of the trench in such a way that it seemed as though an army of jinn had seized the earth and turned it upside down. They did this work while singing Islamic songs.

(Arabic********)

“We are those who have pledged, by placing our hands in Muhammad’s hand, to continue striving throughout our lives.”

Another group began singing:

(Arabic********)

“The enemies have attacked us to drive us away from the path of truth, but we will not accept it.” In particular, when the words “we will not accept it, we will not accept it” were sung loudly in unison, the air resounded with an unshakable resolve.”

One reason for their enthusiasm was that everything they had achieved through a lifetime of struggle had come under threat. The Islamic movement and the Islamic state of Medina were the most beloved things in their eyes. They considered it a blessing to sacrifice all their wealth and lives for them. The sacred struggle and endeavor to secure the comprehensive welfare of humanity in this world and the Hereafter was the dearest work of their lives. The second major reason was that their beloved leader was not merely physically present with them at the place of work; he actively participated in every task. As soon as the digging began, the Messenger (peace be upon him) left his home for the worksite, and a tent was erected for him on a nearby mountain. A mosque called Masjid al-Dhubab now stands at that location. The Messenger (peace be upon him) himself was a member of one of the groups formed with ten members each. It is widely known that Hazrat Salman al-Farsi was capable of doing ten times as much work as anyone else. Therefore, every group tried to claim him as one of its members. The Messenger (peace be upon him) resolved this dispute by saying, “Salman is a member of our household’s group.” Thus Hazrat Salman was honored, and the danger of conflict among the groups was also removed. The Messenger (peace be upon him) both cut and carried earth. Whenever a hard rock became stuck under the shovel, he would personally come to break it. It is reported that he broke two such rocks with his own hands.

2—I have already mentioned how severe the Muslims’ deprivation, complaints, and poverty were during this battle. The digging tools had been borrowed from Banu Qurayzah. There were not even enough baskets to carry earth, so everyone used his own clothing. Food was also in desperately short supply. Since three thousand people were engaged continuously in digging for two or three weeks and then in fighting for another two or three weeks, while all agricultural and commercial activity had ceased, an economic crisis was inevitable. Despite working to the point of exhaustion, the Muslim mujahideen went without food for three consecutive days. Everyone endured this cheerfully because the Messenger (peace be upon him), the leader of the Muslims, shared in the fast. Indeed, he endured more hunger than the others. When someone came and showed that he had tied a stone to his stomach because of hunger, the Messenger (peace be upon him) lifted his garment and showed that he had tied two stones. The quality of sacrifice and self-denial remains present only as long as everyone in the group shares in it. But if some people place themselves above sacrifice and try to impose the responsibility of sacrifice solely on others, this quality begins to disappear from the entire group. In particular, the leaders and those responsible in an Islamic group should strive to remain ahead of everyone else in possessing this quality.

3—Maintaining discipline in society is, in any case, an essential demand of the Islamic movement. On the battlefield, however, it is impossible to confront the enemy effectively without complete discipline. The Messenger (peace be upon him) had taught military discipline from the very first battle. By the time of the Battle of the Trench, that experience had become much broader. Thus, discipline was quite strong in the Battle of the Trench. The digging was completed with complete discipline and an organized distribution of duties. In addition, observation platforms were built at various locations to supervise the work and maintain control over the battlefield, and guards were assigned in shifts. Signals were even established so that the Muslim mujahideen could identify one another. When the team investigating Banu Qurayzah’s treachery returned and reported in support of the accusation, it also gave its report in code. The members of the investigating team said only, “Adal and Qarah”—meaning that Banu Qurayzah had acted treacherously just as the people of Adal and Qarah had betrayed the teacher’s group. Even so, on one occasion two groups of Muslim mujahideen clashed accidentally in the darkness of night, and one man was martyred. From the beginning of the digging until its completion, none of the devoted Muslims left the workplace without permission from the Messenger (peace be upon him).

4—The course the Messenger (peace be upon him) adopted to reach a conciliatory agreement with Banu Ghatafan shows that, in order to protect the Islamic movement from dangerous opposition and weaken the enemy’s strength, it is not inconceivable that one may sometimes have to retreat somewhat or show some flexibility. After becoming acquainted with all kinds of people through prolonged conflict, it may sometimes be necessary to make conciliatory arrangements with them. The Islamic movement may face many complex needs, and meeting those needs requires discretion and wisdom. The ability to understand circumstances and find the best course from them should be an essential quality of every capable and farsighted leadership. Principles and ideals are one thing; methods of action are another. There is no room for flexibility or compromise in principles and ideals. There is such room in methods of action. Those who seek to apply the same formula to methods of action in every circumstance, just as they do to principles, are often unable to accomplish anything significant in history.

It is a separate matter that, fearing the Ansar of Medina might panic at the thought that an unbearable danger had fallen upon them, the Messenger sought a solution to their problem in advance; this was why he wished to reach an understanding with Ghatafan. But when the two leaders of Aws and Khazraj showed firmness, he was reassured.

5—Before giving the proposal for this agreement its final form, the Messenger (peace be upon him) strengthened the system of consultation by consulting the Ansar leaders. Even on the battlefield, he did not make any major decision alone.

6—The role Nu’aym ibn Mas’ud played in creating discord among the enemy was undertaken only with the permission of the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Messenger permitted it on the basis of the principle that “war is a form of deception.” This shows that, within inviolable moral limits, various strategies may be adopted in conflict or warfare. Indeed, in certain circumstances they may become unavoidable. In an extremely dangerous and risky situation, if one merely remains a silent and inactive observer in straightforward fashion and refuses to employ strategy, disaster may result. Unless it is treated as a weak report of Ibn Ishaq, Nu’aym ibn Mas’ud accomplished an extraordinary task with great success without telling a single lie or violating any moral boundary.

7—Hazrat Salman al-Farsi, a Companion belonging to the Messenger’s group, relates: While the trench was being dug, we encountered an enormous rock that I could not break by any means. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was nearby. He took the shovel from me and began striking it repeatedly. After the first blow, he said, “Yemen has been conquered for me.” After the second blow, he said, “Syria and Morocco have bowed before me.” After the third, he said, “The eastern region (Persia) has come under my control.” This prophecy is highly significant in two ways. First, it shows that the Messenger (peace be upon him) had a clear understanding from beginning to end of the stages of the Islamic movement’s success. He also received revelation from Allah in support of this understanding. Second, even in the most adverse circumstances, when strength was at its lowest and danger and hardship were at their most severe, he remained firmly convinced that Islam’s victory was inevitable.

Indeed, we cannot avoid saying that, from the Meccan period through the Medinan period, the Messenger (peace be upon him) repeatedly declared that the Arab and non-Arab worlds would be soundly defeated at the hands of Islam. The statement was so frequently repeated and so widely discussed that it became a permanent slogan of the Islamic movement. I will discuss this matter in detail elsewhere. During various moments of disaster, while mocking this prophecy, a hypocrite named Mu’attab ibn Qushayr said that, on the one hand, Muhammad (peace be upon him) was handing us the keys to the Roman and Persian empires, while in reality none of us could even leave the house to go to the toilet out of fear.

8—Although, because of the special circumstances of this battle, the women and children had been sent inside the fortresses, the Muslim women still played an outstanding role. A woman named Rashidah came to the battlefield with medicines and bandaging materials and cared for many of the wounded. She also bandaged the wound of Hazrat Sa’d ibn Mu’adh. A Jewish youth was seen moving around near one of the women’s camps. The Messenger’s aunt, Hazrat Safiyyah, was there. Hazrat Hassan ibn Thabit had been kept there because of illness. Hazrat Safiyyah told Hassan to seize and beat the man. When the sick Hassan expressed his inability, the courageous Hazrat Safiyyah herself took a piece of wood, beat the man to death, cut off his head, and threw it outside the fortress so that the other criminals would be warned. After this incident, no enemy dared approach that area. Hazrat Sa’d ibn Mu’adh’s mother was also in the fortress where Hazrat Aishah was staying. Hazrat Aishah came out of the fortress and, hearing the sound of footsteps, looked and saw Sa’d ibn Mu’adh advancing proudly toward the battlefield with a spear. As he walked, he recited poetry absorbed in thought:

“Wait a little; let another young man join the battle,

When death is inevitable,

why should one fear death?”

When Sa’d’s mother heard her son’s poem, she called out loudly, “Go quickly, Sa’d. You are already very late.” A little later, when Sa’d was struck by an arrow and attained martyrdom from that wound, the meaning of his poem became a reality.

Did you see the emotion of a Muslim mother!

9—The devout Muslims who found themselves in the terrifying circumstances of the Battle of the Trench, upon witnessing this tempest of dangers and calamities, did not become frightened in the least; instead, they spontaneously exclaimed: “This is exactly the situation that Allah and His Messenger had informed us beforehand we would have to face.” Indeed, just as victory for truth is impossible in this world without passing through such perilous circumstances, so the attainment of Paradise in the Hereafter is also impossible. In Surah al-Ahzab, such devoted believers have been praised. They are the true life-force and the true capital of the movement.

10—It is well known regarding the Messenger (peace be upon him) that, in order to establish the Muslims in a distinct civilization, he firmly instilled in their minds the principle that imitation of alien peoples in the social and cultural spheres is undesirable. Instead, new cultural values must be developed in the light of their own ideals. Every cultural trend must be reconstructed according to Islamic tastes. But when we see the Messenger (peace be upon him) openly accepting the Iranian defensive strategy of constructing a trench, we understand that the exchange of material means and resources, technology, engineering, and technical information has been left open to all humanity. It is not necessary to regard the means, technologies, engineering methods, technical information, and practices that are effective at a particular time as necessarily requiring identical application in every age, culture, and circumstance. Nor is it necessary to call such things Shariah or Sunnah. In these matters, necessary elements should be adopted from other nations and cultures. From Islam’s perspective, it is an indispensable duty of an Islamic state and its leadership to employ the most influential means and resources of the age, advance its people in technical knowledge and technology, and learn the most successful technologies from others while also developing innovations of its own.

From the Battle of the Trench to the Conquest of Makkah

During these two years between the Battle of the Trench and the Conquest of Makkah, several important political measures and small military expeditions took place. It is essential to consider them in order to follow the continuity of events.

The Banu Qurayzah tribe was the worst example of the moral and psychological corruption of the Jewish people. Evil customs and evil deeds were rooted in their very nature and pervasive character. Although they had become citizens of the Islamic state by entering into a constitutional treaty with it, they continued to engage in every kind of conspiracy and create disorder. Yet their open violation of the treaty during the Battle of the Trench and alliance with the invading enemy was an act of extreme treachery. In no age or country can the execution of those involved in this crime be regarded as injustice or oppression. They had left no effort undone to destroy the Messenger (peace be upon him), the Islamic group, the Islamic movement, and the Islamic state of Madinah. Therefore, there was no justification for failing to punish them appropriately. After the invading Quraysh and their allied armies departed, the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslim volunteers left the trench positions in the morning and returned to their homes. The Messenger (peace be upon him) put down his weapon and bathed. At that very moment, revelation came to him: “Proceed toward Banu Qurayzah.” The mujahideen had not even removed their battle clothes when they were called to a new expedition. The Muslim army besieged this treacherous tribe. The siege continued uninterrupted for twenty-five days. Even at this critical moment, they insulted the Messenger (peace be upon him) from atop the fortress. At last, Banu Qurayzah became desperate. Their chief, Ka‘b ibn Asad, presented several proposals to the Muslims in an effort to escape his anxiety. But the Muslim army accepted none of them. Finally, compelled by circumstances, they surrendered unconditionally to the Islamic state. After conferring with them and with their consent, the Messenger (peace be upon him) appointed Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh as arbitrator. Both sides granted Sa‘d authority to decide. Sa‘d ruled according to the law of the Jews’ scripture, the Torah, that all the young men of Banu Qurayzah should be killed. Thus, the military and political power of a scheming group was curtailed. It should be noted that even at such a bitter moment, one member of Banu Qurayzah, ‘Umar ibn Sa‘d, embraced Islam. This righteous man had repeatedly warned Banu Qurayzah not to violate the treaty, but they paid no heed to him.

After this incident, one of Islam’s formidable and scheming enemies, Abu Rafi‘ ‘Abdullah ibn Abu al-Huqayq (also known as Sallam), was killed by several Khazraji youths from Syria. He had worked very hard to recruit soldiers for the unbelievers during the Battle of the Trench.

While Muhammad ibn Maslamah al-Ansari was engaged in border patrol with thirty mounted soldiers, a clash broke out with Thumamah ibn Uthal, the chief of the Najd region. Seeing Thumamah traveling toward Madinah, the commander arrested him and brought him to the Messenger (peace be upon him). He said to the Messenger (peace be upon him): “O Muhammad, if you kill me, you will know that you have killed one who deserved to be killed. If you release me, you will know that you have released one who knows how to appreciate a favor. And if you want wealth and property, state the amount and it will be given.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) released him with honor. Impressed by this favor, he embraced Islam. After accepting Islam, he frankly acknowledged: “Before today, no one’s face was more hateful to me than Muhammad’s, but today no face is dearer to me than his.” Thus, the way was opened for Islam in an important political region such as Najd. It was this same Thumamah who went to Makkah and challenged the Quraysh, saying, “From now on, you will not receive even a single grain of food.”

The Messenger (peace be upon him) arrived with two hundred mounted soldiers to punish the people of Raji‘ who had killed the seven-member teaching delegation, including Khubayb. But they fled, and he returned without any clash. As a political maneuver, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent ten men as far as Qurawn Na‘im to patrol, so that the Quraysh would understand that Madinah was extremely vigilant.

About one manzil from Madinah, toward the territory of Banu Ghatafan, there was a water reservoir called Dhu Qarad. Near it was Madinah’s government pasture for camels and livestock. A man from ‘Usfan had been appointed as its shepherd. The Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a servant named Rabah to investigate. Salamah ibn al-Akwa‘ was the military supervisor. He too was heading toward the central position. In the morning, while they were still on the way, ‘Uyaynah ibn Hisn al-Fazari (or ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Uyaynah) and a group of his companions raided the camels and drove them away. The raiders killed the government shepherd and also abducted his wife. Seeing this brutal killing and looting, Salamah ibn al-Akwa‘ turned toward Madinah and shouted loudly, “O people, help!” He sent Rabah to bring assistance, while he himself pursued the raiders alone. Shouting from behind them and shooting arrows, he advanced, bringing down the raiders one by one. Whenever an arrow felled a raider, he cried out, “I am Ibn al-Akwa‘. Today is the day to see how much milk each man has drunk from his mother’s breast.” The route was mountainous and surrounded by trees. Whenever the raiders looked back, he concealed himself and shot arrows—in other words, he was using guerrilla tactics. Once he pelted the raiders with stones so severely that, disoriented, they first abandoned the stolen camels and then began throwing away cloaks and weapons to lighten their load. Meanwhile, Miqdad ibn ‘Amr was immediately sent from Madinah to assist Salamah, and afterward the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself set out with an army. When several Muslim soldiers drew very close to the raiders, the raiders began fleeing even faster. Among these Muslim soldiers, Mihray ibn Nazlah, also known as Akhram, may have been overcome by a yearning for martyrdom. When he pursued the raiders alone and went far ahead, they began fighting him. Akhram was martyred. Then Abu Qatadah killed one of the principal raiders. Hazrat Salamah ibn al-Akwa‘ continued the pursuit and returned with the horses he had seized. Meeting the Messenger (peace be upon him), he said, “If you had given me one hundred soldiers, I would have finished them all.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) replied, “Since Allah has already granted you victory, now show restraint.” Behold the bravery and courage of these Companions. It was as though electricity flowed through each of them. Their role and character were entirely different from those of ordinary rioters. They struggled with all their might for a clear objective. Their love for that objective was so great that, without any promise of reward, they could risk their lives; and in every battle they entered, they did not leave their opponents without confronting them.

A patrol unit set out under the leadership of ‘Ukkashah ibn Hisn al-Asadi to guard the frontier. Rumors had spread that the Banu Asad tribe was gathering to attack Madinah. When the Muslim force reached the relevant area, the conspirators abandoned their homes and disappeared. The Muslim soldiers seized two hundred of their camels from the pasture and brought them back.

In the month of Rabi‘ al-Awwal of the sixth year after the Hijrah, an educational and missionary delegation led by Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to the Banu Tha‘labah tribe. When they reached a place called Dhu Qussah, they were martyred in their sleep during the night. Only the leader, Muhammad ibn Maslamah, survived, grievously wounded. A Muslim carried him on his shoulders to Madinah. In Rabi‘ al-Thani, Abu ‘Ubaydah (may Allah be pleased with him) set out at night with twenty-four soldiers to punish the criminals and launched an attack at dawn. The anarchists fled, and all their property and possessions were confiscated.

Zayd ibn Harithah went with a patrol unit toward Jamuh, located near Batn Nakhlah. The settlement of Banu Sulaym was there. They were two parties at war with each other, and neither missed an opportunity to harm the other. In addition, a woman named Halimah had conducted espionage concerning them. The patrol unit carried out a minor attack, captured some of their men, and seized some livestock. Later, the Messenger (peace be upon him) released all the captives because Halimah had provided false information.

Zayd ibn Harithah, with a small force of fourteen men excluding himself, proceeded toward the Banu Salmah watering place to punish the criminals of Dhu Qussah. The criminals fled, and twenty of their camels were confiscated. We have already discussed the political, economic, and military importance of Dumat al-Jandal. This highly strategic place was still at risk. Although the Messenger (peace be upon him) had first directed his attention there, he had returned without achieving the desired objective. This time, Hazrat ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf was sent to Dumat al-Jandal for missionary work. Through his sincere efforts, first the Christian leader of the area’s principal tribe, Asim ibn ‘Amr al-Kalbi, and then the entire Christian tribe embraced Islam. The tribal leader married his daughter Tamadur to Hazrat ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf. In this way, he strengthened his political relationship with the Islamic state.

News came to Madinah from Fidak that the Banu Sa‘d ibn Bakr tribe had gathered military strength in order to assist the Jews of Khaybar in harming the Islamic government. Hazrat ‘Ali set out cautiously with two hundred soldiers. They traveled at night and hid during the day. On the way, a messenger of Banu Sa‘d was captured while traveling toward Khaybar. He was carrying a message to the Jews of Khaybar saying that assistance would be provided only if all the dates of Khaybar were given to Banu Sa‘d. Hazrat ‘Ali launched a surprise attack and routed the enemy. They fled. The Muslim force suffered no losses; moreover, it brought back the livestock of Banu Sa‘d. One unfortunate incident was that Zayd ibn Harithah went on a trading journey to Syria carrying his own and other Companions’ capital. On the return journey, Banu Badra ambushed their caravan at Wadi al-Qura. The caravan had few people, so the raiders martyred nine men, wounded one, and seized all the merchandise. Finally, after two months, a force was sent under the leadership of Abu Bakr to punish the criminals. A number of the raiders were killed, while the others fled.

Some people from the two tribes called ‘Ukl and ‘Uraynah came to Madinah and became Muslims. But they fell ill in the new climate. They were kept under government medical care outside Madinah. After recovering, they ambushed the government shepherd, thrust heated iron rods into his eyes, then brutally killed him and fled with the animals. The Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a group of twenty mounted soldiers under the leadership of Qarz ibn Khalid al-Fihri to capture them. They were arrested and given exemplary punishment for abandoning Islam, robbery, murder, warfare, and brutal acts. Retribution was taken from them justly. Otherwise, if anyone dared to commit such an outrage against an organized government supported by the people, everything would inevitably become a farce, and no administration could function even for a single day.

The greatest event of this period, and the one that had the most far-reaching influence on the political and defensive situation, was the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. In the month of Dhu al-Qi‘dah of the sixth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) took up position at a place called Hudaybiyyah. By concluding a truce with the Quraysh there, he secured himself against the greatest enemy and created extensive opportunities for missionary and constructive work. Moreover, it became easier to eliminate the anarchists from the areas surrounding Madinah.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) returned from Hudaybiyyah to Madinah in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah, and a few days later, on the seventh of Muharram, set out for Khaybar. Khaybar was both a highly active political base against the Islamic state and a center of military conspiracy. The Jews of Khaybar had not only acted hostilely toward the Islamic state during the Battle of Uhud; they had also played a highly active oppositional role in the Battle of the Trench. The Battle of Khaybar was indeed an extraordinary and large-scale battle. Yet I have counted it among ordinary expeditions because it was not a battle on the level of Badr, Uhud, or the Trench, nor was it a continuation of them. It was a different kind of military operation. Since the Islamic movement’s call had not yet entered its international phase, and peoples of other nations and religions, unlike the Quraysh and the Arabs, had not been addressed by this call in its first stage, no conflict arose with the Jews of Khaybar merely because they did not accept the call; the conflict arose because of their political crimes. For this reason, they were treated as opponents in a political war. When they were defeated, their territory was declared conquered territory and they were granted the status of subjects. The Messenger (peace be upon him) instituted this kind of arrangement only at Khaybar and nowhere else. In any case, once security had been achieved from the direction of the Quraysh, no obstacle remained to attacking Khaybar. Only those who would act with enthusiasm for jihad solely for Allah’s pleasure were permitted to participate. It should be noted that Muslim women also joined this expedition without informing the Messenger (peace be upon him). When he learned of it later, he expressed displeasure and asked them why they had come. When they explained that they had come to serve the Muslim warriors, he gave his consent. He even later allotted them a share of the spoils of war. Leaving Siba ibn ‘Arfatah as temporary governor in Madinah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) set out with fourteen hundred soldiers. He reached a place called Raji‘ and established camp there. When the Muslim soldiers suddenly appeared before the Jews of Khaybar, the Jews fled and took refuge inside the fortresses. Then the battle began. Fighting continued with arrows being shot from both sides. At last, the Muslims were victorious. The battle began with an attack on the fortress of Na‘tat. The fortress of Sa‘b was then besieged. A Jewish man named Murahhab challenged the Muslims. ‘Amir ibn al-Akwa‘ was martyred in single combat with him. Nevertheless, the siege succeeded. The strongest fortress was Qamus. Because of a severe headache, the Messenger (peace be upon him) refrained from taking part in the battle. By a special proclamation, he sent Hazrat ‘Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) on this expedition. The Jewish warrior Murahhab advanced singing a battle hymn. Muhammad ibn Maslamah came forward, wishing to avenge the killing of his brother, and cut Murahhab’s leg. Then Hazrat ‘Ali’s sword sent him to Hell. After Murahhab came his brother Yasir. Al-Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam confronted him and killed him. After a twenty-day siege, this most important fortress fell into Muslim hands. Since the fortress was conquered under Hazrat ‘Ali’s leadership, he became known as the “Conqueror of Khaybar.” When the Jews fled from this fortress, Safiyyah, the daughter of Huwayy ibn Akhtab, the notorious Jewish enemy of Islam, was captured along with two of her cousins. Since she was the daughter of a distinguished tribal chief, the Messenger (peace be upon him), after consulting the Companions, placed her under his family’s protection. The Jews then gathered at the fortress of al-Zubayr. After remaining under siege for three days, they came out and engaged in a fierce battle. Ten Jews were killed and several Muslims were martyred. Eventually, this fortress was conquered. Three fortresses now remained: al-Qutaybah, al-Watih, and al-Salim. All the Jews’ manpower and wealth became concentrated in these three fortresses. The Muslim army continued the siege for fourteen days. Finally, it was decided to use cannons to hurl stones. When the besieged learned of this, they had no alternative. They began negotiations. After the discussions, it was decided that they could leave with their lives only. But when they requested that they be employed in the fields and gardens and allowed to remain, the Messenger (peace be upon him) showed generosity and agreed. An arrangement was made with them in exchange for half of the produce. When the people of Fidak learned of this arrangement, they too requested it. The same kind of arrangement was granted to them. During this period, two Jewish youths, Huwaysah and Muhaysah, embraced Islam.

During the siege of the Na‘tat fortress, a black shepherd among the people of Khaybar underwent a change of heart. He asked the Jews, “Who are you fighting?” They replied, “A man who claims prophethood.” Hearing this, curiosity arose in his mind, and he came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) to ask, “What is your message?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) explained to him in detail Islam’s doctrine of monotheism. The mind and heart of Aswad became open to Islam. He asked, “The Jews’ goats and sheep are in my care. What should I do with them?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) could have seized the Jews’ goats and sheep and included them among the provisions of the Muslim soldiers. But in this situation he instructed the shepherd Aswad to uphold his trust. Following the Messenger’s instruction, he brought the goats and sheep near the fortress and drove them inside by pelting them with stones. Then he returned to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and asked, “If I die fighting, what will happen to me in the Hereafter?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) told him, “You will enter Paradise.” He fought sincerely and attained martyrdom.

A newly converted Bedouin took part in the Battle of Khaybar. When a share of the spoils was assigned to him, he said, “O Messenger, I did not follow you out of greed for this. I came so that I might give my life in the path of truth and enter Paradise.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) gave him the good news that this purpose of his would also be fulfilled. He then entered the battle and attained martyrdom.

Shortly after the Conquest of Khaybar, when Hazrat Ja‘far ibn Abu Talib (Hazrat ‘Ali’s brother) unexpectedly returned from Abyssinia with many companions and met the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the other Muslim brothers, the joy of the Conquest of Khaybar increased many times over.

Hujjaj ibn ‘Ulat al-Sulami, who owned the mines in the region inhabited by Banu Sulaym, became a Muslim during the siege of Khaybar. Before the Conquest of Khaybar was fully completed, he obtained permission from the Messenger (peace be upon him), hurried to Makkah, and informed Hazrat ‘Abbas, who was staying there, of the advance good news of the Conquest of Khaybar.

After the matter of Khaybar had been settled, the Muslim soldiers set out toward Wadi al-Qura. It too was a vile stronghold of Islam’s enemies. Some Arabs lived there alongside the Jews. As soon as the Muslim soldiers arrived, stones were hurled at them from the front, and a slave named Mudayyam was wounded. The Messenger (peace be upon him) repeatedly extended Islam’s invitation from his side. But one after another, men came out from the other side issuing challenges to fight and were killed in single combat with the Muslim soldiers. Eleven men came out in succession in this way. This continued until nightfall. The final victory was achieved at dawn the following day. Thereafter, following the earlier examples, the inhabitants of Wadi al-Qura were also employed in farming and agricultural work, and a governor was appointed for them from among themselves. When the Jews of Tayma learned of the arrangement there, they voluntarily expressed interest in a treaty, and they too were employed in cultivating their own land.

As a result of this campaign of conquest, the extensive fertile lands that came under Muslim control included the lands of Fidak and Khaybar, which were made government-owned estates (State Land). The proceeds from these lands were used by the rulers of the state to support their dependents and the poor of society. Some disagreement arose concerning these estates after the death of the Messenger (peace be upon him). However, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) and the farsighted Companions retained those lands, as before, as government-owned estates. The other lands were placed under Muslim ownership, and their produce was distributed among them.

A patrol force under the leadership of Hazrat ‘Umar went to warn Banu Hawazin. As a result, Banu Hawazin dispersed.

News was received concerning a Jew named Bashir ibn Warik (or Usayr ibn Rizam) that he was inciting Banu Ghatafan to fight. ‘Abdullah ibn Rawahah went with a military force and, by persuading Bashir in every possible way, convinced him to go to Madinah and confer with the Messenger (peace be upon him). Since the Muslims numbered thirty, he too took thirty men as a precaution, and one Jew and one Muslim rode together on each camel. As soon as Bashir reached for ‘Abdullah’s sword in the darkness of night, ‘Abdullah sprang down from the camel in alarm, drew his sword, and faced him. Seeing the two leaders in this situation, their companions on both sides also began fighting, and in the end all thirty-one Jews were killed one after another.

It was the month of Muharram in the seventh year after the Hijrah. It was heard that four tribes—Banu Ghatafan, Banu Muharib, Banu Tha‘labah, and Banu Anmar—were preparing to attack Madinah. The Messenger (peace be upon him) set out on an expedition with four hundred fighting Muslims. The enemies involved in the conspiracy to attack were scattered. This expedition is called the Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa‘.

After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the commercial roads were opened to the Muslims. But when Abu Jandal escaped from the Quraysh’s custody and left Makkah, a strict clause of the treaty prevented him from going to Madinah, so he stayed on a Syrian mountain near the seacoast. Later, Abu Basir and other Muslims also joined him. In this way, a proper military force of Muslims was formed in Syrian territory. They attacked a Quraysh caravan and seized its goods. But when the Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered them to return the goods, they obeyed the order immediately. The Quraysh then realized and regretted that they had harmed themselves by including such a strict clause in the treaty. Later, the Messenger (peace be upon him) summoned Abu Jandal to Madinah.

When Banu Maluh killed the companions of Bashir ibn Suwayd, ‘Abdullah al-Laythi went with a military force to warn them. A minor clash took place, and some of the enemy’s belongings were confiscated.

The Messenger’s envoy, Dihyah al-Kalbi, was returning to Madinah from the court of the Roman emperor Heraclius with gifts and other presents. Hunayd ibn ‘Iyad al-Ja‘fari raided him and seized all the gifts. A military force was sent under the leadership of Zayd ibn Harithah to punish Hunayd for this vile attack against the Islamic state. Hunayd was killed in the clash. However, his companions repented and embraced Islam.

Banu Kilab were preparing to rebel. Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) set out with troops to suppress the rebellion. After the clash, the enemy soldiers were defeated and fled.

When the possibility of rebellion arose in the Juhaina region, Usama ibn Zayd was sent there with a contingent of soldiers to bring the situation under control. He first tried to reason with them, but eventually a clash took place. At that time, when Hazrat Usama pursued Suhaik ibn Mirdas, the latter recited the Kalima Tayyiba. Usama, however, thought that he had pretended to embrace Islam merely to save his life after being defeated. He therefore killed him. When the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, later heard what had happened, he was deeply distressed, for his true aim was to reform people, not to kill them.

Bashir ibn Sa’d al-Khazraji was sent with a small contingent of soldiers to discipline the residents of Fazara and Adhra, who had aided the Jews of Khaybar. The opposing side was defeated in a brief clash.

After receiving information that Banu Sulaym were preparing to attack Medina, Ibn Abi al-Awja was sent with fifty soldiers. Here too, the enemy outnumbered them.

They attacked and martyred the entire Muslim contingent. Only the commander, wounded, managed to reach Medina. When Ka’b ibn Umayr al-Ansari was also sent with an extremely small contingent to suppress a rebellion among Banu Quzaya, they martyred the entire Muslim group. Not a single Companion was able to return alive.

Banu Hawazin had aided several forces opposed to Islam. It was learned that they were preparing to attack five manzils from Medina. A small group was sent under the leadership of Shuja ibn Wahb al-Asadi. However, they did not have to engage in any clash.

The major battle that took place during this period was the Battle of Mu’tah. It occurred in Jumada al-Awwal of the eighth year after the Hijrah. Since this battle was fought entirely against a foreign power, I shall discuss it separately together with Tabuk.

It was learned that Qays ibn Rifa’ah was gathering troops for an attack. Abu Hadraya al-Aslami was sent with a group of only two men to observe the situation. Through sheer subtle strategy, he frightened and scattered the enemy troops and brought back their livestock as spoils. No clash took place here.

News was received that Banu Qudama were preparing to attack Medina in alliance with others. Amr ibn al-As set out with three hundred soldiers to confront them. The place called Dhat al-Salasil lies just beyond Wadi al-Qura. For many years this place had been dangerous for the Islamic state. Upon reaching the site, it was learned that the enemy forces were much larger. Amr ibn al-As sent a messenger to request more troops. Another two hundred soldiers, under the leadership of Hazrat Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, arrived immediately. As soon as the attack began, the enemy soldiers fled. Some cattle they had abandoned were seized.

Once, while Abu Qatada and Muhallam ibn Juthama were on patrol, Amir ibn al-Azbat al-Ashjai happened to meet them with several others. They greeted them with the Muslim salutation. Muhallam, however, thought their greeting was a tactic of self-defense and, assuming them to be enemies, killed them all. On this occasion, the Qur’an rebuked them as follows:

It was said: When you go out on patrol, identify the people, and do not casually declare someone a disbeliever merely because he offers the salutation of peace. The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, issued a stern warning. Later, the chief of the slain man’s tribe came to demand blood money. The Messenger immediately gave him fifty camels and, after much persuasion, convinced him to agree to receive the remaining fifty later.

In Rajab of the eighth year after the Hijrah, at the Messenger’s command, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah went to the coast of the sea with three soldiers. They merely patrolled as far as the seashore, spent several days in the coastal area, and returned. The purpose was probably to observe the route and make the Quraysh understand that Medina had recently turned its attention in this direction. It should be noted that, after the Quraysh violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, these Muslim activities paved the way for the conquest of Mecca.

The Fourth Major Expedition—The Conquest of Mecca

So far I have described the major attacks by the Quraysh and other forces opposed to Islam. From this account it has become clear that, in all these battles—Badr, Uhud, and the Trench—it was the forces of ignorance that came to Medina and launched the aggression, and all the clashes took place in and around the Islamic state of Medina. In all these conflicts, the government of Medina adopted a purely defensive role. After the Battle of the Trench, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, had accurately foretold, in light of his political foresight and wisdom, that the Quraysh’s aggressive campaigns had now come to an end. He also indicated that from then on, God willing, we would attack the Quraysh. During the intervening period, when the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was concluded and the Quraysh refrained from attacking the Muslims, the Messenger used the opportunity, on the one hand, to suppress Medina’s rebellious traitors with a firm hand and, on the other, to uproot the strongholds the Jews had established in the north and turned into centers for military conspiracies. In addition, he countered every minor rebellion, military preparation, and conspiracy by the various tribes so swiftly and firmly that the environment of Medina became largely safe and free of disorder. During this interval, from the Battle of the Trench until the conquest of Mecca, the Islamic state’s formidable power spread everywhere, and Islam compelled everyone to acknowledge its political existence. Everyone began to feel that no one had the power to uproot or resist this rising force of truth, justice, and fairness. People of every class realized that future leadership and authority no longer lay in the hands of the Quraysh; rather, they had passed into the hands of Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him.

Only one means now remained to gain complete and permanent freedom from the enemy: uprooting the enemy’s principal stronghold and extinguishing the lamp of the leadership of ignorance in its own home. Thus, sooner or later, an offensive expedition had to be launched to complete the defensive struggle. It was the Quraysh’s own doing that they themselves violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and demolished the wall of peace and security between the two sides.

As we mentioned earlier, enmity had long existed between Banu Bakr and Banu Khuza’ah, with an unending chain of revenge and counter-revenge continuing between them. In the meantime, the Islamic movement suddenly emerged as an alarming problem. The Quraysh and other idolatrous tribes were compelled to unite solely to oppose the Islamic movement. The fire of their mutual hostility was temporarily suppressed. Finally, when the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was concluded, Banu Khuza’ah took advantage of one of its provisions and entered into an alliance with the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. Banu Bakr, on the other hand, formed an alliance with the Quraysh. Several days passed quietly. But at last the gunpowder of their old enmity exploded. Banu Bakr regarded this period of reconciliation as a golden opportunity, since there was no fear of conflict from any other direction at that time. They killed a member of Banu Khuza’ah and then launched a powerful attack, subjecting them to widespread persecution and oppression. They did not even spare the Khuza’ah who had sought refuge in the Sacred Sanctuary, nor did they forgive them while they were worshipping. The Quraysh gave Banu Bakr their full support in this bloodshed. Through this foolish action, they trampled upon the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Amr ibn Salim went to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, on behalf of Banu Khuza’ah and appealed against Banu Bakr’s oppression. Then Budayl ibn Warqa went with a delegation and described the persecution. In light of the alliance, it became obligatory for the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, to help Banu Khuza’ah. He presented the Quraysh with three demands to restore the situation: first, pay Banu Khuza’ah financial compensation for the slain man; second, abandon support for Banu Bakr; third, as an alternative to the first two demands, announce the cancellation of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. The Quraysh had already lost their balance. They therefore declared that canceling the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was acceptable. Later, however, they regretted it.

The Quraysh leaders now became anxious. They had already lost the ability to fight. Their valuable warriors had been killed in several battles, causing irreparable damage to their military strength. Their economy had also been ruined. The Jews who supported them were nearly on the brink of total destruction. By contrast, through its missionary activities, the Islamic state of Medina had expanded its influence so extensively that a circle of tribes supporting it had formed even around Mecca. The scope of its alliances had also been broadened. A new administrative system was being established to suppress anarchic and rebellious forces firmly and create peace and order across a vast area. Consequently, the Quraysh could hardly defend themselves, let alone take offensive action. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah had been their only safeguard. By canceling even this safeguard themselves, they seemed to call out to Medina: Come, punish us for what we have done.

At last, Abu Sufyan, Mecca’s greatest unbelieving leader, set out for Medina in desperation to renew the treaty. There he encountered circumstances so unfavorable that he had probably never imagined them. The moment he went to his daughter, Umm al-Mu’minin Hazrat Umm Habiba’s house, and tried to sit on the bed, she rushed forward, removed it, and said, “You cannot sit on the Messenger’s, peace and blessings be upon him, sacred bed while you remain a polytheist.” He then went and met, one by one, leading Muslim figures such as Hazrat Abu Bakr, Umar, and Ali, seeking help from each of them. He even asked Hazrat Fatimah to recommend him to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. When this also failed, he asked Fatimah, may Allah be pleased with her, to allow the child Imam Hasan to intercede. When nothing worked, he was left with no recourse. Following Hazrat Ali’s advice, he announced a unilateral guarantee of peaceful coexistence at the Muslims’ general assembly on his own behalf, then returned to Mecca without waiting for any response from the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. When the people of Mecca asked about his journey and heard of the unilateral declaration, they all said, “Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, was only mocking you.” Observe how even the intelligence and judgment of declining, negative people become corrupted.

Without delay, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, announced that a Muslim volunteer force should be formed. He also ordered weapons to be manufactured in his own house. However, he did not let anyone know where or in which direction this military expedition would set out. Even Hazrat Aisha did not learn of it, although she herself had made weapons for the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. Most people probably assumed that Mecca would be attacked this time, since there was no reason to take such a large army anywhere else.

The family of Hاطib ibn Abi Balta’ah, a veteran of Badr, was still surrounded by unbelievers in Mecca, and no tribe had assumed responsibility for their protection. Therefore, to safeguard them, he sent the Quraysh a secret letter containing full details of Medina’s preparations, so that in return for this favor they would refrain from harming his family in the course of the conquest of Mecca. At the same time, he was confident that, despite supplying this secret information, victory for the Muslim army was certain and that his letter could not cause any serious harm to Islam. This incident shows that, under pressure from external circumstances and one’s mental state, even a deeply honest person may sometimes suffer a serious lapse. Through revelation, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, learned of the letter. His agents intercepted a woman traveling to Mecca at a place called Rawdat Khakh and recovered the letter from her. The Messenger forgave such a grave error only because Hatib was a devoted, believing, honest Companion and a veteran of Badr, and this lapse had arisen from human weakness.

On the tenth of Ramadan, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, set out from Medina with a vast army of ten thousand soldiers. As an exceptionally skilled commander, he advanced along such winding routes that the Quraysh patrol sent out to observe the area could not detect the Muslim army anywhere. While they wandered about here and there, the Muslim army arrived at the outskirts of Mecca, astonishing everyone.

When the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, reached Juhfa, his uncle Abbas came to join him with his entire family. Then, when he reached Abwa, Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith ibn Abd al-Muttalib—who was the Messenger’s own cousin and foster brother through Lady Halima—and Abdullah ibn Umayya—who was the Messenger’s cousin through his paternal aunt and the stepbrother of Umm al-Mu’minin Hazrat Umm Salama—appeared and requested permission to meet him. Though a close relative, Abu Sufyan had caused the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, such suffering by opposing Islam that the Messenger refused to meet him. In despair, Abu Sufyan said, “If I do not receive forgiveness, I will take my sons and daughters into the scorching deserts of Arabia, and we will all die of hunger and thirst.” Hazrat Umm Salama, may Allah be pleased with her, interceded for her brother. Hazrat Ali advised both men to seek forgiveness in the words of the brothers of Hazrat Yusuf. So they went and said:

“By Allah, Allah has certainly favored you above us, and we were indeed guilty.” Hearing this, the Messenger’s, peace and blessings be upon him, heart softened. He repeated Hazrat Yusuf’s very response:

“There is no blame upon you today. May Allah forgive you. He is the Most Merciful of those who show mercy.”

When the army camp was established at Mar al-Zahran, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, ordered, for the sake of the greater good, that each soldier light a separate fire for himself at night. When leading figures such as Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Hakim ibn Hizam, and Budayl ibn Warqa went out to observe the situation, they were stunned to see ten thousand fires burning from the mountain. They thought, “What a calamity! Such a huge army has arrived at the very gates of Mecca.” Hazrat Abbas was passing near them. Recognizing Abu Sufyan’s voice, he called him over and spoke with him. Hazrat Abbas said, “Hazrat Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, has arrived today with his entire army. The Quraysh have no escape today.” Abu Sufyan asked, “What can we do to save ourselves now?” Abbas, may Allah be pleased with him, said, “Sit behind me on my mule. You will speak with the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him.” As the mule moved forward, the soldiers repeatedly asked, “Who is going?” As soon as Hazrat Abbas identified himself, they made way. When they drew near, Hazrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, spotted them. Recognizing Abu Sufyan, he shouted loudly, “O Abu Sufyan, today you have fallen into our grasp!” He then rushed to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, to seek permission to kill him. Hazrat Abbas also urged the mule forward. Hazrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, arrived first and presented his case, while Hazrat Abbas said, “I have brought Abu Sufyan under my protection.”

At this point, the following conversation took place between the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, and Abu Sufyan:

The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him: “Well, Abu Sufyan, do you still not believe that there is no deity except Allah?”

Abu Sufyan: “If there were another deity, it would have saved us today.”

The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him: “Do you have any doubt that I am the Messenger of Allah?”

Abu Sufyan: “I have some doubt about that.”

Understanding Abu Sufyan’s psychological weakness, Hazrat Abbas said, “Oh, leave all that aside and accept Islam plainly.” By morning, the leading man of Mecca had been compelled by circumstances to become a Muslim. Meanwhile, before the Islamic army reached Mecca, the Muslim camp had detained Abu Sufyan so skillfully that he did not realize that, in the morning, the Muslim army had marched into the city by way of the Qada route. At the Messenger’s, peace and blessings be upon him, command, Hazrat Abbas took Abu Sufyan to the top of a mountain and stood him there so that he could see the Muslim army at a glance. First Banu Ghifar, then, one after another, Juhaina, Buzaym, Sulaym, and finally the Ansari forces advanced, each carrying its own banner. Abu Sufyan asked the identity of each force. When Sa’d ibn Ubadah passed in front, he became animated with a soldier’s zeal and cried out, “Today is the day of fierce battle!” and “Today is the day the precincts of the Ka’bah will be opened!” Behind this special emotion and distinctive slogan lay a long history of conflict and confrontation. Finally, the mount carrying the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, proceeded in a simple and natural manner. Before him, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam was carrying the banner. When the Messenger heard of Sa’d ibn Ubadah’s slogan, he did not delay for a moment; he took the banner from him and handed it to his son. Then he said, “Today is the day of the Ka’bah’s dignity, and the day of good conduct and fulfillment of promises.” With this single statement, the Messenger made clear the policy of his victory celebrations. He announced that his victory would shine throughout with the glory of mercy and forgiveness. Then it was proclaimed: “Whoever enters the Sacred Mosque, whoever takes refuge in Abu Sufyan’s house, and whoever does not carry weapons shall be safe. But if anyone commits an offense punishable by law, he will be punished.” Abu Sufyan himself proceeded through Mecca, loudly repeating this proclamation. Hearing the Messenger’s proclamation from his lips, his wife Hind bint Utbah pulled his mustache and began shouting, “O Banu Kinana, kill this wretch! What is he saying?” Hind kept abusing Abu Sufyan.

Hearing this, people gathered around them. Abu Sufyan explained to her that there was no use saying such things now. No one had the power to stop Muhammad’s, peace and blessings be upon him, advance. Then, when the Messenger entered the city, he entered with his head bowed in humility, the exact opposite of conquerors throughout the world. His forehead seemed almost to touch the back of his mount. At that time, he was reciting Surah al-Fath aloud.

Meanwhile, Ikrimah ibn Abu Jahl, Safwan ibn Umayya, and Suhayl ibn Amr gathered several foolish Quraysh thugs at a mountain called Khندama and incited them to commit various misdeeds. Himas ibn Qays ibn Khalid also joined them. Two Companions, Qaraz ibn Jabir al-Fihri and Khunays ibn Khalid ibn Rabi, had become separated from the army and were traveling by a different route. These thugs martyred both of them. When Hazrat Khalid learned of the incident, he immediately drove them away. Twelve people were killed in all. Several, including Himas, fled. Another small gathering bent on resistance appeared in the city. When the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, learned of it, he summoned the Ansar forces through Hazrat Abu Hurayra. Showing them the scene, he said, “Do you see their foolishness?” In other words, on the one hand, a flood of mercy and forgiveness was flowing, and the victorious power did not wish to shed a single drop of blood; on the other hand, these wicked people were forcing the victorious army to take up arms. Left with no alternative, the Messenger ordered, “If they try to resist, let them be completely annihilated.” Hearing of this order, Abu Sufyan hurried forward and said in an imploring voice, “O Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him! The power of the Quraysh has already been destroyed. Do not let it happen that their name and trace are erased from the earth.” A light attack was then launched, and the miscreants were beaten and scattered.

Seeing this mercy, some of the Ansar began whispering among themselves, “Look, in the end, love of his tribe has prevailed over the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him!” In reality, it was out of their intense love for the Messenger that they were always tormented by the fear that, after the conquest of Mecca, he might leave them and begin living with the people of Mecca, depriving them of the companionship of their beloved leader. Learning of the Ansar’s fear, the Messenger addressed them: “By Allah, what you fear is not true. I am Allah’s servant and Messenger. I migrated for Allah and to you. Now you are my companions in life and death.” Hearing this, the hearts of the Ansar became overwhelmed with emotion. They expressed regret for their assumption, and the Messenger accepted their apology.

The people asked, “Where will you stay in the city? In your ancestral home?” The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, replied in a deeply pained voice, “Where has Aqil left a house for us in which we could stay?” The Messenger’s banner was planted at Hajun (Jannat al-Mualla), and it was decided that he would stay there. First he went to the historic site of Khayf, where he and his entire clan had spent the days of the siege. Then he reached the Sacred Sanctuary, accompanied by several of his closest Companions. He kissed the Black Stone. Carrying a bow, he approached each idol placed in the Sacred Sanctuary and loudly recited, “Truth has come, and falsehood has vanished. Surely falsehood is bound to vanish.” At the gesture of his bow, the idols began to fall one by one. Then he had the key of the Ka’bah brought and ordered its door opened. Inside were images of Hazrat Ibrahim and Hazrat Ismail, peace be upon them, each holding arrows used for divination. Ordering that these be erased, he said, “May Allah destroy the disbelievers. Both of these men were prophets of Allah. They never practiced divination.” Then, at the Messenger’s command, the other idols that had long stood in the surrounding area were also smashed. Afterward, he devoted some time to prayer and dhikr. A vast crowd had gathered in front of the Sacred Mosque. The people eagerly awaited the verdict that would determine their fate. The Messenger addressed them:

“There is no deity except Allah alone. He has no partner. He has fulfilled His promise. He has helped His servant. He alone defeated all the disbelieving armies. Today, all arrogance, distinction of lineage, claims of blood revenge, and all financial claims lie beneath my feet. However, the offices of custodianship of the Ka’bah and supplying water to the pilgrims shall remain in place.”

“O Quraysh! Allah has now shattered all the pride of your age of ignorance and all the arrogance of your noble lineage, for all people are descendants of Adam, and Adam was created from earth.” Then he recited a verse from the Qur’an:

“O humankind, We created you from a male and a female, and made you into peoples and tribes so that you may recognize one another. Surely the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the one who is most righteous and God-fearing. Surely Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware.”

Then he made a legal declaration:

“Allah has forbidden the buying and selling of wine.”

Then the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, asked:

“Do you know how I will treat you today?”

As soon as they heard this sentence, the Quraysh probably saw before their eyes, like scenes in a film, the dark history of two decades of their oppression, persecution, violence, and barbarity. Their consciences may have been on the verge of being torn apart by remorse. Perhaps, with feelings of utter helplessness and regret, they said:

“Like a noble brother and a noble nephew.” In reply, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, proclaimed:

“There is no blame upon you today. Go, you are free.”

With the history of the Quraysh’s oppression, persecution, and aggressive wars before one’s eyes, could anyone expect such a response? Yet anyone familiar with the Messenger’s mercy and compassion would have expected precisely this response from him. Anyone else would have entered Makkah arrogantly, taken revenge for each incident, selectively killed those opponents who had committed even the slightest excess in the past, carried out a massacre in the conquered city, and indiscriminately plundered people’s wealth and violated the chastity of their women. But since the conqueror was humanity’s greatest compassionate protector and savior, he sought to win people’s hearts as well as taking possession of the land. He even told the Muhajirs to relinquish ownership of their homes and property. When he had asked Uthman ibn Talhah, at the beginning of the Islamic movement, to open the door of the Ka‘bah and Uthman had sternly refused, he nevertheless entrusted the key of the Ka‘bah to that same Uthman for all time after the conquest of Makkah. Then the Messenger turned his attention to the past and reminded Uthman of an earlier conversation: “One day this key will come under my control. I will give it to whomever I wish.” How could Uthman have possessed such foresight as to understand the meaning of those words? So he had said, “Perhaps all the Quraysh will have died before that day.” The Messenger had replied, “No, that day will be a day of true honor for the Quraysh.” Considering this conversation, one gets the impression that had anyone other than the Messenger been in his place, he would certainly have taken the key of the Ka‘bah from Uthman and handed it to someone else to display the power of his authority. But the Messenger rejected even the request of the closest person to him from Banu Hashim, Hazrat Ali, to take possession of the key of the Ka‘bah, and allowed it to remain forever in the hands of its former custodians. When the Messenger, while handing over the key, jokingly reminded Uthman ibn Talhah of that conversation many years earlier, Uthman said, “Without doubt, you are Allah’s Messenger.” The Messenger said, “Today is the day of good conduct and fulfillment of promises.”

Then, at the Messenger’s command, Hazrat Bilal climbed onto the Ka‘bah and gave the Adhan. This Adhan was like a proclamation of the success of the Islamic revolution. From the roof of the very Ka‘bah where proclaiming Allah’s name for Allah’s servants had been deemed a crime, and where the Messenger and his companions had endured boundless oppression and persecution while resisting this injustice, the Adhan was now resounding. Yet no power on earth could stop it. At that time, leading figures such as Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Itab ibn Usayd, and al-Harith ibn Hisham sat in a corner near the Ka‘bah, reflecting on their defeat. Itab said bitterly, ‘It is fortunate that my father, Usayd, did not live to hear the sound of this Adhan.’ The Messenger came to them immediately afterward and repeated before them, word for word, everything they had said. The leading figures of the Quraysh were ashamed.

Then, to give thanks for the conquest of Makkah, the Messenger went to Umm Hani’s house, bathed, and performed eight rak‘ahs of prayer.

The day after the conquest, the Messenger delivered another sermon from Mount Safa. First, he praised Allah. Then he briefly described the sanctity of the Sacred Precinct, confirmed that sanctity permanently, and explained its rules and regulations. It is worth mentioning in this connection that even on the occasion of such a great revolutionary victory, the eternal law guaranteeing the safety of life and property in Makkah was violated for only one day, and that too under absolute compulsion. For, without the Messenger’s approval, some senseless Makkans killed two Muslim soldiers and compelled the authorities to eliminate them. After this extremely brief period of compulsion ended, the Messenger announced from the second day onward the restoration of the sanctity and holiness of the Sacred Precinct.

A general amnesty had already been declared. That declaration so overwhelmed and impressed the people that no one retained any desire to resist. However, concerning certain specific crimes, he announced by name that those people were to be killed wherever they were found. It should be noted that martial law was in force for several days to occupy Makkah and maintain law and order there. In other words, all authority was concentrated in the hands of the military authorities. [In an area where war was being waged, before ordinary civilian law and order was fully restored, Islamic law allowed the military authorities to establish a somewhat strict temporary administration. Under such an administration, some laws and regulations differed somewhat from those of the ordinary authorities. In my view, this type of administration is called martial law in modern terminology. Martial law, in general under every civilized government and, particularly from the Islamic perspective, in a region at war, is imposed only briefly and within the bounds of unavoidable necessity—and even then only over conquered non-Muslim enemies. Nowadays, governing a country’s own people for a long and indefinite period under the name of martial law, depriving them of their civil rights, is an entirely different system of government. The arrangement we have called ‘martial law’ during the conquest of Makkah has no similarity to modern martial law. The martial law and military rule prevalent in this age are wholly undesirable from the Islamic perspective.] The Messenger, acting as commander, had issued instructions that certain named criminals were to be killed wherever found. In modern terminology, this resembled an order to ‘shoot on sight.’ The list of criminals included the names of several men and women. But the Messenger’s general amnesty saved the lives of most of them. At most, four criminals were sentenced to death. One considered opinion holds that only one criminal was actually executed. His name was Abd al-Uzza ibn Khatal. This man initially became a Muslim. He was sent with another Muslim companion to collect zakat and sadaqah. On the way, he quarreled with his companion, killed him, and fled with the animals collected as sadaqah. In addition, he was involved in numerous criminal offenses.

Safwan ibn Umayyah was another serious criminal of this kind. He had been a staunch enemy of the Islamic movement. He initially fled and reached Jeddah on his way to Yemen. Umayr ibn Wahb al-Jumahi obtained a pardon for him from the Messenger and brought him back from Jeddah. He later embraced Islam.

Ikrimah ibn Abu Jahl had also fled to Yemen. His wife, Umm Hakim bint al-Harith, the daughter of Abu Jahl’s brother, became a Muslim herself and obtained the Messenger’s pardon for her husband. She then went to Yemen herself and brought him back. When Ikrimah learned that he had been pardoned, he was astonished that the Messenger had forgiven even such a staunch enemy as himself. He presented himself and embraced Islam.

Abdullah ibn Sa‘d ibn Abi Sarh had once been a Muslim and had even had the opportunity to serve as a scribe of revelation. But after apostatizing, he began cooperating with the enemies. He even started proclaiming that the revelation had actually come to him, and that Muhammad had heard it from him and dictated it in writing. His crime was grave. But because Hazrat Uthman repeatedly interceded on his behalf, the Messenger, as the supreme ruler, pardoned him. After being pardoned, he remained a Muslim.

Muqays ibn Sababah entered the Islamic group as a spy. Later, through deception, he killed a Companion and fled. The reason for the killing was that Muqays’s brother had accidentally been killed by this Ansari Companion. The Messenger therefore paid diyah, or financial compensation. Despite this, he killed the Ansari Companion. Apart from apostasy and treachery, he could also have been sentenced to death simply for this murder.

Habb​ar ibn al-Aswad was the man who, in addition to other anti-Islamic activities, attacked the Messenger’s daughter, Hazrat Zaynab, on the day of the Hijrah and hurt her so severely that she suffered a miscarriage. He initially remained a fugitive. Later, he presented himself, humbly confessed his crime, and expressed profound remorse to the Messenger. At the same time, he embraced Islam. The Messenger announced, “I have pardoned Habbar.”

Wahshi, the killer of Hazrat Hamzah, came to the Messenger and embraced Islam. He heard from him the account of Hamzah’s murder and pardoned him. However, he advised him, “Do not come before me, for that revives the memory.” Even after embracing Islam, this man did not free himself from various sins, especially drinking alcohol.

The renowned pre-Islamic poet Abdullah ibn Zibara had once used the weapon of poetry to oppose Islam and incite people against it. When he met the Messenger and embraced Islam, he was pardoned.

The poet Ka‘b ibn Zuhayr had also written many defamatory poems against Islam and the Messenger. In the ninth year after the Hijrah, he came with his brother and met the Messenger. He later embraced Islam and, as compensation, composed an astonishing historic poem in support of Islam entitled “Banat Su‘ad.” The Messenger not only pardoned him but also rewarded him with his own cloak.

Once, while the Messenger was performing Tawaf around the Ka‘bah in Makkah, Fudalah ibn Umayr came stealthily with the intention of killing him. The Messenger himself approached him and revealed to him what he had intended. Fudalah was caught in this way and became extremely ashamed. The Messenger told him to seek forgiveness and moved his hand over his chest. Immediately, his world changed. Nowhere else can one find such an example of pardoning a criminal who had intended to commit murder.

The greatest criminal among the women was Hind bint Utbah. Not only had she actively opposed Islam, she had also mutilated the body of Hazrat Hamzah and even chewed his liver. She appeared before the Messenger wearing a niqab to conceal her face. Under the pressure of circumstances, she had been compelled to come and embrace Islam. Even in this situation, however, she asked the Messenger strange and audacious questions. Her conversation with the Messenger was as follows:

Hind: O Messenger of Allah, what pledges have you taken from us?

The Messenger: Do not associate anyone with Allah.

Hind: You did not take this pledge from the men. Nevertheless, I accept it.

The Messenger: Do not steal.

Hind: Sometimes I take a few dirhams from the property of my husband, Abu Sufyan. I do not know whether even that is lawful or unlawful.

The Messenger: Do not kill your own children.

Hind: We raised them during their childhood. When they grew up, you yourselves killed them on the field of Badr. What will happen to them now, you yourselves know.

There is no need to say what kind of acceptance of Islam this was. Anyone else would not have tolerated such insolence and disrespect in conversation. She had merely abused the Messenger’s boundless patience.

Qartana was the slave woman of Ibn Khatal. She used to go about singing defamatory songs against the Messenger. She fled during the conquest of Makkah. Later, she repented and embraced Islam.

There is considerable disagreement in the hadith and sīrah reports concerning several women and men. However, there is no certain information that any of them was executed.

Yet history contains no other example of a conqueror declaring such a complete amnesty for such staunch enemies at the time of such a total victory.

An even greater victory than taking possession of the land of Makkah was this: the Messenger sat in an elevated place on Mount Safa while people embraced Islam in groups. In addition to accepting the fundamental principles of Tawhid and Risalah, they were specifically asked to pledge to refrain from certain prevalent evil acts and customs. The special pledges of the Bay‘ah were as follows:

* I will not associate anyone with Allah—in His essence, attributes, worship, or rights, in any respect.

* I will not steal, commit adultery, kill anyone unjustly, kill infant girls, or falsely accuse anyone.

* To the best of my ability, I will obey the Messenger’s commands in good deeds.

After staying in Makkah for fifteen days, or a day or two less or more, the Messenger departed, leaving Hazrat Mu‘adh ibn Jabal appointed to teach the people the Islamic way of life, Islamic beliefs, Islamic character, Islamic law, and Islamic culture. During this brief period, he established the Islamic judicial system by personally implementing Islamic punishments. When the theft of a woman named Fatimah bint Abu al-Asad was proven, he rejected the intercession of many people and carried out that historic act of cutting off her hand. After the victories in the battles of Hunayn and Ta’if, the Messenger returned to Makkah, appointed Itab ibn Usayd as deputy governor, and fixed a daily allowance of one dirham for him.

Important Lessons from the Conquest of Makkah

1. The conquest of Makkah was the most important event in the history of the Islamic movement. After this victory, all obstacles to the establishment of Islam were removed. Makkah had been the center of the ancient Age of Ignorance’s leadership in Arabia. Until this center fell, the Islamic revolution had no way to advance. Once the banner of the leadership of ignorance was lowered, the system of ignorant society could no longer survive, nor did the people retain any prospect of gathering around it.

The conquest of Makkah removed many complications for the general population. Many tribes had been unable to move toward Islam simply because they either had friendly relations with the Quraysh or were economically dependent on, or indebted to, them. Some were helpless before the Quraysh’s social dominance and religious authority. Once the Quraysh’s domination ended, who could block their path? Their way had been opened.

The idea had spread in some circles of the society of ignorance that only one whom Allah helped could remain victorious in Makkah. One who was not established upon the truth received no help from Allah, nor could his victory drums sound in Makkah. This belief became even stronger, particularly after Abraha’s attack. People began to think that the Quraysh were Allah’s favored people. Without intervening in the Messenger’s conflict with the Quraysh, people would say:

“Leave Muhammad and his tribe to themselves. If he becomes victorious over them, then it will be understood that he is truly a prophet.” On the basis of this belief, after the conquest of Makkah the current of people toward Islam began to surge like a flood breaking through its banks. Not only the people of Makkah, but also people from the surrounding tribes, came in groups and embraced Islam joyfully. They began to regard serving the Islamic movement and becoming followers of Muhammad as their greatest good fortune.

The field was thereafter completely cleared and freed of obstacles for spreading Islam’s call and teachings. Every Muslim was then able to devote himself to propagating Islam. No one remained to obstruct them.

2. When the Messenger set out on the expedition to Makkah, he adopted from the outset a strategy designed to prevent any bloodshed whatsoever. He continued his journey without revealing his objective to anyone. Giving the Quraysh no opportunity at all to make preparations or obtain assistance from any direction, he suddenly reached the outskirts of Makkah. Thus, the opposing force, already weakened, was completely bewildered by this surprise. Abu Sufyan’s psychological defeat had begun even earlier. Through an appropriate strategy, he was the first to be terrified and shaken. Once Abu Sufyan submitted, there was no opportunity for anyone else to offer resistance. The Messenger had also dismissed a commander from his post merely for uttering a somewhat provocative and inflammatory slogan, and he did so for this very purpose. He wanted to assure the people of Makkah that this day was the day of restoring the sanctity of the Ka‘bah—that is, a day of complete peace and security.

3. He completely forgave and declared a general amnesty for all the barbarous crimes of the staunch enemies of Islam who had, for more than two decades, inflicted the worst persecution upon the Messenger, his beloved companions, and his relatives; mocked and ridiculed them; thrown filthy refuse at them; strewn thorns in their path; imprisoned them; plotted to kill them; expelled them from their homeland; and attacked them without provocation. The reason for choosing lenient and gentle conduct instead of harshness requires no explanation. He was not a worldly conqueror for whom subduing some people through force and coercion, and making them slaves to his commands through threats backed by the stick, would have been sufficient. He was the bearer of a call, a mission, a moral movement, and a pure and untainted system of government and society. If he had simply seized people and forcibly made them his followers, his purpose would not have been fulfilled. He needed a group of people whose minds and hearts had changed. Such change is possible only through forgiveness, mercy, grace, and gentleness. His purpose could succeed only when the people of Makkah became ashamed and remorseful for their past and agreed to begin life anew. For one whose aim and guiding principle was to implement a true ideal and constructive revolution, no other conqueror-like policy would have been appropriate.

The Messenger also gave importance to another reality: whatever the Quraysh had done in the past, they were the most experienced and suitable people to lead the Arab nation. Among the tribes scattered throughout Arabia, they served as a firm connecting bridge; if they were destroyed, no easy alternative could be found. As a matter of principle, Islam’s position is irrefutably true and must be accepted: whoever is more advanced in faith and honesty is proportionately more qualified for leadership. But along with faith and honesty, mental and practical qualifications for leadership are also an obvious and rational necessity. Such work requires influence and prestige, experience in administration and military command, strategic knowledge, concern for the welfare of others, wisdom, the ability to use language and other capacities effectively, and awareness of the general psychology of people. Above all, leaders can succeed only when their superiority has already been recognized by the people and their roots reach deeply into public opinion. No leadership can stand in a vacuum. The Quraysh’s leadership qualifications were rejected from the Islamic perspective because they followed the Age of Ignorance. But once that leadership became Islamic and acquired the qualities of faith and honesty, it became a priceless asset. The policy the Messenger adopted in dealing with the Quraysh after the victory was based on the aim of enabling the Islamic state and movement to obtain capable and experienced leaders and administrators from among them. If they had been suppressed and crushed through force and humiliating treatment, they could not have fulfilled this need.

4. The example of God-consciousness that the Messenger displayed while entering Makkah as a conqueror cannot be expected from any worldly statesman. He entered as a victor, yet no drums or kettledrums were played, no display of pride or arrogance was made, and no boastful speeches were delivered about great achievements. Instead, the people witnessed the exact opposite. In obedience to the command to enter ‘in a state of prostration,’ he bowed his head before Allah. Songs were sung in praise of Allah. If any slogan was uttered, it was a slogan proclaiming Allah’s greatness and supremacy. The Adhan, prayer, and supplication flooded Makkah’s atmosphere with light. No worldly personal interest was secured; rather, all the property of the Muhajirs that the Quraysh had seized by force and oppression was allowed to remain in the Quraysh’s possession. Sadly, some thoughtless critics labeled the God-conscious aspects of the Messenger’s Islamic movement as purely selfish and contrived. Some even tried to prove openly that it was mere showmanship. God forbid! They did not consider that when those who engage in showmanship achieve total success, their masks fall away and their true nature is exposed. God forbid, if this had been a political deception, the conquest of Makkah would have created the opportunity for the cat to come out of the bag; those who had been shouting ‘Allah is greatest, Allah is greatest’ would soon have been seen boasting of their own greatness. Yet the situation here was that, in his first sermon after the victory, the Messenger declared that all credit for the success belonged to Allah. He said that Allah had helped and granted victory to His servant.

5. During the conquest of Makkah, the Messenger forgave not only political crimes but also the criminal offenses of certain individuals for which they would ordinarily have had to be sentenced to death. In light of these examples, the circumstances of the modern age must be considered from a legal perspective to determine how much authority the head of an Islamic state may be granted to reduce or pardon punishments.

The Conquest of Makkah Brought to Completion

The tribes living around Makkah that had long supported and assisted the Quraysh, and possessed nearly the same influence, prestige, and power, also had to be subdued along with the conquest of Makkah. Otherwise, the conquest would not truly have counted as a victory, and even if it had, it would not have been lasting. Banu Hawazin, the people of Ta’if, and Banu Thaqif had greatly contributed to strengthening whatever power and authority the ignorant leadership of Makkah possessed. In effect, they were different branches of the same tree. In confronting the ordinary Arabs, these tribes neighboring Makkah also enjoyed the status of leadership. Of course, before the Quraysh they occupied the second level of leadership. Their political alliance with Makkah was quite ancient, and their economic relationship was close and deep. They supported one another in military matters and were also people of a high cultural level. The fact that Makkah was conquered without bloodshed was almost miraculous. Otherwise, Banu Hawazin, Banu Thaqif, and the people of Ta’if should have come forward together to defend the Quraysh. Had that actually happened, an extremely bloody war would have taken place in Makkah’s history. But the Messenger’s plan was so skillful and precise that the people of Makkah received no assistance from the surrounding areas. They found themselves completely alone and facing the Muslim army by surprise.

The leaders of the Hawazin tribe had already surmised what was about to happen. They understood that the final outcome of the conflict that had begun at Badr was still pending. The Quraysh’s violation of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the new terms sent by the Messenger (peace be upon him), the return of the envoy who had carried the proposal, and Abu Sufyan’s subsequent failure to renew the treaty—this sequence of events was not a favorable sign. For this reason, the leaders of Hawazin spent the entire year gathering strength. They contacted various tribes and created an agitated atmosphere against Islam. But when the time came, they misunderstood the Messenger’s secret activities. Banu Hawazin thought that the Messenger was making all these preparations for war with them specifically. So they assembled their forces in their own territory and began preparations with great pomp and ceremony.

But events took a course quite different from what they had expected. They completed their preparations for war and remained in their own place. Meanwhile, a momentous historical event like the fall of Mecca took place with remarkable ease. The reaction of the other tribes to the conquest of Mecca was that people from their side began accepting Islam in groups and delegations before the Messenger (peace be upon him). But the reaction of Banu Hawazin and Banu Thaqif was different. On the one hand, they were organized, possessing substantial manpower, economic strength, and military skill. On the other hand, their continuous hostility toward the Islamic movement had developed such a rash and stubborn disposition in them that they felt compelled to carry their program to its conclusion. To fight their final battle, they gathered troops at Awtas, or Hunayn, between Taif and Mecca. Only Banu Ka’b and Banu Kilab adopted a completely neutral position.

After hearing of Banu Hawazin’s preparations, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent Abdullah ibn Abi Hadrad as a spy and obtained accurate information. It was now time to prepare for war. To meet military needs, the Messenger borrowed three thousand dirhams from Abdullah ibn Rabiah and weapons—particularly one hundred suits of armor—from Safwan ibn Umayyah, a prominent leader of Mecca. This indicates that the Messenger did not set out with any extraordinary military preparations. He had not initially intended to shed blood; new preparations had to be made only at the scene. What an unprecedented event! The conqueror who had utterly defeated the Quraysh could have forcibly taken money and weapons from them. Yet despite occupying such a lofty position, he was so attentive to morality that everything he took was taken only as a loan. This moral consciousness is the defining feature of the Islamic movement.

In Shawwal of the eighth year after the Hijrah, twelve thousand Muslim soldiers set out from Mecca. This attitude arose in the minds of these Muslim soldiers: We are now the army that conquered Mecca. Our manpower is immense, and our weapons are greater than ever before. It hardly needs saying that such an arrogant attitude can make people weak. This was a human frailty of theirs. They failed to remember that they were soldiers of the Sovereign of the universe, who tolerates not even an atom’s weight of arrogance. Pride and conceit are like an iron wall between people and Allah. Because of them, there is no possibility of receiving Allah’s help, although Allah’s help is the lifeblood of every Islamic struggle. This conceit was given such a severe punishment for a brief period that it became a historical memory. The Qur’an turned this event into a lasting source of instruction.

The fact was that a group of new kinds of soldiers from Mecca had now joined the Muslim army. Young converts had also enlisted in the vanguard commanded by Khalid ibn al-Walid. They were so excited and enthusiastic that they had not even equipped themselves with the necessary weapons. In addition, there were two thousand of Mecca’s “freedmen,” who were loyal to the Islamic government but whose Islamic character had not yet properly developed. The people on the opposing side, meanwhile, were exceptionally skilled in warfare; particularly in archery, no one throughout Arabia could match them. They had already occupied the best positions on the battlefield and had secretly stationed archers on every mountain, in mountain hollows, and in mountain passes.

As soon as the attack began and arrows started flying from every direction, the vanguard scattered. At the same time, the Muslim soldiers panicked and became dispersed. At one point, the situation became such that no one was beside the Messenger (peace be upon him); he stood completely alone. This was one of the rare and critical moments of the Messenger’s military life, when the firmness of his resolve, his courage, self-confidence, and reliance upon Allah manifested themselves anew. With tremendous courage, he called out to his companions, dismounted from his riding animal, and began speaking in a solemn voice:

“I am truly a prophet; there is not the slightest trace of falsehood in this.”

“I am the grandson of Abd al-Muttalib, as you well know.”

Al-Abbas called out from nearby: “O Ansar! O those who pledged allegiance beneath the tree!” Hearing this call, the scattered Muslims rushed from every direction and gathered around the immensely courageous leader, the Messenger (peace be upon him). They then fought so heroically that within a few moments the course of the battle changed. Seventy of the enemy were killed. When their standard-bearer was killed, the morale of their entire army collapsed. A part of the defeated unbelieving army took refuge in the fortress of Awtas. Abu Amir al-Ashari went there with a small group. The enemy numbered several thousand. Abu Amir al-Ashari himself was martyred, but his group won the victory.

Taif was an extremely well-fortified place, for it was surrounded by walls. These walls had been repaired, and provisions necessary for the entire year had been stored there in advance. There was also a large quantity of weaponry. The Messenger’s real objective was to seize this central stronghold. But he adopted a strategy by which he first deprived the people of Taif of the support of Banu Hawazin. The defeated people, however, had gathered there. The attack on Taif was launched from a direction from which its inhabitants could never have imagined an attack would come. First, Khalid set out with a military detachment. Later, the Messenger himself arrived with the entire army. This was the first occasion on which cannons and tanks were used to break a fortress. (It may be noted that the Messenger had sent some other Muslim warriors to Jurash to receive training in the use of heavy weapons for breaking fortresses. Jurash was a center for manufacturing such weapons. It was probably under Jewish control.) But along with a heavy barrage of arrows from within, red-hot iron rods began to be hurled to damage the siege weapons. Many Muslim warriors were wounded, and they had to retreat.

In this situation, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sought the opinion of Nawfal ibn Muawiyah. He gave an amusing reply. He said, “The fox has entered its hole. If the effort is continued, it will certainly be brought under control. And if it is left as it is, there is not much danger of any harm.” On the basis of this wise advice, the Messenger thought that since all Arabia had come under Islam, Taif could not remain opposed forever. If its people were forced to submit immediately, there would be two disadvantages. If they were left alone, however, circumstances would inspire the people of Taif to submit voluntarily, and the doors of their hearts would open to the revolutionary ideology of Islam. Therefore, for the greatest benefit of both Islam and the people of Taif, he lifted the siege. This is vivid proof of how careful the Messenger was to avoid bloodshed. His companions said, “O Messenger of Allah, pray against the people of Taif.” The Messenger prayed, “O Allah, guide Thaqif and join them to us.” He offered this prayer for the people of Taif, who had once stoned him and made him bleed. This prayer too reflected his merciful heart—a heart that favored the use of force nowhere unless absolutely necessary, yet never showed any stinginess in distributing forgiveness and mercy.

At Ji’rana, twenty-four thousand camels, forty thousand goats, and four thousand uqiyyahs of silver were acquired as war booty. In accordance with the Qur’an’s ruling, one-fifth of this was deposited in the Bayt al-Mal for the needy classes of society and for collective needs. The remainder was distributed among all the soldiers. Thus, acquiring war booty was, on the one hand, an excellent means of reducing the enemy’s financial and military strength; on the other hand, it provided, for the first time, an opportunity to distribute freely the wealth accumulated over hundreds of years and created scope for removing the old economic inequality between rich and poor tribes.

The Qur’an has allocated a category called “winning hearts,” or “ta’lif al-qulub,” for the distribution of zakat funds. (Its technical meaning is to achieve an objective by providing necessary financial support to those whom it is necessary to make tolerant or sympathetic toward Islam and Muslims for the greater interests of Islam and the Muslims—Translator.) Under this category, the Messenger (peace be upon him) gave the inhabitants of Mecca and their leaders large amounts of wealth with a generous hand. His purpose was to soothe the pain in their hearts. They had been hurled from the heights of political power into the depths, and the entire social environment had changed completely for them. In such circumstances, no one in the world was more destitute and helpless than they were. Although they were close associates of the Messenger, they stood in the rear ranks, while the Ansar and the Muhajirun stood as the Messenger’s right and left hands. It is easy to understand what they may have felt. The court of Allah had announced the verdict in a case that had been pending for two long decades. The Quraysh had lost that case despite exhausting every effort. Thus, no one that day was more wretched than they. If nothing had been done to help them forget the humiliation and despair of their defeat, suppressed desires for revenge would have repeatedly arisen from their despair, and despite themselves they would have continued to sabotage the aims and objectives of the Islamic state from within, behind a façade of outward loyalty. Leading Quraysh chiefs such as Abu Sufyan, Hakim ibn Hizam, al-Nadr ibn al-Harith, Safwan ibn Umayyah, Aqra ibn Umayyah, and Aqra ibn al-Harith were now receiving gifts from the very man whom they had abused for years, called a liar, mocked and ridiculed, physically harmed, besieged, tried to kill, forced to abandon his home, and continued to attack aggressively even after his migration, allowing him not a moment of peace or safety. Where has anyone ever witnessed such an astonishing scene? How many such examples of service to humanity can be found in history?

When such a surging sea of generosity and magnanimity crashed over the Quraysh leaders, some of the Ansar reacted with a degree of resentment. Various base feelings began to stir among them. They thought that perhaps the Messenger (peace be upon him) was showing them such favor and neglecting us out of kinship and attachment to his homeland. Some even said openly, “When it comes to risking our lives and struggling to protect Islam, it is we who are present, and drops of blood still drip from our swords. But when it comes to gifts and donations, the Quraysh have been given priority over us.”

Those whose minds were swarming with such thoughts did not consider that the Messenger (peace be upon him) was not giving these gifts to his own family members. He was not giving them to his close relatives among the Muhajirun, nor was he taking anything himself. In such circumstances, if the Quraysh had been treated in a somewhat special manner, there must certainly have been some greater benefit behind it.

When the matter reached the Messenger (peace be upon him), a canopy was erected, and the Ansar were summoned there. The Messenger delivered a brief, moving address before them. (This address has been quoted earlier.) Its final sentence was: “O Ansar! Would you not be pleased that others take away camels and goats, while you take Muhammad (peace be upon him) with you?” As they listened to the address, the Ansar’s beards became wet with tears. On hearing the final sentence, they cried out, “Muhammad (peace be upon him) alone is enough for us.” He then explained to them gently the reasons why it had become necessary to win the hearts of the Quraysh.

Meanwhile, six thousand prisoners of war were awaiting the determination of their fate. The Messenger (peace be upon him) waited for a full two weeks to see whether anyone would come forward to speak on their behalf. For this reason, he had also postponed the distribution of the booty. But when no one came, the distribution took place. After the distribution, a group of distinguished members of the tribe of the Messenger’s foster mother, Halimah al-Sa’diyyah, came to meet him. Their leader, Zuhayr, spoke in deeply moving words about the prisoners of war from their tribe:

“Among the women held captive here in the huts are your paternal aunts and your maternal aunts. By Allah, if even an Arab king had suckled at the breast of a woman from our tribe, we would have hoped for much from him. But from you we hope for even more.”

The Messenger (peace be upon him) explained to them, “I myself waited for a long time to see whether anyone would come forward to make a claim. In the end, when no one came, I was compelled to distribute them. The prisoners who were allocated among the people of Banu Hashim—I am handing them over to you at this very moment. As for the others, you should address the largest gathering of Muslims after the prayer.” After the prayer, Zuhayr delivered his speech. The Messenger said, “I can take responsibility only for my own clan, Banu Hashim. But I recommend this matter to all the Muslims.” Immediately, all the Ansar and Muhajirun declared, “We too release our share.” Only Banu Sulaym and Banu Fazara found the idea of freeing the captured prisoners of the defeated enemy without charge unusual, and they hesitated. Finally, the Messenger secured the release of the remaining prisoners by giving six camels for each prisoner. Thus all six thousand prisoners of war were freed. The Messenger also gave clothing to many of the prisoners. Something beyond the imagination of ordinary conquerors took place here: the prisoners were released without ransom. For his true objective was not to kill or enslave people. His true objective was to establish the true religion and prepare people’s hearts for it.

After completing this work, he performed Umrah and appointed Itab ibn Usayd as governor of Mecca before departing for Medina.

After the Conquest of Mecca

In my view, in the subsequent Battle of Hunayn, the anti-Islamic subversive forces had been completely eradicated internally. After this battle, the fate of Arabia had been decisively determined in favor of Islamic law. No opportunity remained for anyone else to advance. Even so, a few minor military measures had to be undertaken to suppress scattered wrongdoers and restore law and order. They were not particularly important events, however.

The Banu Tamim tribe incited several other tribes to stop paying revenue to the Islamic government. This was an act against the state. Uyainah ibn Hisn was sent with fifty mounted soldiers. As soon as the attack began, Banu Tamim fled. Several people were taken prisoner and brought to Medina, and were later released.

The Khas’am tribe, inhabitants of the Tabalah region, began preparing for a rebellion. A force of twenty soldiers under the command of Qatabah ibn Amir was sent to suppress them. The rebels fled, and some people were taken prisoner. But the Messenger (peace be upon him) later released them. Al-Dahhak was sent to Banu Kilab. With him was Asid ibn Salama, also from the same tribe. This group was primarily a missionary and educational delegation. The tribesmen took up arms against them, and Asid’s father was killed. No further detailed account of this is known.

It was once learned that some Abyssinian pirates had gathered at Jeddah. As soon as Abdullah ibn Hudhafah al-Qurashi—or Alqamah ibn Mujazziz—set out with a force of three hundred soldiers, the pirates fled.

In Rabi al-Thani of the ninth year after the Hijrah, Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) was sent to the Banu Tai tribe with one hundred and fifty mounted soldiers and was ordered to destroy the large temple there. This matter requires some analysis. The Islamic state of Medina was an ideological state. If, at an individual level, someone held beliefs opposed to the fundamental creed on which this state was founded, the state could tolerate that. But how could it allow a social institution opposed to this fundamental creed—belief in Tawhid, the Prophethood, and the Hereafter—to continue operating? It must also be remembered that in the religious and cultural system of prehistoric Arabia, its idols served as living sources of inspiration. The very idea of the existence of those idols generated such emotional and psychological fervor and enthusiasm that it repeatedly incited the people of the age of ignorance to wage war against the Islamic government. Major wars had been fought in the names of these idols. In this exceptional context, retaining the temples of the age of ignorance as collective institutions and allowing pagan thought repeated opportunities to create unrest and agitation could in no way have been considered reasonable. These idols were in fact symbols of a particular mentality and signs of a false way of life. Therefore, the destruction of the Banu Tai tribe’s temple cannot be categorized as interference in the religious freedom of a recognized religious minority; rather, it was an unavoidable step to free the environment from a tendency that threatened the existence of the Islamic state. Nor was the matter confined merely to the ideological level. Driven by their pagan creed, the tribe had begun to harbor rebellious attitudes. The idea of confronting Medina had ripened considerably among them. Conclusive evidence of this is that Adi ibn Hatim, son of Hatim al-Tai from that famous family, had himself collected a large number of pack animals and weapons for this purpose. It was hardly surprising that many others in the tribe, like Adi, had made similar preparations.

In any case, Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) reached a place called Quls and launched an attack in the morning. Adi ibn Hatim fled to Syria to gather some forces and bring them back. The tribesmen offered slight resistance. Their temple was destroyed. Adi’s sister and several others were taken prisoner and brought to Medina, and some animals and weapons were seized. Adi’s sister narrated to the Messenger (peace be upon him) the story of her grievous suffering. She said, “My father has died. My guard abandoned me and fled. I am old and weak, and incapable of doing anything. Show me kindness; may Allah show you kindness.” The Messenger arranged a riding animal for her as she wished and sent her away free. When this woman returned home, she told her brother about the Messenger’s gentle nature and conduct. She said, “I have seen conduct exactly like that of our father. When so-and-so came, he was shown such kindness; when so-and-so came, such generosity was shown to him, and so on. Abandon the thought of fighting the Messenger. Go to him yourself. You will see how much benefit you receive.” A short time later, Adi ibn Hatim came to Medina and accepted Islam.

Two International Wars

The principal work completed during the lifetime of the Messenger (peace be upon him) was the achievement of internal unity in the country and the fulfillment of the Islamic revolution. However, by inviting the rulers of neighboring countries to Islam, he inaugurated the international phase of the movement. He sent envoys to various countries. One envoy was al-Harith ibn Umayr al-Azdi. He was sent to the Christian ruler of Syria. But the Christian ruler, Shurahbil ibn Amr al-Ghassani, killed this envoy of the Messenger en route. This act was such a heinous violation of fundamental human character and the prevailing international law of the time that if any government silently tolerated it, no dignity or honor would remain for that government. For this reason, in the eighth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger sent a force of three thousand soldiers toward Syria under the command of his freed slave, Zayd ibn Harithah. This event clearly demonstrated how a man could rise from slavery to become a commander and establish an example for the Islamic revolution. The Messenger also appointed Usamah, the son of this Zayd ibn Harithah, as commander of his final expedition. The Messenger himself went as far as Saniyat al-Wada to bid farewell to this army. When the army reached a place called Mu’tah, it learned that the Roman emperor Heraclius had come to Syria and that nearly one hundred thousand Christian soldiers of the region were with him. The proposal previously under consideration for the Muslim army to return to Medina was rejected after reviewing the latest circumstances, and it was decided to fight while placing reliance upon Allah. As they advanced, they encountered a large enemy force at a place called Masharif, and a fierce battle took place. Zayd ibn Harithah was martyred. Then Ja’far carried the standard. When Ja’far’s right hand was cut off, he held the standard with his left hand. When his left hand was also cut off, he held it against his chest. At last, after receiving ninety wounds, he attained martyrdom. Then, in accordance with the sequence directed by the Messenger, Abdullah ibn Rawahah became the standard-bearer. When he too was martyred, Khalid ibn al-Walid was unanimously chosen as commander. He fought with such extraordinary courage that nine swords broke one after another in his hands. Finally, the enemy soldiers were forced to retreat. Khalid saved the army and brought it back. Twelve people were martyred in this battle, including distinguished figures.

The Muslims regarded this victory as sufficient for the time being. The enemy forces were very numerous, the place was foreign, and the circumstances were entirely unfamiliar. Arranging provisions was difficult, and there was no hope of bringing in reinforcements. Therefore, this army returned to Medina. The Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslims came out from Medina to welcome them. When some people jokingly called this army “fugitives,” the Messenger said, “No, not fugitives—they are returners,” meaning that they would go to war again. In recognition of Khalid’s achievement in this battle, he was given the title “Sayfullah,” or “the Sword of Allah.”

The second expedition at this stage was the Expedition of Tabuk.

After the conquest of Mecca, it was Rajab of the ninth year after the Hijrah. A caravan arriving from Syria reported that the Roman emperor’s soldiers were preparing to attack Medina. The Roman Empire then extended across nearly half the known world. Shortly before this, the empire had also defeated Iran. The Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslims had built the Islamic state of Medina as a beacon of light, so that the light of faith and truthfulness could spread throughout the world. They could not allow this Islamic state, built through so much effort, to be destroyed, for this state was their religion and worldly life, their wealth, and their relatives—all that they possessed. Immediate preparations were therefore made. It was decided that a surprise attack would be launched before Caesar’s soldiers entered Arabian territory, so that they could not wreak destruction in this land. The time was one of intense heat, terrible famine, and heartbreaking poverty. The Messenger called for contributions to the war fund. The Muslims gave such a memorable response to this appeal that it will continue to provide precious inspiration to humanity forever. Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) donated nine hundred camels, one hundred horses, and one thousand dinars. Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf (may Allah be pleased with him) gave forty thousand dirhams. Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) brought more than half of his wealth. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) emptied his entire house and brought all that he possessed to contribute. In the competition of giving, his scale became heavier than everyone else’s. Yet the greatest sacrifice was perhaps made by a poor Ansari laborer, who divided in two the wages he earned by carrying water all day, kept half for his family, and brought the other half to the Messenger (peace be upon him). The Messenger ordered that what he had given be spread among all the valuable contributions made by others. Muslim women even donated their jewelry to the jihad fund.

Thirty thousand soldiers, accompanied by ten thousand horses, set out for the expedition to Tabuk. While still at a place called Thaniyat al-Wida on the outskirts of Medina, the soldiers were organized into ranks, commanders were appointed, and the banners distributed. Upon reaching Tabuk, it was learned that the enemies had abandoned their intention of attacking Arabia. In fact, someone had given them the false report that the Prophet of Medina had died (God forbid). They had therefore thought that a golden opportunity to attack had arisen. Later, when they learned that the Prophet was alive and Medina was alive as well, their aggressive ambitions were brought to a halt. In any case, the political results of this military expedition were highly satisfactory. The Messenger of Allah remained stationed at Tabuk with his army for a month. During this time, efforts to expand his political influence in every direction proceeded successfully. The ruler of Aylah came to meet him and agreed to pay the jizya, thus initiating conciliatory relations. The inhabitants of Jaraba and Adhruh also came, paid the jizya, and acknowledged submission. The problem of Dumat al-Jandal had long been important to the Messenger of Allah. Khalid ibn al-Walid was sent with more than four hundred soldiers to Ukaidar, the ruler of Dumat al-Jandal. He and his brother were out hunting. His brother was killed, and Ukaidar was captured. A treaty was concluded with him on the basis of the jizya. The Messenger of Allah appointed him, on behalf of the government of Medina, as governor of Dumat al-Jandal, Aylah, Tayma, and Tabuk, and presented him with a written charter to that effect. Some accounts state that Khalid, through a clever maneuver and without battle, captured the fortress of Dumat al-Jandal and obtained valuable spoils. When the Messenger of Allah returned from Tabuk, he was given a magnificent reception in Medina. I have already mentioned in an earlier chapter the various conspiracies that the hypocrites carried out concerning this expedition. A large number of hypocrites—about eighty—remained behind in Medina. When asked why they had not gone to Tabuk, they offered various fabricated excuses. The Messenger of Allah forgave them. However, some sincere believers had also remained behind. Abu Khaythama was counted among them. Although he had stayed in Medina, he soon came to his senses. Several days after the Messenger of Allah had departed, one day, in intense heat, he came to rest with his wife beneath the cool shade of trees. He had arranged for water to be sprinkled there and food to be prepared. Suddenly he realized his situation and said to his wife, “Alas! The Messenger of Allah is suffering in the sun, dust, and heat, while I, Abu Khaythama, am eating delicious food with my beautiful wife in cool shade! This is absolutely unjust. By Allah, I will not enter the wives’ chambers. Let preparations be made for my journey.” A camel was brought, and he set out upon it. After traveling a long distance, he joined the army. But three believers—Ka‘b ibn Malik, Hilal ibn Umayyah, and Murarah ibn al-Rabi‘—were unable to go despite repeated attempts. When the Messenger of Allah asked them why they had not gone, they replied frankly, “We have fallen short.” The Messenger of Allah ordered that they be separated from the community and kept apart from their wives until Allah’s next instruction came. This was a form of solitary imprisonment. They were not shackled hand and foot, nor were they confined in separate prison cells. To be suddenly cut off from communal life and left alone is a very severe punishment—especially when all the restrictions must be imposed by the accused upon himself. Yet they set an extraordinary example of obedience, one that will be written in golden letters in history. When the Christian ruler of Ghassan learned of the matter, he saw it as an excellent psychological opportunity and wrote to Ka‘b ibn Malik: “Your Prophet has wronged you, even though you are very valuable men. If you come to us, we will increase your honor.” This was a difficult test. But Ka‘b threw the letter into the oven. Finally, after a full fifty days, revelation came announcing that their repentance had been accepted because of their sincerity and devotion. Joy spread throughout Medina. From every direction, people hurried to bring the good news to the three men, congratulating them. In the joy of having his repentance accepted, Ka‘b gave away most of his property in charity. Such was the character of the people shaped by the Islamic movement.

During the journey to Tabuk, Abdullah Dhu al-Bijadayn passed away. This young man had been especially dear to the Messenger of Allah. He had embraced Islam with intensely revolutionary fervor. The call to Islam had reached him while he was still young, and his heart had been influenced by it. But out of fear of his uncle, he concealed his feelings. Finally, when the Messenger of Allah returned after conquering Mecca, he said to his uncle: “Dear uncle, I have waited for many years for Islamic consciousness to awaken in your heart. But you have remained just as you were. Now permit me to become a Muslim.”

The hard-hearted uncle replied, “If you accept Muhammad’s call, I will deprive you of all your property and possessions. I will even take away the clothes you are wearing.” Abdullah said, “Uncle, you may do whatever you wish. I no longer like idol worship. Therefore, I will certainly become a Muslim now. Take all your property and possessions.” Saying this, he removed even the clothes he was wearing. His mother gave him a blanket to cover his body. He divided the blanket into two parts, making a loincloth from one half and covering the upper part of his body with the other. In this condition, he came to the Messenger of Allah in Medina and joined the group of the Ashab al-Suffah. This revolutionary young man, inspired by the fervor of jihad, set out with the Messenger of Allah for Tabuk. There he fell ill with a fever and died. His burial and shrouding were completed in the darkness of night. Bilal held a lamp aloft. The Messenger of Allah himself, along with Abu Bakr and Umar, descended into the grave. The Messenger of Allah said to them, “Take care to honor your brother.” He placed a brick in the grave with his own hands. Then he supplicated, “O Allah, until this evening I was pleased with him. May You also be pleased with him.”

Seeing how greatly Abdullah was honored, Ibn Mas‘ud said regretfully, “Alas, if only I could be placed in this grave!”

Evaluation

In this chapter I have described all the military measures undertaken by the Islamic government of Medina. If we remember these wars and conflicts, and the circumstances that made them unavoidable, there can be no denying that although the Messenger of Allah was determined to avoid conflict and engage in constructive work, the enemies of Islam forcibly dragged him onto the battlefield. This great man sought not a throne of power but only the establishment of truth and justice; he wished to conquer the whole world through reason and character rather than create influence and authority through the power of the sword; he adopted forgiveness instead of revenge, and fair dealing and good conduct instead of hatred and coercion; and he introduced the principle of settlement through the pen that recorded treaties rather than the sword that shed blood. Yet they did not allow this great man a single moment of peace for eight or nine years. Even in such circumstances, one is left amazed when considering how the Messenger of Allah completed that extraordinary constructive work of changing the course of history. I shall present a detailed account of the Messenger of Allah’s constructive work in a separate chapter of this book, God willing.

Indeed, the Messenger of Allah was humanity’s greatest benefactor and friend in this respect: in order to convey the message of peace and security first throughout Arabia and then throughout the world, he found his own distinctive path even through the sword. He broke through the defensive formations of utterly turbulent enemies and established and perfected the laws of justice and truth. Had anyone else been in his place, he might have strayed from his straight path upon hearing the enemy’s challenge to war. In that case, even if the memory of the Islamic way of life had not vanished from history, at most we would have seen it present in people’s private lives; we could not have imagined it in the form of a social and state system. Islam would then have survived, like the other religions of the world, merely as a spiritual and moral religion confined to private life. It would have had no connection with society or the state. No matter how many highly accomplished saints and righteous people such an Islam produced, each of them would have become an extremely obedient and submissive collaborator of every unbelieving, false, oppressive, and exploitative state system. In that case, human society would have received no inspiration from the Messenger of Allah to eradicate social oppression, exploitation, and corruption.

It is noteworthy how much suffering, hardship, oppression, and persecution the Messenger of Allah endured to ensure the welfare and well-being of the people of the world and the Muslim ummah; how bravely and courageously he accepted the challenges of his enemies and subdued oppressive and corrupt forces; united the scattered tribes; freed them from ignorant leadership; educated and purified them; created an environment of peace; established the rule of law; built society upon the foundations of brotherhood and justice; and inaugurated a democratic age by making the system of government consultative.

It is also a sign of the Messenger of Allah’s supreme wisdom and efficiency that although he fought so many battles and dispatched so many armies, the least possible amount of blood was shed and the fewest possible lives were lost. To establish the first idealistic unified state in a vast land like Arabia with so little bloodshed is a remarkable event in human history.

The truth is that every one of us today, whether we know it or not, is indebted to his favor. Had he not stood against oppression with a small group of people, we would never have obtained the priceless treasures we received from him: the principles for achieving success in life, cultural values, and moral traditions; the example of humanity established before us through him; and the finest balanced framework of civilization and culture that he built and demonstrated. The new dawn that has appeared on earth began with the blood of those finest and dearest companions whom the Messenger of Allah sacrificed to attain the sacred goal. May Allah shower His mercy upon Muhammad and his followers!

Chapter 6

The Light Spread Everywhere

The Driving Force Behind the Islamic Movement’s Advance

Many people in this world have become masters of vast territories through the power of the sword. Many monarchies and dictatorships have been established solely through military strength and force of arms. Many disputes over interests have also been settled on the battlefield. But every revolutionary movement in the world must always settle its fate within the sphere of public opinion. Until people’s hearts are spontaneously ready from within to support a call and are willing to shape their character and mentality in its light, it cannot be beneficial to win support through sheer force. Rather, that becomes the cause of its terrible destruction. Therefore, the essential nature and temperament of every idealistic movement is one of appeal and education. Among its leaders, affection, care, and inspiration remain active in the manner of elders and mentors. From the perspective of an idealistic movement, life is like an educational institution, and all members of society are students in that institution. To ensure the overall welfare of these students, to reform criminals, and to protect respectable and moderate people from evil influences, punitive measures must sometimes be adopted. But the overall environment always remains one of affection, care, and compassion for the students, and even in the teacher’s punitive measures, an elder’s attitude remains predominant. The holy servants of Allah who appeared in different eras of history with the message of truth and the call to honesty entered the battlefield, despite their reluctance, to eradicate wrongdoing, corruption, and dishonesty, and used the sword partly as an instrument of education as well. But their overall work always continued in precisely the manner of instruction, with the attitude of affectionate elders and teachers. The real battle they fought was with the weapon of reason, in the vast and extensive arena of public opinion. Their principle was always that if anyone wished to gain a new life, he should gain it through reason; and if anyone preferred death for himself and wished to be deprived of life, he should meet death in the light of reason.

A review of the Messenger of Allah’s military measures shows that from Badr to the conquest of Mecca, including the conquest of Khaybar, there were five major battles in all. In reality, all these battles were defensive. The first three occurred because the enemies launched aggression and attacked Medina. Taking soldiers from Medina and acting on his own initiative, the Messenger of Allah conducted at most two campaigns: one for the conquest of Mecca, including the Battle of Hunayn, and the other for the conquest of Khaybar.

And these two campaigns brought the matter to its final resolution. In terms of time, six years elapsed between the Battle of Badr and the conquest of Mecca. The Messenger of Allah spent a total of twenty-three years on his great educational, missionary, constructive, and reformative work. Only six of those years were such that, alongside educational work, he also had to confront the warlike attitudes and conduct of his opponents. Even with the most exaggerated estimate, it appears that in all the battles combined, no more than fifteen thousand people came to confront the Messenger of Allah, and by removing only 759 lives from the path, several hundred thousand people of Arabia were completely reformed. Ten years is an extremely brief period in history. To transform a desert like Arabia in so short a time into an educational institution for the true welfare of human life; to bring within its sphere scattered tribes and individuals who lived in disorder and were extremely unruly, violent, and turbulent; then to succeed in giving them sublime moral education; and not merely to educate them but to turn them into teachers and mentors for the whole human race—this is perhaps the greatest practical and tangible miraculous proof of the prophethood of the Messenger of Allah.

Thus, it is beyond all doubt and debate that, whatever contribution warfare may have made to resolving the conflict between the Islamic revolutionary movement and the Jahiliyyah, the contribution of public opinion was greatest, and the arena of public opinion was the true arena of resolution. In somewhat spiritual language, it may be said that winning people’s hearts was the Messenger of Allah’s real victory and true success. If he conquered millions of men and women in Arabia, it was their hearts that he conquered, and he did so with the weapons of reason and character. How was it possible, in such a short time and despite ever-new obstacles from every direction, to make the vast number of human beings scattered across an area of ten or twelve hundred thousand square miles followers of Islam? The real matter is that if the call is true and sound, the movement is conducted for the welfare of humanity, and its standard-bearers are self-sacrificing and sincere, then opposition and resistance become an even greater aid to the revolutionary caravan. Every obstacle comes as a guide.

This is why, although truth begins with a minority, it conquers the majority. Let us now see which forces the Islamic movement used to achieve rapid success in gaining acceptance and popularity among public opinion.

The Power of Reason and Proof

The greatest strength of the Islamic movement was the power of reason and proof. If, instead of the Islamic movement, the Messenger of Allah had established a system of spiritual master and disciple, he would have paralyzed his listeners’ conscience and intellect. If he had introduced a religion confined merely to private life, like other established religions, he would have increased people’s inclination and interest in fanciful notions and baseless ideas; and if he had established a system of teaching ascetic mysticism, he would have completely closed their eyes, ears, and mouths. But the Islamic movement established by the Messenger of Allah needed conscious people who could build and properly administer an entire civilization on the basis of obedience to Allah. That is why, while the Islamic movement was still at the stage of calling people, it awakened their dormant conscience and intellect. It encouraged them to open their eyes and see, and to open their ears and listen. It encouraged them to think and investigate the natural world. It taught them to examine carefully the inner self and the conditions of the world around it. By raising ever-new questions, it sharpened and energized their thinking. It broke the bonds of blind imitation. It abolished meaningless customs and practices. It eliminated blind fanaticism toward ancestor worship and inherited traditions. It devised a method for creating conscientious and thoughtful human beings from among people who were as unthinking as animals. It awakened the blind, mute, and deaf classes of people by jolting them into awareness, and removed the rust from their conscience and intellect. In short, the foremost achievement of the Islamic movement was that it ended the intellectual stagnation imposed on people by Jahiliyyah. As a result, it presented the fundamental truths of life to those whose conscience and intellect had awakened; it influenced them through its sharpened arguments and proofs; and it established in them an unshakable faith in those truths.

When the Islamic movement presented Allah alone as the Creator, Owner, Provider, Lawgiver, and Guide, it did so with such powerful arguments that the tools of baseless and fanciful speculation opposed to it became blunt and ineffective. It appealed to people’s power of discernment, calling upon them to observe the varied creations of the heavens and the earth; the revolutions of the planets and stars; the changes of seasons and weather; the laws governing rain and wind; the birth, growth, and development of plants; the reproduction and nurturing of animals and birds; the diversity of human communities; the rise and fall of civilizations; and the depths of their own beings, and to learn from these things. They would see that unwavering laws operate everywhere. An orderly and well-regulated governance is active in every part of creation. Every event, small or great, has some specified aim, purpose, and consequence. Diverse and apparently contradictory things work together as complements and collaborators. Harmony and unity prevail throughout the workshop of creation. Many things are bound together within one. Everything is dynamic and developing. Nowhere is there stagnation or immobility. Every thing is moving toward perfection. Every means and every cause is producing some important result. Then every result becomes a means for another result. The laws, order, harmony, cooperation, concord, and process of development and evolution in the natural world did not arise spontaneously in the form of an accidental occurrence. Things do not plan themselves, create themselves, or cooperate with one another through mutual consultation. Rather, Allah—the Most High, Ever-Active, Self-Subsisting, Sovereign, All-Knowing, and All-Wise Creator—continues to act as their sole director, administrator, ruler, and lawgiver. All the forces and matter of the universe are engaged in glorifying Him. All things prostrate before Him. All creation obeys His natural laws. From the immense sun to the tiniest atoms and particles, everything bows its head before Him. Islam also stated that if there were multiple owners and administrators in this vast workshop of such a great creation, conflict would arise among them, and the mutual cooperation, unity, and harmony that you see prevailing throughout the universe could never remain established. Page after page of the vast book of nature records incontrovertible evidence not only of His existence but also of His oneness and His attributes.

The Islamic movement also made clear through reason and proof that this universe is entirely bound by obedience to Allah’s law and command, and that every atom of it is “Muslim” before Him, or a surrendered servant. No creature has any option but to assume the role of obedience, servitude, and surrender before Allah. If human beings obey Allah, they will become united with the entire universe. Their society and civilization will likewise become symbols of security and cooperation, as they are in the world of matter. But if they disobey Allah and become unbelievers, their society and civilization will become incongruous, discordant, and disconnected from nature, and the balance, harmony, and cooperation prevailing in the heavens and the earth will not exist in human society. It is precisely because of this that all creation in the world has achieved progress, excellence, and development through peace and security. For human beings in this world too, the path to peace and security is to remain obedient to Allah’s religion and law. Human beings are Allah’s creation, nurtured by the sustenance He provides; every organ of their bodies, and every atom of those organs, as Muslims, is bound by an unbreakable chain of obedience to Allah’s natural law. Therefore, if there is any straightforward and correct way for human beings to live, it is the way of servitude and obedience to Allah. By birth, human beings are Allah’s servants and slaves, and the feeling and consciousness of servitude have been nurtured in their minds from the beginning of life.

With the same force and vigor, the Islamic movement also established through conclusive arguments and proofs that every creature needs guidance or direction from Allah. For He is the determiner of the destiny of all things and the One who determines the orbits and movements of every object traveling through the heavens. He gives different things different characteristics. He assigns every power to the task suited to it. He establishes a course of action for every creature. Like other creatures, human beings are just as dependent on Allah’s guidance as they are on light, air, and water. Allah has instituted revelation to guide His creation to its proper path. For inanimate matter, this revelation is natural compulsion; for plants, the power of spontaneous growth; and for living beings, instinctive processes. But since human beings are conscious creatures endowed with reason, the complete form of revelation has been prescribed for them—the form that addresses their reason and consciousness.

The Islamic movement also made this part of its ideological call acceptable through the power of reason: since the law of cause and effect operates in this universe, human moral actions must likewise have consequences and results within this universal law. By pointing to the law of requital operating in history, it proved that human social actions must also fall under this law. At the same time, it showed that within the limited scope of human earthly life, complete recompense does not appear under the limited operation of the law of requital. Often even a single course of action does not reach its full completion. Moreover, people often have to experience results that are entirely contrary to what they deserve. Therefore, one should expect from Allah’s just system that a new life will arise after earthly life, and that then people will experience the full consequences of their actions. The logical demand of Allah’s justice, active everywhere, is that each person will experience the result corresponding to his deeds. In this way it presented the concept of life after death, judgment in the Hereafter, and punishment and reward.

To prove these fundamental truths conclusively, Islam presented the entire past history of humanity. It narrated the histories of various nations and showed that those nations and groups that accepted these truths and shaped their lives on their basis achieved success. Those who rejected them departed from the earth humiliated and disgraced. The minds and hearts of those who accepted these truths became illuminated, and their character radiant. Those who opposed these truths declined. It showed that those who presented the call to this great truth before every nation in every age were essentially people of the same kind of disposition and character. They did not stop at merely presenting it; rather, to make it victorious and establish it, they strove with complete devotion and sincerity, making the greatest possible sacrifice of their lives and possessions.

This fundamental call of the Islamic movement, together with all its conclusive arguments and proofs, has been described in detail in the Quran. It has been presented repeatedly in an excellent style. At the same time, the objections, mockery, and ridicule of its opponents have been answered in calm and natural language. In some places, people have been advised; in others, warned; elsewhere threatened, shamed, or challenged; and in still others, their hearts have been softened through gentleness and humility. In short, through a variety of approaches, people’s minds and hearts were surrounded so completely that no escape route was left for intelligent and conscious people.

Indeed, if victory were to be achieved solely by the power of the sword, why was so much importance attached to presenting arguments and proofs that they occupy more than two-thirds of the Qur’an?

The truth is that it had become difficult for listeners to withstand the incisive arguments of the Islamic movement. Those who were fortunate accepted them with open hearts. As for those who did not accept them because of the crookedness of their understanding, they, having lost the contest of arguments, resorted to violent resistance. A movement that brings its listeners to this stage cannot ultimately fail to achieve victory.

The Power of Benevolent Appeal

The Qur’an’s arguments are not merely arguments; along with them are appeals that melt hearts, attract those who are fleeing, call them near, and open closed hearts. Appeals of this kind in the Islamic movement melted even stone-hearted people like wax. One need only open the Qur’an to see how the warmth of emotion is blended with the light of reason in every sentence. That is why even the greatest stone-hearted enemies of Islam became servants of the truth. Moreover, its literary quality is so exalted and endowed with such magical power that it left even the finest Arab poets and litterateurs of that time astonished. Here are some clear, intelligible, heart-winning appeals of the Qur’an:

“(O Prophet, convey to them from Me:) O My servants who have wronged yourselves, do not despair of Allah’s mercy. Surely Allah forgives all sins. He is indeed Forgiving and Merciful. Turn back to your Lord and submit yourselves to Him before the punishment comes upon you, when you will receive no help. And follow the best guidance that has been sent down to you from your Lord, before the punishment comes upon you suddenly while you do not even realize it. Then a person will say regretfully, ‘Alas for me, for what I neglected concerning Allah, and for having mocked!’ Or he will say, ‘If only Allah had guided me, I would have been among the righteous.’ Or, when he sees the punishment, he will say, ‘If only I had another chance, I would be among the righteous.’” (Surah Az-Zumar, 50–58)

These few verses briefly present the fundamental truths that formed part of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) message. They contain arguments as well as heart-melting appeals. They contain glad tidings and warnings. The Qur’an contains many varied appeals of this kind. Human beings made of clay could not withstand the power of such revolutionary language, especially when appeals of this kind came every morning, noon, and evening. For twenty-three years, the flood of revelation continued in this way. Consider a few more such appeals:

“O children of Adam! Did I not warn you not to worship Satan? Surely he is your clear enemy. Did I not tell you to worship Me alone? For this is the straight path. Yet he has led many of you astray. Will you not then use your reason?” (Surah Ya-Sin: 60–62)

“(O Prophet,) say: O humanity, the truth has come to you from your Lord. So whoever follows guidance does so for his own good, and whoever goes astray only paves the way to his own ruin. I am not responsible for your guidance or misguidance.” (Surah Yunus: 108)

An appeal was also made to the finest feelings of those who had opened a front of opposition. Whether polytheists or People of the Book, the best people in every group were addressed in the best manner, and an effort was made to activate their noblest emotions. Even the hypocrites were called to reform. Examples from this category are presented separately.

Sermon Addressed to the Polytheists of Makkah

“Allah gives the example of a town. Its people lived in security and peace, and provisions came to it abundantly from every direction. Then its inhabitants were ungrateful for Allah’s blessings, so Allah made them taste hunger and fear as a consequence of what they had done. A Messenger from among them came to them, but they rejected him as a liar. Thus the punishment seized them, for they were wrongdoers.” (Surah An-Nahl: 112–113)

Sermon Addressed to the People of the Book

“O People of the Book! Our Messenger has come to you, exposing much of what you have concealed and overlooking much. There has come to you from Allah a light and a clear Book. Through it Allah guides to the ways of peace those who follow His pleasure, brings them out of darkness into light by His command, and guides them to the straight path.” (Surah Al-Ma’idah: 16)

“O Prophet! Say: O People of the Book, do not go to excess unjustly in your religion. Do not follow the desires of people who went astray, led others astray, and deviated from the straight path.” (Surah Al-Ma’idah: 77)

“O People of the Book! Our Messenger has come to you after a long interval in the succession of prophets and messengers, making the truth clear, so that you cannot say, ‘No bringer of good news or warner came to us.’ Now a bringer of good news and a warner has come to you.” (Surah Al-Ma’idah: 19)

“We decreed in the Scripture concerning the Children of Israel: You will surely spread corruption on earth twice and will become exceedingly arrogant. So, O Children of Israel, when the time of the first promise arrived, We sent against you servants of Ours, mighty in warfare; they entered every part of the cities. It was a promise bound to be fulfilled. Then We gave you another opportunity against them, strengthened you with wealth and children, and increased your numbers. (We gave you that opportunity again so that) if you do good, you do good for yourselves, and if you do evil, you do so against yourselves. Then when the time of the second promise came, (We sent them) to disgrace your faces, to enter the mosque as they had entered it the first time, and to destroy everything over which they gained dominance—and you surely tasted it. (Now, with the rise of Muhammad’s call, another final opportunity has appeared before you, so) your Lord may have mercy on you. But if you return to your former ways, We will return to punishment. And We have made Hell a prison for the disbelievers.” (Surah Bani Israel: 4–8)

“(O Prophet,) say: O People of the Book, come to a common word between us and you: that we worship none but Allah, associate no partners with Him, and do not take one another as lords instead of Allah.” (Al Imran: 64)

Sermon Addressed to the Christians

“You will find those who say, ‘We are Christians,’ to be nearest of them in affection to the Muslims, because among them are learned men and monks who are not arrogant. When they hear what has been revealed to the Messenger, you will see their eyes overflowing with tears as they recognize the truth. They say, ‘Our Lord, we have believed, so count us among the witnesses to the truth.’” (Al-Ma’idah)

Sermon Addressed to the Hypocrites

“Do they not see that they are tested once or twice every year? Yet they neither repent nor take heed. Whenever a surah is revealed, they look at one another and ask, ‘Is anyone watching you?’ Then they slip away. Allah has turned their hearts away because they do not understand. Listen! A Messenger has come to you from among yourselves. Whatever hardship you suffer grieves him; he is deeply concerned for you, and to the believers he is most kind and merciful.” (Surah At-Tawbah: 126–128)

The Qur’an is full of many more such moving statements. It is difficult to say how many astonishing words, capable of taking root in the heart, awakening the conscience, and stimulating and sharpening awareness, are scattered throughout its pages. Indeed, the power of the Qur’an and the force of the call to truth can be sensed from the verses cited above. When these intense rays of truth were revealed one after another, it was utterly impossible for people of moderate disposition to cling to the darkness of thought and action. When an emotional appeal joins with reason, their combined power produces a double-edged sword capable of cutting even stone. In addition to the Qur’an, the sayings of the Messenger (peace be upon him), delivered in sermons and informal addresses, also continually created a stir. These sayings have been preserved in the hadith collections. No one else in the world has been able to deliver, in such brief sentences, statements so rich in meaning, influential, and capable of awakening people. The revolutionary statements of the poets, writers, and orators of the Islamic movement also stirred the public profoundly. Even today, reading the Islamic poems of the early Hassan ibn Thabit and Ka‘b ibn Malik shows what tremendous waves they raised in the ocean of the people’s emotions! In short, the word of truth was the real irresistible force before which falsehood had no ability to endure. The true meaning of the Qur’an’s eternal pronouncement, ‘The eradication of falsehood is inevitable,’ lies precisely here.

The Power of Criticism

The call of the Islamic movement did not merely combine argument with appeal; along with appeal, it also made intense criticism. In Sufi ideology, there is only one method of calling: requesting, appealing, flattering, and pleading. Where the call is confined to purifying an individual’s narrow personal life and there is no question of reforming and reconstructing collective life, what need is there for any method beyond humble appeal? In Sufi ideologies and individual-centered religions, the only concern is to teach disciples some beliefs and personal virtues and advise them to protect themselves from evil forces. But no inspiration arises in them to fight organized collective evil and wrongdoing or to confront a corrupt environment. Let the tyrants seated on the thrones of leadership and authority continue their oppressive exploitation and terror, and let humanity continue to be sacrificed on their altars. What can Allah-intoxicated Sufi dervishes do about these worldly troubles? In such a narrow spiritual system, a person’s greatest virtue is considered to be withdrawing from worldly affairs and political complications, behaving with equal humility and flattery toward everyone, chanting ‘Allah, Allah’ with Muslims and ‘Ram Ram’ with Brahmins, treating everyone gently, and showing harshness toward no one. Since such ideologies have no plan to bring people into conflict or struggle, but instead aim to remove them from social and civilizational activity and settle them in secluded places and khanqahs, there is no question of criticism. For criticism creates conflict and agitation in the mental world. Thus, from the viewpoint of narrow spirituality and religiosity limited to the personal sphere, criticizing anyone is regarded as a relatively blameworthy act—almost like an act opposed to piety, disturbing the peace of the soul.

But in the thought-world of those who carry an ideology and call that seek to create a civilizational revolution, criticism is as important as argument and appeal. Establishing the truth alone is not enough; eliminating falsehood is also essential. For without eliminating falsehood, establishing the truth cannot be fully accomplished. Here, believing in Allah and rejecting the taghut are mutually dependent. One cannot be done without the other. Likewise, commanding what is right is ineffective unless wrongdoing is resisted. Here, before saying ‘illallah,’ one must say ‘la ilaha.’

Whenever the Islamic movement emerges, it severely criticizes the prevailing civilization and culture, social environment, political and economic systems, and especially the prevailing ideas, beliefs, and values, in order to change the people’s outlook. It cannot avoid exposing the masks of the religious, political, and economic ruling classes who bind the people in the web of their servitude and live lives of luxury. It has no alternative but to reveal to the common people the true identity of those in whose hands the leadership and authority of collective life are concentrated. Until wrong is called wrong, falsehood falsehood, and error error, no demand for truth and justice arises, nor is any desire for change born. Examine the call and conduct of any prophet. You will find that they did not merely criticize the evil ideas and conditions of society; every prophet went to the powerful rulers of his time in their own courts and called them misguided. The Islamic movement has stated regarding the prevailing structure of social order that every country and nation has certain ‘big-shot criminals’ who achieve their aims through the politics of deception. (Surah Al-An‘am, 124) They cannot be reformed while being retained in their positions.

When Islam emerged in Arabia to abolish the system of the Age of Ignorance and inaugurate a new golden chapter in history, it mercilessly criticized every form of falsehood, oppression, and dishonesty. At that time, all kinds of people who had entrenched themselves over society as guardians, supporters, and collaborators of the ignorant social order and the taghuti environment, and who had become desperate to silence this call for the welfare of humanity in order to protect their status and vested interests, had their masks torn away by Islam with extraordinary courage, and the wrongdoing hidden beneath their dazzling garments was laid completely bare. Thus the true identity of the anti-human forces of unbelief became increasingly clear to society, awareness spread among the people, and the desire for change grew more intense. The criticism of the Islamic movement created and developed among an awakened people the ability to think soundly, understand, scrutinize, compare, review, and observe. This aspect of the call distinguishes truth from falsehood, good from evil, and justice from injustice. Through it, the difference between guidance and misguidance becomes clear. The workers of the Islamic movement patiently endured the oppression and persecution of the forces of falsehood. But they made no mistake in stripping away the attractive covering from the vile character of the oppressors. Their activities were never conducted outside social and political action. They never assured the social and religious leaders of the Age of Ignorance: ‘Remain secure in your positions and continue according to your plans. We are godly people. We will not interfere in your work or obstruct your interests. We will merely chant Allah’s name and teach people His kalimah.’ Had they first secured release from the oppression of the anti-Islamic leadership by politely offering them flattering words, it would never have been possible for them to proclaim this revolutionary kalimah committed to establishing social justice.

The Islamic movement first fulfilled this bitter responsibility through the sacred mouth of its chief caller. With the weapon of the language of revelation, it operated on the diseased body of society. This criticism was not confined to ideals and principles; it also encompassed the resisting influential forces and opposing parties. It was made in the context of daily events, and the actions of the opposing side were reviewed immediately. In this way public awareness was created. Had this not been done, it might have been possible to produce a few pious and charmingly virtuous people; the contemporary world might have praised them effusively, and their memory might have continued to overwhelm people in ages to come. But society would have remained immersed in the darkness of ignorance. A revolutionary spirit and a disposition for struggle would never have arisen among the Muslim people. Islam would have remained confined to the Cave of Hira, and it would never have been possible for it to conquer Arabia and re-enter Makkah.

The Messenger (peace be upon him), the liberator of humanity, criticized the leaders of contemporary society in the language of the Qur’an and not only proved them bankrupt in argument and evidence; he also exposed before the world that powerful people occupying great positions and seats of leadership were ruling society despite having extremely filthy and despicable characters. As a result of this criticism, the people understood that there was no possibility of beauty, order, and excellence returning to public life until, through cooperation with the Islamic movement, these vile evil forces were removed from active leadership and authority.

When Islam criticized Quraysh and the polytheists, it stripped away the masks from everything: their idolatrous culture, superstitions and fanciful notions, ridiculous religious customs, low and base character, and the arrogance and bluster of their leadership. To demonstrate the helplessness of their beloved deities, it gave the example that even when all these gods joined together, they could not create so much as a fly. Indeed, if a fly snatched something away from them, they could not even retrieve it. The Qur’an shattered their pride in being heirs of Abraham by repeatedly recounting the whole history of Abraham’s life and presenting his true identity before them. It said that he devoted his entire life to the great task, abandoned his home, kicked away the priestly seat reserved for him, was accused of rebellion before Nimrod and condemned to a horrifying death by burning, then, by Allah’s immense grace, escaped the fire and went into exile as a migrant for Allah’s sake. He then established a center for his call and the worship of Allah in a deserted wilderness, which you have turned into a means of earning money and exercising religious priesthood. Without coming even close to that great work, it was completely inappropriate for the Quraysh to make grand claims of being his heirs. Immersed from head to toe in shirk and ignorance, by what right did they present themselves as heirs of that great caller to tawhid and invoke his name? The Qur’an showed how they had invented their own law of what was lawful and unlawful, made strange rules for offering various things at the altars of worship, treated dice and gambling as religiously sacred, fled in shame when a daughter was born, buried female children alive with limitless cruelty, and felt no shame in calling the angels the daughters of Allah. By presenting each of their absurd and ridiculous practices before them, the Qur’an said: You pride yourselves on guardianship of the Sacred Mosque and the Ka‘bah, yet because of your unbelief and shirk you are not worthy of it. You turn people away from Allah’s path and from the Sacred Ka‘bah, expel your own brothers from their homeland, and create obstacles in the path of Islam.

When the Qur’an criticized the People of the Book, it listed their conduct over hundreds of years and said: You repeatedly tormented Moses, repeatedly disobeyed him, repeatedly set foot on the paths of deviation and distortion, remained engaged in quarrels and disputes, caused riots and disorder, worshipped the calf, fled from jihad, shed one another’s blood, exiled relatives, oppressed and attacked them, distorted Allah’s Book, concealed the truth, elevated monks and scholars to the position of God, even wrote fabricated words with your own hands and claimed that they were the word of Allah, earned unlawful wealth by deceiving people, neither followed Allah’s path yourselves nor allowed others to follow it, and prevented anyone who wished to work for human welfare instead of helping them. Before the coming of Muhammad (peace be upon him), based on the promise written in Allah’s Book, you used to give everyone glad tidings that the coming of the final Prophet was near. But when that Prophet truly came, you all lined up against him. The Muslims are closer to you in many respects; they believe in your prophets and all the earlier Books. Yet you form intimate alliances with the polytheists. Despite possessing Allah’s Book, you have persisted in all these misdeeds.

Even if a donkey carries a load of Allah’s Book on its back, it pays no heed to it; you are behaving in the same way. If you were truthful in your claim, you would establish Allah’s Book, the Torah, in your lives. As long as you continue to disregard Allah’s Book, your claim to be Allah’s beloved servants has no value. Your character has fallen so low that if even a single coin is entrusted to you, recovering it becomes extremely difficult. Because of this conduct, you have incurred Allah’s wrath, and humiliation and poverty have been decreed for you.

When the hypocrites were criticized, they underwent a comprehensive psychological examination. Their faults were pointed out to them: You look at everything with a distorted view. When you meet in private, you harshly criticize the condition and events of the Islamic movement; when you appear in public, your manner changes. You speak to one another through gestures and signals; sometimes you fall silent, and sometimes, at news of war, your eyes widen in terror. At times you quietly slip away. You speak one way when among Muslims and another way when among unbelievers. In every matter, your role differs from the collective role of the Muslims. When others learn and take comfort from the words of revelation for their lives, you become deeply irritated. To others, the Messenger (peace be upon him) is an object of profound devotion, respect, and love, whereas you prefer to keep your distance from him. Others pray with enthusiasm, while you come to prayer with such reluctance that it seems you have been dragged there in chains. Other Muslims eagerly devote everything they possess to Islam, whereas you neither spend in Allah’s path yourselves nor allow others to do so. Others go to jihad spontaneously, driven by the emotions of faith, while you always seek only to save your lives and try to flee with various lame excuses. You are displeased by events that make others happy and delighted by events that cause others pain. You have no resemblance whatsoever to ordinary Muslims. Thus the Islamic movement identified the hypocrites.

The ignorant poets who wrote poems containing propaganda and slander against Islam and spread insults about the Messenger himself were described very briefly in a way that was entirely true and realistic concerning them; even an ordinary Arab could immediately understand the extent of their moral degradation. Regarding the poets of ignorance, it was said that only the misguided follow them. Because of their lack of principles, they wander aimlessly everywhere and do not act according to the good words they utter.

The Islamic movement identified various particularly despicable characters of its time through highly accomplished literary portrayals and sought to create mass awareness of them in society, so that anyone could see them, understand them, and recognize them for themselves in the real world. In some places, it portrayed a person who bewildered people with excessive bombast, yet in the world of action completely forgot his own fine words and constantly spread new disorder and wrought destruction in human society. Elsewhere, it portrayed a person intoxicated by the pride of tribal and leader-like nobility and excessively concerned with prestige. He will be severely punished on the Day of Resurrection. Elsewhere again, it presented the human character that had become like a dog through excessive greed—whether driven away, it lolls out its tongue, and whether left alone, it lolls out its tongue. All these characters were widely present in society. Because of this criticism, it was not at all difficult for people to understand their meanness and depravity.

This criticism was not merely theoretical; it was connected with real conflicts and confrontations. From the platform of the Islamic movement, the opposing forces were directly addressed. The speaker knew whom he was addressing, and the listeners knew whom he meant. This criticism was not delivered through a microphone from the sky; rather, it was conveyed through the lips of the Messenger. The Muslims spread it throughout every corner of society. Thus their own emotions and feelings became part of it, and their inner selves merged completely with it. This criticism was made in harmony with the actual course of events, and the listeners fitted it into contemporary history. The people understood that this was the message of the newly emerged constructive revolutionary movement among them. This criticism was challenging the ancient social order and striking precisely at the opponents of revolution. The people had the opportunity to hear both sides and comparatively examine the arguments of both. In this way, their consciousness was formed.

Reason and evidence may assist understanding, but they do not stir the emotions. An appeal moves the emotions and creates warmth in the da’wah. Yet an appeal does not create an effective struggle in history. Criticism alone is the force which, when combined with reason and appeal, activates all the elements of civilization at once. Criticism alone creates a stir in social life.

In short, through Muhammad, the Islamic movement employed these three kinds of instruments—reason, appeal, and criticism—and employed them continually for twenty-three years. These three forces made the opponents understand that they were weak in argument, backward in arousing emotion for their objectives, and extremely low in character. As a result, among the opponents, recognition of the Muslims’ superiority and an unconscious sense of their own inferiority steadily increased. At the same time, the people examined both sides from every perspective and understood the difference between them. This was the true strength of the Islamic movement, and it was this that won the hearts of millions of inhabitants of Arabia. Had the Islamic da’wah and movement not been centered on truth, had it been unable to attract the people’s hearts, inspire its leaders and workers to enter the struggle between truth and falsehood, and secure recognition of its strength and power through reason, appeal, and criticism, the Muslims could not have triumphed in political strategy or achieved victory on the battlefield. Their victories in all these fields were achieved because, in the vast arena of public opinion, Islam’s advance was overwhelmingly directed toward victory.

The Moral Strength of the Muslims

Any da’wah that is merely verbal and lacks moral force, however captivating it may be and however magical an effect it may temporarily produce, ultimately dissipates into the air like a swirl of smoke. History cannot be influenced by words alone. No revolution has ever been accomplished through words alone. Words produce an effect only when action gives them some meaning. The magic of language can create handsome foam and colorful bubbles like soap, but none of these bubbles can move even a particle of earth from its place. Rather, they vanish instantly.

When reason comes without conduct, appeal is without sincerity, and criticism is morally hollow, they cannot influence people. Moral strength is what makes a movement influential and effective. Testimony from the tongue remains fruitless without the testimony of action. Indeed, “when people say what they do not do, it becomes a cause of intense displeasure with Allah.”

The da’wah of the Islamic movement was not merely theoretical or founded on argument. The da’wah of Islam was a complete call to action. It had come to create a special kind of new human being. From the very first day, it began creating this desired human being. This person’s outlook, moral qualities, and captivating conduct made his arguments truly significant, his appeal genuinely attractive, and his criticism effective. These new people created by the Islamic movement were themselves an irrefutable argument. They were the strongest appeal. Their entire existence was a comprehensive, living criticism of the old social order, people of beastly nature, the diseased environment of jahiliyyah, the stagnant society, and its incompetent leadership. Jahiliyyah had no answer to this living argument, living appeal, and living criticism. Before these living arguments, jahiliyyah was utterly helpless. That new human being, whose most complete example was the Messenger himself and whose inspiration was producing many more such people, was a real and irrefutable truth. Even closing one’s eyes to that truth testified to the intensity of its light. Those who denied and rejected this truth and engaged in conflict with it nevertheless proclaimed its superiority through their conduct. In Makkah, this new human being developed his individual form, and in Madinah he displayed his collective form.

The Islamic movement and the Messenger never became negligent of the essential task of creating this new human being; Islam did not forget this task amid its enthusiasm for reforming others. Here, self-purification was more important than reforming others. Self-criticism was more important than criticizing others. Before bringing change outside, it considered bringing change within oneself more urgent.

In a society where no goal was considered higher or nobler than earning and eating and drinking, where every gathering was a tavern, a gambling den, and a dance club, and where bravery was used only for riots, murder, plunder, and revenge—in a society that had become a jungle, where beasts in human form roamed roaring and the decent and weak became their easy prey—the Messenger appeared accompanied by a group of upright, pure, and civilized people. From the very first day, this group became highly conspicuous in society and attracted everyone’s attention. People gazed in amazement at these new examples of humanity and felt them to be different and distinctive in every respect from everyone else in society. The emergence and growth of this group took place entirely before their eyes. From beginning to end, the people observed their education and training very closely.

People of every class saw morning and evening, day after day, that the declaration of Islam continued attracting one good person after another. Suddenly, one person after another, compelled by his conscience, would surrender to this revolutionary movement. Someone who only a few days earlier had waged an all-out war against Muhammad would suddenly bow his head, as though bewitched. And whoever accepted Islam immediately began to undergo a positive transformation. His friendships and enmities changed. His habits and tastes were revolutionized. His activities took on a different form. The things that had previously interested him changed, and new interests arose. At the same time, he became a highly active person. A new strength emerged within him. His dormant abilities and talents awoke. His conscience was enlivened by a new inspiration. Fine character began to develop in him. When a person changed from an unbeliever into a Muslim, it was as though an entirely new human being emerged from within him. He himself felt, “I am completely different and new from my surroundings.” His surroundings too could feel, on seeing him, that he had changed. A murderous terrorist accepted Islam and became a protector of life. A thief accepted Islam and became trustworthy; an adulterer accepted Islam and became a protector of women’s honor. A bandit accepted Islam and became the embodiment of peace and reconciliation. A bad-tempered and perverse person came under Islam’s shelter and became a patient, humble, and gracious human being. A usurer became generous. A foolish and unintelligent person displayed outstanding talent and ability. Someone from the lowest social level rose to the heights of nobility, as though he were a creature from another world. It seemed that he was not made of earth, but formed from some other substance.

Devoted wholeheartedly to the worship of Allah, madly in love with the Messenger, devoted servants of truth, initiators of good works, callers to goodness, enemies of injustice and falsehood, staunch opponents of oppression, humble in bowing and prostration, attentive reciters of the Qur’an, engaged in struggle by day, devoted to intimate communion with Allah by night, feeders of the needy, hosts to travelers, servants of orphans and widows, abstinent from idle gatherings and unlawful amusements, protecting themselves from luxury and frivolity, restrained from futile arguments, embodiments of a neat and clean life, inspired by dignity and self-respect—solitary amid crowds and exiles in their own homeland—how could possessors of all these extraordinary qualities and attributes fail to become the focus of the attention of all the people of Arabia?

These selfless soldiers, bearers of Islam’s banner and devoted to realizing the great mission of establishing Islam, were the movement’s unpaid, full-time workers. For the sake of prosperity in the Hereafter, they were accustomed to completely disregard their worldly interests. For their sacred goal, they did not hesitate to dedicate all the abilities of their minds, all the strength of their bodies, every coin in their pockets, and, when necessary, even their own lives and those of their children. They had no concern for livelihood, no thought for physical security, no concern for sleep at night, no leisure to attend to their wives and children, and no opportunity for recreation or entertainment. Their sole profession, sole occupation, sole recreation, and sole source of amusement was the struggle to make Islam victorious and established. They listened smilingly to the insults of their enemies, endured fascist attacks courageously, fasted joyfully, and went into exile with smiles on their faces. When patience was needed, they exercised it to the utmost; when confrontation became necessary, they engaged in it with resolute hearts; they lay on the hot sand crying, “Ahad, Ahad”; they mounted the stake while reciting passionate poetry; and even after falling wounded, their soaring spirit uttered for the last time:

*****Arabic*****

“By the Lord of the Ka’bah, I have succeeded.”

Why should those whose moral character and role are such not advance irresistibly? Why should the world not bow before them?

This Muslim character established such unforgettable examples in every field that they will be written in golden letters in the history of the Muslim nation until the Day of Resurrection. When the mentor of this character was leaving the place of execution, he arranged for the return of the trusts deposited with him by his killers. Those who acquired this character, after committing adultery, came forward of their own accord, confessed their crime, and secured a death sentence for themselves from the Islamic court so that they could appear before Allah in a purified state. Only a few minutes after accepting Islam, when a beautiful young woman invited one such person to become her companion in pleasure, he rejected her with disgust, saying, “I cannot disobey Allah and His Messenger.” During a jihad expedition, when the Muslim army passed near the dwellings of the Uzd tribe, a Muslim soldier took a vessel from there out of urgent need. But Muslim character itself compelled him to return it. In a society where hundreds of such examples occurred every day, earthquakes were bound to occur every day.

Did the ordinary people of that society at the time not stand stunned when they saw the Ansar divide their homes and wealth equally into two, keeping half for themselves and giving the other half to their Muhajir brothers? Could such astonishing equality fail to attract the hearts of the people, an equality manifested when a lowly slave stood in the same row as nobles, the poor with the rich, and displaced people with the local inhabitants of Madinah? Everyone was given importance; everyone received honor and dignity; everyone’s opinion was valued; and everyone was given the opportunity to bear responsibility and demonstrate ability. It was like a family in which all members shared equally in happiness and sorrow and participated equally in thought, consciousness, and action. When hunger came, the leader took the greatest share of it. When prosperity came, the leader took the smallest share. Society was overwhelmed when it saw marriages taking place between those considered high and low by the standards of jahiliyyah. The simple and straightforward way Islam devised to lighten the heavy burden of customs and traditions could not fail to attract the hearts of ordinary people in jahili society. What a loving, easy, simple, peaceful life it was! In truth, it was “hayatan tayyibah”—a pure life.

Society also witnessed what kinds of abilities and talents were blossoming among the Muslims. People saw intellect developing with astonishing speed in the minds of those who accepted Islam. All Arabia watched in amazement as some gained excellence in jurisprudence, some in agriculture, some in trade and commerce, some in the art of war, some in administration, and some in diplomacy—in short, each attained a new personality by becoming proficient in one field or another.

By depicting this character, the Qur’an repeatedly made both the enemies of Islam and the people understand: Look, how beautiful and superior is the model of humanity produced by the ideal of truth. This is how peace and security can be attained. Islam presented this character as proof of its own truth. Then it repeatedly compared it with the character of jahiliyyah, and also with the character of the People of the Book and the hypocrites. Placing the two side by side, it showed them and said: You yourselves say which is better. Thus comparison was taking place in the field of reality. Moreover, comparative observation was taking place spontaneously in every sphere of life.

Situations of conflict and confrontation produce two notable results at the same time. When caught up in conflict, some people’s character is formed, while the character of others breaks down and sinks. The Islamic movement made every effort to ensure that, through conflict and confrontation, the character of Muslims would become more beautiful, balanced, and refined. Because of rigorous systems of training, purification, and education, Muslim character steadily improved. Jahili character, on the other hand, was gradually driven toward decline by conflict and confrontation, until it finally sank and was destroyed. Muslim character was repeatedly taught patience. The strength to endure and the ability to remain firm on principle were cultivated within it. At times strict instructions were given: Do not become agitated by provocation. At other times it was advised: Do not become entangled with the standard-bearers of jahili forces; do not lose hope; answer bad treatment with good treatment; view oppression and excess with forgiveness; do not act unjustly toward anyone because of enmity; do not hope to reform worldly people or waste your time pursuing them; do not be frightened by the enemies’ abundance and splendor; do not make hasty decisions. Attention was paid to every psychological rise and fall they experienced, and they were immediately shown what would be best for them. The Messenger himself gave attention to every member of his jama’ah and, at the right opportunity, developed Muslim character by sometimes advising, sometimes reprimanding, sometimes expressing displeasure, and sometimes expressing satisfaction. According to the ability he saw in a person and the temperament he discerned, he gave advice suited to that person’s needs. And according to the weakness he saw in someone, he placed before that person precisely the kind of demand Islam made of him. Moreover, after every important event, he strongly criticized the conduct displayed by the Muslim jama’ah in its collective activities. Whether it was the Battle of Badr, the Battle of Uhud, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the change of the qiblah, or the incident of the slander, after every important historical event he both presented the people with an account of the enemies’ activities and, by severely criticizing his own jama’ah, pointed out their errors and shortcomings and explained how to remedy them. If his Companions did something wrong toward their enemies, he did not try to conceal that wrong or prove it correct. Rather, he acknowledged the error before the enemy and paid compensation if anyone had been wrongfully killed. He reprimanded the Companions for the incident of Nakhla. When Hazrat Khalid killed, out of suspicion, a man who was loudly reciting the kalimah, thinking that he had recited it not sincerely but to save his life, the Messenger disapproved of his action and refused to accept responsibility for it. Islam did not declare the Companions other than the Messenger to be sinless and infallible. It described them only collectively as pure, upright, and capable of correction. It declared Muslim character, as a whole, to be clearly superior, nobler, and more developed than jahili character.

Struggling against established leadership, authority, and the prevailing environment is no game. It is a task requiring a long time. It entails much loss and damage and must be pursued with a very calm, unexcited mind. The forces of an adverse environment keep pulling those who are advancing backward by the waist and seek to corrupt those striving for reform anew. They keep searching for openings through which to influence their minds, so that their own false beliefs, customs, and habits can somehow be put back into them and a path to mental servitude and compromise can be found for moving forward. As, while fighting in an adverse environment, the strength and courage of powerful people are crushed and even the feet of sincere people begin to move backward, a person becomes ready to abandon revolutionary ideas and accept old ones. Even if not in principles and beliefs, he becomes ready to accept foreign influence in cultural customs, conduct, and dress. Once even this small opening is created, the prevailing environment keeps widening it and eventually absorbs everything into itself. If it cannot finish the process in one generation, it finishes it in the next. But while forming Muslim character, the Islamic movement took full account of this danger. It therefore made that character hard as steel and took comprehensive measures to preserve it. On one hand, it taught it, “ashiddaa’u ‘alal-kuffar”—to develop invincible strength in confronting the opponents of Islam—and, on the other, “ruhamaa’u baynahum”—to be compassionate and merciful toward one another. It strictly prohibited imitating foreigners, mental servitude to foreigners, and maintaining secret intimate relations with foreigners. It was with the aim of creating this mental stability and steadfastness among Muslims that new Muslims were called upon to migrate to Madinah. And if a significant number of people gathered somewhere and a “Bedouin-style” pledge was taken from them—that is, a pledge imposing no condition of migration—they were instructed to keep away from the polytheists and not establish friendships or marriage ties with them. They were to build a separate society of their own. Alongside the command to obey non-Muslim parents, it was also said that if the parents ordered them to abandon Islam, they must never obey. No one may be obeyed against Islam. This character was so firm that it was not influenced even after seeing Iran’s splendid civilization, nor did it suffer an inferiority complex after seeing Rome’s luxurious life. Muslims appeared in great royal courts with their Bedouin-like manners, trampling precious carpets without bowing their heads, and presented their views with complete courage. Once this character had been made mentally strong and stable and raised above every kind of inferiority, they established unforgettable examples of bravery and steadfastness on the battlefield as well. The world watched in amazement that, although this character was small in number and poorly equipped, it could neither be destroyed nor stopped in its advance.

Despite making sarcastic mockery, abuse, condemnation, and propaganda aloud, countless staunch enemies surely envied this Muslim character inwardly and considered the Muslims better than themselves. They regretted that they too could not belong to this group. The opponents themselves acknowledged this at various times. After the Battle of Uhud, when Abu Sufyan stood on the mountain and asked Hazrat Umar whether Muhammad had been killed, Hazrat Umar replied, “By Allah, he is alive and hearing what you say.” Abu Sufyan then said, “Although Abu Qayma has said that Muhammad has been killed, we consider you more truthful than him.” Similarly, after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, what the Quraysh envoy Urwah ibn Mas’ud saw among the Muslims and how he described it to the Quraysh leaders proves that non-Muslims always acknowledged the Muslims’ moral superiority. Though a staunch opponent of Islam, the account Abu Sufyan gave before the Roman emperor about Muhammad and his movement also testifies that, despite their hostility, the enemies openly acknowledged the superiority of Muhammad and Islam. When the tax collector from Madinah went to collect revenue from the Jews of Khaybar, they testified, on seeing the accuracy of its distribution, that this was the true justice upon which the heavens and the earth stand.

Discussions about the remarkable state and condition of the newly formed Muslim society continued constantly in every corner of Arabia. People talked about the movement’s leader and workers. In short, whenever two people met, the good reputation and fame of Muhammad, the Islamic society, the Islamic movement, and the government of Madinah became the first and foremost subject of discussion.

This moral strength of the Islamic movement made its arguments and appeals effective and fruitful. It was the public recognition of the superiority of Muslim character, and this public recognition made people of every level obedient to Islam. I will mention some examples of how Islam’s irresistible attraction was drawing people from every direction.

Let us first turn to the Meccan period. When the renowned poet Tufayl al-Dawsi came to Mecca, the Quraysh forbade him to meet the Messenger, peace be upon him. Eventually he met him on his own initiative and accepted Islam after hearing only a few verses. Amr ibn Abasa came to meet the Messenger, peace be upon him, having heard of his renown, and embraced Islam. The Messenger’s childhood friend, Dhamad ibn Tha‘laba, came as an adviser and accepted Islam after hearing only a few words from the Messenger. Abu Dharr, a young man from a nomadic bandit tribe, came to Mecca after hearing of Islam’s renown. Somehow protecting himself from the hostile environment, he met the Messenger, peace be upon him, heard his call to Islam, and accepted the truth. A sudden emotion arose within him, and he went before the Kaaba and proclaimed the word of truth. He then suffered punishment for the crime of loving the truth. Thus, as people began joining the Islamic movement, each became a caller to Islam within his own sphere of influence. Through the call of some, their entire tribe embraced Islam. Suwayd ibn Samit met the Messenger, peace be upon him, and was profoundly influenced. Iyas ibn Muadh also came from Medina, became a supporter of the Messenger’s call, and created public support for Islam in Medina. A delegation of twenty Christians came from Najran, learned about Islam from the Messenger, peace be upon him, and, despite the Quraysh’s many efforts to thwart them, departed with the light of Islam in their hearts. Some Yemenis embraced Islam through those who had migrated to Abyssinia, and through them even King Negus’s heart was illuminated by the light of faith. The people of Aws and Khazraj in Medina had already been embracing Islam rapidly before the Messenger, peace be upon him, arrived. After the Messenger migrated there, not a single house remained untouched by the light of Islam. Remarkably, the renowned Jewish scholar Abdullah ibn Salam was so overwhelmed after hearing one simple, ordinary, brief sermon by the Messenger, peace be upon him, that he ultimately embraced Islam. That sermon was: “O people, spread peace, feed people, maintain good relations with your blood relatives, and pray at night while people are asleep.” Similarly, the Christian ascetic Abu Qays, Sarma ibn Abi Anas, responded to the call of the Islamic movement. Jubayr ibn Mut‘im had come to free the prisoners of the Battle of Badr. At that time, he heard several verses from the Messenger, peace be upon him, and found guidance. Abu Rafi, a slave of the Quraysh, came to Medina as a messenger and embraced Islam. He did not want to return. The Messenger, peace be upon him, explained that a messenger could not be detained: “Return to Mecca first. Then, if you wish, come to Medina.” Abu Rafi went to Mecca and later migrated to Medina. When Banu Qurayza were attacked because of their offense, Amr ibn Sa‘d, one of them, embraced Islam.

Thumama ibn Uthal al-Hanafi, the leader of Yamama, was brought as a prisoner and embraced Islam, impressed by the Messenger’s conduct. The Battle of Uhud was under way. At that very time, Amr ibn Thabit of the Banu Abd al-Ashhal embraced Islam and immediately went to the battlefield, fought, and attained martyrdom. In the difficult circumstances of the Battle of the Trench, Nuaym ibn Masud joined the Islamic movement. Abu al-As came to Medina and, quite unexpectedly, announced his acceptance of Islam. Seeing the Jews of Khaybar preparing for war, one of their shepherds, Aswad, asked with whom and where the battle would be fought. When he learned that preparations were being made to fight Muhammad, peace be upon him, he embraced Islam. Khalid and Amr ibn al-As left the Quraysh and embraced Islam between the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and the Battle of Mutah. They had grown weary of fighting from the stronghold of ignorance, and so the Islamic movement suddenly attracted them. Fudalah came during the conquest of Mecca, and Shaybah during the Battle of Hunayn, intending to kill the Messenger, peace be upon him. But they themselves were struck down by the sword of truth. When members of the Hawazin and Banu Sad tribes came and embraced Islam, the Messenger, peace be upon him, remembered Malik ibn Awf and expressed hope that he too would embrace Islam. Learning of the Messenger’s attitude, Malik ibn Awf came secretly and embraced Islam. When the Muslim army defeated the Tayy tribe, the daughter of Hatim al-Tai came to Medina as a captive. She appealed to the Messenger, peace be upon him, for kind treatment. He granted her request, arranged a mount for her, and sent her away. She told her brother, Adi ibn Hatim, who was fiercely enraged against Islam, the whole story and advised him to come to Medina. Adi came, examined the situation with his own eyes, and, realizing that the Messenger truly was Allah’s Messenger, embraced Islam. The poet Ka‘b ibn Zuhayr, who had been waging war through poetry against Islam and the Messenger, peace be upon him, came voluntarily to Medina and embraced Islam. He then composed and recited the historically renowned poem Banat Suad. Consider Abdullah Dhul-Bijadayn. Although this young man had been influenced by Islam, he had concealed it for some time out of fear of his uncle. When he saw that there was no hope of obtaining his uncle’s permission, he bade farewell to his uncle, his property, the clothes his uncle had given him, and his domestic life, put on a blanket, came to Medina, and embraced Islam. A merchant named Munqidh ibn Habban, from the Abd al-Qays tribe of Bahrain, came on a commercial journey and stayed in Medina for several days. The Messenger, peace be upon him, planned to expand the Islamic movement abroad. Accordingly, he himself went forward to meet Munqidh and invited him to Islam. Munqidh embraced Islam. When he returned home and invited his father, his father also embraced Islam. Later, the common people of his tribe embraced Islam as well. There were also many people who abandoned kingship, leadership, and high offices and adopted servitude to Allah.

These examples show how the field gradually became favorable and fertile for Islam. First one person, then two or four, then hundreds, and then thousands accepted Islam, until an entire world came into being.

At a certain stage, people began embracing Islam rapidly and universally, in wave after wave. Here I mention only those distinguished individuals who became leaders in their respective environments. When one of them embraced Islam, he would become a caller to Islam among his own tribe and in his own area. Through their words and deeds, they attracted many others, sometimes even entire tribes. In addition, the activities of the very centre of Islamic preaching in Medina and those of international workers immediately encouraged many people to embrace Islam or made them its supporters and sympathizers. Such sympathy too has proved extremely beneficial to the Islamic movement. These supporters and sympathizers could speak in favor of Islam even while sitting among its opponents, and no hostility or narrow-mindedness prevented anyone from listening to them. Such supporters and sympathizers existed among the Quraysh, the Jews, and the Bedouins, and it was primarily they who encouraged the Quraysh to sign the treaty at Hudaybiyyah. One such person prevented Abu Sufyan from returning to attack the Muslims again after the Battle of Uhud. Another opposed preventing a food caravan from reaching the Messenger, peace be upon him, and his companions while they were confined in Abu Talib’s mountain valley, Shi‘b Abi Talib. It was people of this kind who brought that unjust boycott agreement to an end. Mukhayriq, who, despite being a Jew, gave his life for the interests of the Islamic movement, was also such a person. In short, alongside those who accepted Islam, a group of supporters and sympathizers of this kind also began to emerge. This group too contributed to paving the way for the success of the Islamic revolution. Most of them were later blessed to embrace Islam. In sum, groups of direct and indirect callers to the Islamic revolution had spread throughout Arabia. Medina was the source of inspiration for them all. Drawing strength from it, truth-seekers scattered everywhere were bringing the radiance of the Islamic creed into their own circles. Medina was like the sun, while the various planets and satellites spread far around it received light from it and illuminated their surroundings.

Here I have briefly presented several examples showing how one person or a handful of people influenced entire tribes or regions. One example—perhaps the greatest and brightest—is that of Suwayd ibn Samit, a young man of Medina, who went to Mecca, received the light of the Kalimah Tayyibah from the Messenger, peace be upon him, and then influenced many people in Medina. Thus, at one stage, Medina became the centre of the Islamic movement. Although Tufayl al-Dawsi could not quickly influence his entire tribe because of his temperament, the Islamic movement became known in Yemen through him. Influenced and inspired by those who had migrated to Abyssinia, the Ash‘ari tribe embraced Islam without anyone else’s encouragement. Through the call of Dhamad ibn Tha‘laba, his entire tribe embraced Islam. When Abu Dharr al-Ghifari returned from Mecca after being initiated into Islam’s revolutionary ideology, half of his tribe embraced Islam through his call. The other half, after the Messenger, peace be upon him, went to Medina,

became Muslim. Then Islam entered the Aslam tribe through the Ghifar tribe, and gradually the entire tribe embraced Islam. Islam spread in Bahrain through Munqidh ibn Habban. Some time later, Munqidh came to Medina with fourteen companions. In short, the matter appeared much like the saying in the Gospel: “The kingdom of Allah—the call to truth—is like leaven. When a woman mixes a little leaven with flour, the whole flour becomes leavened.”

Wherever Islam reached and some people accepted it, a society inevitably came into being. The mosque was not merely a place for prayer; it was the centre of all Islamic cultural activities. It served simultaneously as a school, a place of consultation, a social gathering place, and a guesthouse. The mosque thus became a symbol of the Islamic movement, and its existence throughout an area amounted to announcing that this place was now “a stronghold of Islam.” For this reason, the Messenger, peace be upon him, instructed newly Muslim tribes to build mosques. He also instructed the soldiers to stop using weapons in any area where the sound of the call to prayer could be heard. This instruction in fact encouraged the construction of more mosques. In Muslim settlements, people built mosques as a suitable means of propagating their new revolutionary ideology. Islamic beliefs were proclaimed from them in the form of the call to prayer, and training in Islamic solidarity was provided through congregational prayer. As a result of the Messenger’s encouragement, mosques continued to be built during his lifetime. A mosque was built in Bahrain at the very beginning. The first Friday prayer after that of the Prophet’s Mosque was performed there. Mosques were public institutions and operated under government supervision. Those sent from Medina as officials to an area also served as the imams of its mosque. Tribes that remained outside the administration of Medina consulted the Messenger, peace be upon him, about appointing an imam for their mosque. They then appointed an imam according to the standards he specified. Many mosques were built in places where the Messenger, peace be upon him, had stayed during a battle or journey, prayed, or where an important event had occurred.

The Power of Treaties and Understanding

Alongside the extensive work of preaching and conveying the message among the people carried out through the direct methods mentioned above, several major supporting measures were also adopted. One notable measure was the expansion of Medina’s political influence. This expansion was achieved largely through treaties and alliances. The Messenger’s expansion of the government’s sphere of influence through treaties and mutual understanding, and his extraordinary attention to this matter, clearly show that he wished to avoid warfare as far as possible and create an atmosphere of peace and security all around, so that the work of preaching could be conducted effectively in such a peaceful environment and military tension would not obstruct it. Wherever military action became unavoidable to preserve Islam, the Islamic state, and peace, he did not hesitate in the least. But whenever it was possible to escape warfare, and political protection and stability of the state and an unobstructed environment for preaching Islam could be secured through peace and understanding, he never abandoned the path of truce and reconciliation. The Islamic state itself was established not through the power of the sword, but through the force of a constitutional treaty. Thereafter, for the state’s defense and expansion of its influence, he made such extensive use of alliances that, by comparison, military measures constituted a very small proportion.

Building treaty-based and alliance-based relations is not an easy task. Especially when religious differences and political hostility exist, opposing forces intervene, and the matter generally involves tribes and individuals with no prior acquaintance whatsoever, this work requires exceptional political skill. It is necessary to know the audience’s condition, mentality, and strength; understand the balance of power prevailing among different sections of society at a given time; observe the influence and standing of opposing groups; identify conditions acceptable to both sides; and make discussions psychologically effective, along with fulfilling many other essential requirements. In reality, the degree of political insight, leadership skill, and diplomatic ability demonstrated by the Messenger, peace be upon him, in this field has no parallel. It has no parallel because, while building such far-reaching relationships, the Messenger, peace be upon him, did not allow the slightest harm to come to Islamic ideals, his own moral principles, or his political dignity. Otherwise, because morality is so gravely killed in the diplomatic arena, the word “diplomacy” has acquired a bad reputation. Politics itself has now become an undesirable matter. It is said that politics has no character and no final word. Politics is like a tank that moves in whatever direction it goes, trampling all human values underfoot. But the Messenger, peace be upon him, completely changed the meaning of diplomacy and politics. He did not merely free and purify these two activities from filth; he infused them with the vital force of honesty and worship. Conducting political and diplomatic activity according to Islamic principles, achieving extraordinary success in it, and thereby uniting scattered tribes and gathering them around oneself may seem easy today when read about in books. But the one who carried out these tasks in the deserts of Arabia knew how difficult they really were.

This process of treaty-based alliance not only paved the way for the wider spread of Islam by creating unrestricted opportunities for Muslim preachers to travel, mix freely with the people, and for members of the allied tribes to maintain direct contact with Medina; it also helped expand the influence of the Islamic movement because the political judgment and foresight of the Islamic leadership thereby won the people’s trust. However devoted and attached the public may be to pious people produced by limited religious and spiritual ideas, and however much they may trust in their holiness, they never entrust them with the keys to leadership and authority in collective life. Leadership and authority in collective life have always been entrusted to those whom the public regards as possessing the competence and skill to discharge collective responsibilities. It often happens that people lavish praise on a group, saying that they are very good people, do much good work, serve the public, and so on. But through this praise they mean that those good people are utterly incompetent to manage worldly affairs. Hearing the public’s praise, such people often fall into the mistaken notion that public opinion is strongly in their favor. If the Muslim organization of that time had produced a human character that was extremely pious and devout in religious terms but incapable of demonstrating any competence in the political and social problems of the world, the public response would have been: they are good people, they speak good words, and they treat people well. But the public could never have hoped that they would establish a new system or prove capable of governing the state and leading society. The Islamic movement did not come to produce “men of Allah” who, as individuals, were merely devout, good, and simple-minded, but lacked the political skill to exercise authority in collective life; whom the people did not accept as qualified for alternative and superior leadership; and from whom they could not hope for a brighter future. The Muslim leaders and workers created by the Islamic movement were as politically perceptive and capable as they were devoted to and fearful of Allah. They demonstrated their merit through their own work. The people of the time were thus gradually influenced by the leadership qualities of the Messenger, peace be upon him, and the Muslim power working under his leadership. Medina continued to be the focus of their hopes, and as a result their hearts continually opened to Islam. In short, preaching the faith and expanding political influence were interdependent tasks, and the combined vital force of the two propelled the Islamic movement toward an irresistible advance. Let us keep this fundamental principle in mind as we review the far-reaching treaty-based relationships established by the Messenger, peace be upon him. He established these relationships with remarkable speed, even though communications were extremely difficult at that time.

1. The Treaty of Aqabah

In discussing treaty-based relations, the Treaty of Aqabah must be mentioned first. This treaty was at once a religious pledge and a political commitment. At the first meeting at Aqabah, a group of vigorous young men from Medina pledged, by placing their hands in the hand of the Messenger, peace be upon him, that they believed in his messengership. At the second meeting, they also promised allegiance to his political leadership. On the road from Mecca to Mina there are high walls of rock running parallel to the mountains on both sides. One furlong before Mina, a small semicircular valley can be seen in the mountain on the left. This was the protected place where the Treaty of Aqabah was concluded in the silent darkness of night. Because of the presence of Jews in Medina, the Ansar were reasonably familiar with revealed religion and the succession of prophethood. They knew the prophecies concerning the promised final Prophet. They also remembered how the Jews would threaten them from time to time, saying, “When that promised final Prophet comes, we will join him and defeat you.” Thus, on the one hand, a desire for divine guidance had arisen among the Ansar, while on the other, an unconscious emotion had been born that, when the promised Prophet came, they would be the very first to believe in him. At the same time, they had grown weary of the continuing conflict between Aws and Khazraj and were waiting for an opportunity for peace and security. But the problem was that, because of their former rivalry, neither tribe was ready to accept the leadership of the other. A third power was essential for them. For all these reasons, when the intelligent and peace-loving people of Medina became directly acquainted with the Messenger, peace be upon him, and had the opportunity to hear his call, their hearts immediately became eager and impatient to accept it. News of his prophethood had already reached them. Through direct discussion, they reached a final decision. The influence of the Messenger’s handsome appearance and personality, joined with his preaching, gave final form to that mental revolution. It was a historic moment when several Ansar, at the time of the First Pledge, had set out from Medina intending to establish an alliance with the Quraysh. Had that objective succeeded, the history of the Islamic movement would have been entirely different. But at the last moment they changed their minds. They removed thoughts of the Quraysh from their hearts and decided to establish contact with that rising sun of Mecca which was illuminating the horizon by casting new rays of light from the dawn of history.

At the First Pledge, the Messenger, peace be upon him, obtained commitments from them concerning several matters of creed and morality. They pledged that they would not associate anyone with Allah, steal, commit adultery, kill their children, slander anyone, or disobey the Messenger’s commands regarding good deeds.

At the Second Pledge, the Ansar added several statements: “We will hear and obey the Messenger’s commands under all circumstances, whether conditions are favorable or fraught with danger, whether a command pleases or displeases us, or whether it goes against our opinion. We will not engage in conflict with our leader, and we will not fear the criticism of any critic.”

Through this brief pledge, a political relationship was established between Muhammad, peace be upon him, and the Ansar, and this group openly became a political party. They accepted the Messenger’s leadership, peace be upon him, as wholly to be followed and emulated. They also pledged that they would take no step toward engaging in conflict with their leaders or seizing their positions. The principle of consultation was established in such a way that, in every matter, whatever was correct and just would be presented. Regarding the struggle to establish Allah’s religion, they pledged that whatever responsibilities and duties were imposed upon them, they would implement them despite the criticism of the entire world. This was such a pledge that thereafter, whatever territory came under the authority of this group, if no other political authority held sway over it and leadership and authority were fully concentrated in its hands, the group would immediately become a state.

Alongside these matters, it was further established that after the Messenger, peace be upon him, migrated to Medina, the Ansar who had entered into the pact would protect him exactly as they protected their own wives and children. In other words, a pact of defensive unity was also established between the Messenger, peace be upon him, and the Islamic party in Medina. In this respect, the political significance of the Treaty of Aqabah increased further and became revolutionary.

Thereafter, at the Messenger’s direction, twelve representatives, or naqibs, were appointed on behalf of the Islamic organization of the Ansar of Medina, and they would be responsible to the Messenger, peace be upon him. In addition to spreading and expanding the Islamic call, political responsibilities were also entrusted to them. According to a report by Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr, the Messenger, peace be upon him, said to these naqibs: “You will be responsible for your people just as the disciples of Jesus were responsible before him. And I am responsible for my people, that is, the people of Mecca.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, pp. 36–57; Ahde Nabawi ke Maidan-haye Jang, Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqui, pp. 7–10)

The administrative structure that developed in Medina after the appointment of the naqibs was not merely religious; it had also become political and revolutionary. The spontaneous and natural demand of such a structure was that it be transformed into a state as soon as possible, indeed at the first opportunity. That is what happened: only a few months after the Messenger, peace be upon him, migrated, the foundations of the Islamic state were laid.

It is thus clear that the Islamic movement completed the initial preaching era and entered the state era through a treaty, not through the use of military force.

2. The Constitutional Treaty

The second greatest treaty in the history of the Islamic movement led by the Messenger, peace be upon him, was the treaty that laid the foundation of the Islamic state of Medina. Perhaps no state in the history of the world has been established without using more or less force; the establishment of an ideological state is even more difficult. For its fundamental ideals create extraordinary tension throughout the surrounding environment, and establishing it with the cooperation of an unfamiliar environment and a variety of people inevitably produces an intensely conflict-ridden situation. This constitutional treaty of Medina presents such an incomparable example of the Messenger’s political wisdom, discernment, and leadership ability, peace be upon him. The parties to this treaty included the Muhajirun; the Muslims and polytheists among the two principal Ansar tribes, Aws and Khazraj; Jewish individuals; and the Jewish tribes worn down by mutual conflict.

In fact, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) had known Medina as his maternal uncles’ homeland since childhood. He had gone there and stayed there as a child. Then, as the caller to Islam, during the last two or three years of his life in Mecca, after communication with Medina had been established, he investigated its exceptional circumstances from a political perspective. After that, whatever shortfall remained in his direct knowledge of the inhabitants’ mutual relations and other matters was also removed when he migrated to Medina. At that time, the total population of Medina was approximately five thousand, nearly half of whom were Jews. The number of Muslims among these inhabitants, including the Ansar and the Muhajirun, was no more than five hundred. With this active, ever-vigilant, conscious, and well-organized minority beside him, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) brought the five thousand inhabitants under his leadership. The two principal tribes of the Ansar were divided into twelve subtribes, and a long-standing historical conflict existed among them. The ordinary inhabitants were also afflicted by conflict and discord. For both the Arab and Jewish populations were divided into two groups, and the two sides were constantly embroiled in disputes over one matter or another. Thus, all the communities had become weary of wars, hostilities, conflicts, and quarrels, and had grown desperate for peace. The need for constructive leadership to satisfy this universal thirst for peace had become acute. Only a short while earlier, arrangements had been underway to crown Abdullah ibn Ubayy in order to fill the vacuum of leadership. But suddenly, upon hearing of the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and his call, the Ansar’s attention was drawn in that direction.

The Jews had also reached a state in which their two major groups were internally divided into ten subtribes and were rivals of one another.

These Jews, living far from the homeland of their own people, were tormented by fears for the destruction of their existence. Then, when the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) suddenly joined the Ansar to himself and their former alliance with the Jews began to break down, the Jews felt as though the ground were slipping from beneath their feet. In these circumstances, under the guidance of Allah’s revelation, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) made every possible effort to win the Jews’ hearts and attract their finest sentiments. As a result of this effort, the environment became favorable for establishing political consensus. The accomplishment of learning about all classes of Medina’s inhabitants, becoming familiar with their interests, problems, and psychology, and directing everyone toward the same goal in such a short time established the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) at such a lofty political stature that even contemplating it leaves us bewildered. In matters of creed, belief, and morality, the Muslim community already possessed an exceptionally firm and solid organization under the leadership of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Moreover, the pledge of allegiance at Aqabah had transformed it into a revolutionary political group. Since it was also an idealistic group, it possessed the capacity for spontaneous growth and development; consequently, it easily attained the highest importance in Medina. The Ansar tribes had neither an alternative ideology nor leadership. Most of their chiefs had already joined the Islamic movement. Although the polytheists and Jews within these tribes were not altogether few in number, they were not engaged in any oppositional activity. They remained silent and followed the leading Muslims. One or two Arab or Jewish tribes were of no substantial significance in relation to the Muslims. This configuration of Medina’s inhabitants was entirely compatible with the Messenger’s plan of action. He therefore resolved the initial problems and built the political structure within a few months. According to the assessment of European Orientalists, the treaty in question consisted of fifty-three clauses. In light of the historical record, a difference of opinion has arisen on one point concerning this treaty. Some say that the treaty was recorded in its entirety in the first year after the Hijrah. Others hold that one part was recorded in the first year and the other after the Battle of Badr. In other words, from the perspective of Western historians, it consisted of two separate parts: clauses 1 to 23 and clauses 24 to 47. If we accept this second view, we can still see in it evidence of the Messenger’s political wisdom and prudence. The Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) first formed the political structure with the Muhajirun and all the Ansar, including the non-Muslims. The Jewish tribes may then have felt weak and vulnerable while remaining isolated. Politically, however, they had fallen into a completely ‘neither here nor there’ position. Then, when they saw the Muslims return victorious from the field of Badr—something they had never expected—they may have thought that they should still secure an appropriate place in Medina’s structure while there was time.

Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi’s comment on this constitutional treaty is that it has no precedent anywhere in history. It was written with exceptionally high political skill and in extremely cautious documentary language. Through it, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) secured recognition from people of every class and community for his desired ideological and political values. It seems relevant here to discuss the document’s important provisions so that its political value and status may be assessed correctly.

This document begins with “In the name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.” Its title is: “This written document has been issued by the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him.”

Thus, at the very outset, the foundation of Islam’s fundamental political ideology was established. The Muslims themselves were made the central element of the political structure formed on the basis of this document. It states at the beginning:

“The Quraysh and the people of Yathrib are believers and Muslims, together with those who follow them, join them, and participate in jihad with them, for the determination of relations among them all.”

The believers who had come from Mecca and those of Medina are mentioned here as the central elements of the state. The rest would receive citizenship as their followers. By making the Jewish tribes parties to the treaty and using the words “with the believers,” they were politically included in the same ummah (clauses 25 to 35).

It further states that “the believers are brothers to one another” (clause 15). All Muslims were declared equal partners in war and peace (clause 17). The Muslims were given strict instructions to remain united in implementing qisas (execution of a murderer) and never to shelter a murderer. This did not mean that anyone might exceed the limits; whoever did so was to be punished in retaliation (clauses 19, 21, and 32). No believer may kill a believer in retaliation for a disbeliever, nor may any believer assist a disbeliever against a believer (clause 14). Even the humblest Muslim may grant protection to anyone, and all must bear responsibility for that person as a trust entrusted by Allah (clause 15). When a disagreement arises, judgment must be sought from Allah and Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) (clause 23). It is the duty of God-fearing believers to unite in resisting every act of immorality, crime, and oppression (clause 13). In the initial section, to invigorate the constitution’s ideological inspiration, it is repeatedly stated that such-and-such Muslim tribes must observe ‘justice’ and ‘fairness’ regarding ransom and related matters. This must be done “in the sense in which it is generally understood among Muslims” (clauses 3 to 12). The highly important Islamic term ‘fi sabilillah’ was included in this constitution (clause 19). Similarly, the three terms ‘oppression,’ ‘sin,’ and ‘good deeds’ were also included (clause 36). The constitution also states that God-fearing and self-restrained believers are on the straightest path (clause 20). The statement ‘the oppressed have the right to receive help’ expresses a pure Islamic principle, which is also a universal human principle. Recognition of this principle was secured from all parties, and it was also stated that Allah would support whoever observed the provisions of this constitution with the utmost sincerity and loyalty (clauses 42, 46, and 47).

Consider also how clearly the political matters were settled in this document. The residential area of the signatories—that is, the central area of the city of Medina, covering approximately one hundred square miles (Medina’s geographical description was given earlier)—was designated as the initial territory of the Islamic state and was also declared a sacred area (clause 39). It was announced in advance that those among the Jewish community who followed us would receive assistance and equal rights along with all civic rights. Political wisdom and prudence are reflected in the clause stating this. It simultaneously encouraged conversion to Islam and provided a remedy for any political crisis (clause 16). All the signatories to this treaty were declared a single political unit: *********** (clause 1). The greatest indication of political wisdom and prudence is clause 23, which grants the right to settle any disagreement exclusively to Allah and His Messenger Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him); and if any quarrel, dispute, or killing occurred, it too had to be brought before Allah and Allah’s Messenger Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) (clause 42). No one was to be prevented from taking retaliation for an injury or killing (clause 36). Responsibility for the oppression of an oppressor and the crime of a murderer would fall only upon the criminal himself or his family—not upon anyone else (previously, the criminal’s entire tribe and group were held responsible) (clauses 25 and 26). Each tribe was regarded as the basic unit of the political structure, and on this basis the central government was established.

Regarding defense policy, it was established that if Yathrib were attacked, mutual assistance would be obligatory for the signatory parties (clause 44). If anyone went to war with any party that had signed the treaty, it would be the duty of all the signatories to assist that party sincerely against him (clause 37). Through one clause, this document also entrusted the authority over defense to the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). It stated that no one could engage in any military activity without the Messenger’s permission (clause 36). The partners would bear no responsibility for a party’s own religious war (clause 45). If the partners were invited to make a peace treaty, they too would make peace along with everyone else (clause 45). To eliminate any possibility of an alliance with the Quraysh, everyone was also made to acknowledge that no polytheist citizen of Medina would provide security for the lives or property of the Quraysh or obstruct any believer in this matter (clause 20). Neither the Quraysh nor anyone granting them protection would be given protection (clause 43). Regarding military expenses, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) wisely added the clause that each party would bear the expenses of its own war (clauses 37–44), for he knew that the Jews would be reluctant to contribute their share and that, if a common fund fell into their hands, they would embezzle it.

In the economic sphere, responsibility for blood money and the ransom of prisoners of war was assigned, in accordance with the customary Arab practice, to the relevant person’s tribe. Similarly, the burden of a debt was made collective when a debtor lost the ability to repay it.

Regarding religious freedom, it was stated: “For the Muslims, their religion, and for the Jews, their religion” (clause 25). In reality, the Muslim community was a single unit in both religious and political terms, and a double responsibility had been placed upon it. But in purely political relations, all allied parties were given the freedom to follow their own religions. (Sirat Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, pp. 119–123; Ahde Nabawi ka Nizam-e-Hukmrani, Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi, pp. 76–111.)

Now review the provisions mentioned above as a concise summary of the document, and consider each part: with what skill and prudence the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) established his own ideology as the foundation of the constitution of Medina’s multinational Islamic state, and established his leadership and authority in every military and judicial respect. He determined that confronting the Quraysh was a collective responsibility and persuaded everyone to accept it. Moreover, he blocked in advance numerous possible avenues of danger. It should be noted that this treaty had the status of a constitutional document. None of its signatories had the right to withdraw from it or violate it whenever they wished. If anyone did so, the civic rights that had arisen precisely from this treaty within the boundaries of the Islamic state would be abolished for that person. For this reason, the Jewish tribes that later completely trampled this treaty were dealt with exactly as rebels and traitors deserved.

In this connection, it is necessary to understand the significance of the obligation of Hijrah in light of this document. One of the purposes of making Hijrah obligatory was to strengthen further the Muslim community upon which the foundation of Medina’s Islamic state rested. It is true that if Muslims had remained scattered here and there in ones and twos under Arabia’s tribal system, their fate might have been that, after offering some resistance and engaging in some conflicts, they would eventually dissolve into the age-old social order or die under oppression and persecution. For this reason too, it was essential to gather every Muslim and organize them. At the same time, for the stability of Medina’s Islamic state, it was necessary for all isolated Muslims from every place to come together in Medina. Later, when neither of these two needs remained, it was announced: “After complete victory has been achieved, there is no longer any need for Hijrah.” That is, when the entire Arabian Peninsula became the ‘abode of Islam’ (Dar al-Islam), came under Medina’s authority, and no blockade or impediment remained anywhere for those who accepted Islam, the obligation to migrate to Medina was withdrawn.

On the basis of this treaty, the Islamic state of Medina was established, and the leadership of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was established. For the first time, Muslims gained the opportunity to preach Islam freely in an area of one hundred square miles inhabited by five thousand people. The political power of Islam there naturally supported the work of preaching. Moreover, the presence of the Islamic government helped Muslims spread the call in the vicinity of Medina as well.

3. Treaties with Various Tribes

Alongside his efforts to make Medina a political unit and establish the foundation of the Islamic state, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) also worked to organize the surrounding tribes. He sent delegations two or three times, composed of the noble Companions. In the twelfth month after the Hijrah, that is, in Safar, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) personally went to Waddan (a place on the route from Medina to Mecca). There he concluded a treaty with the Banu Hamzah, or Banu Damrah, tribe. Amr ibn Fahshi al-Damri signed the treaty on behalf of that tribe. (Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, pp. 4–223; Zad al-Ma‘ad, vol. 1, p. 334; Rahmatul-lil-Alamin, vol. 1, p. 138.)

Earlier, a group of the Muhajirun had gone as far as the nearby place called ‘Is, creating a favorable environment for establishing friendly relations. (Rasul-e-Akram’s Political Life, Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi, p. 359.) Then, in Rabi al-Awwal of the second year after the Hijrah (the thirteenth month after the Hijrah), the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) again visited the Bu‘ath area (one of Juhaynah’s mountains in the Yanbu region). Successful discussions were held with the people there as well, and friendly relations were established. (Rahmatul-lil-Alamin, vol. 1, p. 139; Zad al-Ma‘ad, same page.) Then, in Jumada al-Thani, he visited Dhu al-‘Ushayrah (in the Yanbu region). There he held discussions for a long time with Banu Mudlij and their allies, Banu Damrah, and a treaty was concluded with them as well. (Ibn Hisham, vol. 2, p. 239; Rahmatul-lil-Alamin, vol. 1, p. 139.)

Some earlier historians hold that, as a result of these treaties, these tribes and regions had in fact become part of Medina’s state structure. Evidence for this is that certain provisions and terms of those treaties resemble those of the constitutional—that is, Medinan—treaty. Even if this view is not accepted regarding the very earliest period of the Prophetic biography, there is nevertheless no room for doubt that the Juhaynah tribe accepted Islam at a later stage, before many others. A large delegation of one thousand people came to Medina, met the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and promised cooperation. They also took part in various battles. The record of the Islamic state’s relations with the various branches of this tribe bears witness to this. For example, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) issued a written charter of peace and security to Banu al-JurmuZ, a branch of Juhaynah. He permanently assigned their entire region as a fief to another branch of Juhaynah, Banu Shamak, or Shak. Similarly, he granted Awzajah ibn Harmal al-Juhani a fief near his residence at Dhu al-Mirrah. When Abu Basir and his companions could no longer go to Medina because of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, they migrated from Mecca and settled in this coastal region. It is not surprising that chiefs such as Ajuzah assisted them, and that they resisted the Qurayshi caravans with the help of the local people. (Political Life, Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi.)

Relations progressed further, and the work of preaching continued through mutual interaction. The result was that the tribes as a whole became standard-bearers of the Islamic movement. We know the account of Uqbah al-Juhani’s acceptance of Islam. Toward the end of the Messenger’s life, a new peace treaty was signed with Banu Jurmuz, Banu al-Harqah, and Amr ibn Ma‘bad. As with the other Muslim tribes, it stipulated that prayer and zakat had to be properly observed, one-fifth of the spoils had to be paid as prescribed, relations with opponents of Islam had to be severed, and interest on loans had to be abandoned. A mosque had also been built in Medina in the name of the Juhaynah tribe during the Prophetic era itself. This shows that a large number of members of the Juhaynah tribe had become Muslims and come to Medina.

Banu Ghifar was one of the tribes whose large numbers had accepted Islam much earlier. This tribe was influenced by one of its members, the exemplary young man Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. Around the time of the Battle of Badr, they signed a treaty with the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). The substance of the treaty was: “They are Muslims, and their responsibilities and obligations are the same as those of the Muslims.” Although one part of the treaty took into account the tribe’s non-Muslim members, in my view this tribe had in reality become part of Medina’s social structure. Therefore, there is no reason not to regard its territory as falling under Medina’s authority.

One branch of Banu Damrah was Banu Ghifar, and another was Banu Abd ibn Adi. The latter tribe lived within the boundaries of the Sacred Precinct. Although this branch was compelled to maintain an accommodation with the Quraysh, it established an alliance with the Muslim government. It formed an alliance with the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in every matter except one: fighting the Quraysh.

The Banu Ashja‘ tribe was a branch of the Banu Ghatafan tribe. They too lived near the commercial highway. When the blockade of the highway brought Qurayshi trade to a halt, their economy was damaged, since these tribes made their living by serving the commercial caravans. Compelled by the economic crisis, their delegation came to Medina. Thereafter, before the Battle of the Trench, they accepted Islam and signed a treaty. Nu‘aym ibn Mas‘ud signed the treaty on their behalf. Nu‘aym ibn Mas‘ud joined the Islamic movement during the Battle of the Trench itself. For this reason, the entire tribe did not accept Islam at the time of the treaty. Nevertheless, the basis of the treaty can be understood from a single sentence. The sentence was:

*********** “A broad-based relationship of assistance and goodwill was established.” One branch of this tribe obtained from the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) an exclusive license to assist the Banu Amir caravans during their stopovers. A chief of the Banu Amir tribe was also granted a fief before the Battle of the Trench.

I shall now mention the alliances established after the Battle of the Trench. The Khuza‘ah tribe was descended from Qahtan of Yemen and had many branches. They lived scattered around Mecca. Apart from Banu al-Mustaliq, most branches of this tribe maintained good relations with the Muslims. One reason was that Abd al-Muttalib had maintained friendly relations with them. Taking advantage of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, this tribe openly abandoned the Quraysh and formed an alliance with Medina’s Islamic government. Through this alliance, on the one hand, the tribe informed the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) about the Quraysh’s preparations for the Battle of the Confederates, or Battle of the Trench. On the other hand, before the conquest of Mecca, the Messenger sent them a letter assuring them that they would face no difficulty. He also informed them that Banu Kilab and Banu Hawazin had accepted Islam. But before the time came, these two tribes became victims of Banu Bakr’s oppression and persecution, and this oppression and persecution became the cause of the conquest of Mecca.

Banu Aslam was a branch of the Khuza‘ah tribe. A charter of security issued by the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in their name indicates that they had accepted Islam relatively early and had become loyal to the Islamic state. Some of them migrated to Medina and settled there. The Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) also granted their chief, al-Husayn ibn Aws, a fief. This is evidence of the strength of their alliance, and it also proves the integration of the areas associated with them into Medina.

The tribes called Judham, Quda‘ah, and ‘Adhrah lived north of Tabuk. Through their hostile activities, they caused considerable problems for the Islamic government. They seized all the possessions of Medina’s envoy. Punitive action was then taken against them. Some innocent people were mistakenly caught up in this action. They came to Medina to lodge a complaint and were compensated. Thus, the way to renewed relations was opened. Among the letters of the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) that have been preserved is one written to Rifa‘ah ibn Zayd al-Judhami. It contains an extremely stern ultimatum. In the letter addressed to this chief, his entire tribe was warned either to accept the call to Islam and join the party of Allah and His Messenger, or, if they rejected the call, they would be allowed to live in safety for two months. The situation eventually developed as follows: after the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) returned from Tabuk, in the ninth year after the Hijrah, Malik ibn Amir al-Judhami came to Medina, met the Messenger, and received a charter of security. This charter mentions only conditions applicable to Muslim tribes—that is, they had accepted Islam. Similarly, during one expedition, a chief of the Quda‘ah tribe, Buraydah ibn al-Khasir, met the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) outside Medina and obtained a charter of security by pledging to the Messenger that his tribe would accept Islam.

In the sixth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) sent Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf on a preaching mission to the Kalb tribe. The result was as he had hoped. In order to express his allegiance and stabilize relations, the tribe’s chief married his daughter to Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf. Similarly, the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) issued a charter of security in the name of Harithah ibn Butun, the newly Muslim chief of the Malb tribe around Dumat al-Jundal. A peace treaty was also concluded with Ukaydir, the ruler of Dumat al-Jundal. There is disagreement as to whether he had accepted Islam or had retained his chieftainship by agreeing to pay jizyah without accepting Islam. He later rebelled and was killed by Khalid. His fortress and land were subsequently placed under the authority of the aforementioned Kalbi chief, Harithah ibn Qutun.

Before the people of Ta’if collectively accepted Islam, Sardan ibn Abdullah al-Yamani joined the Islamic movement. The Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) appointed him commander to conduct military activities in that region. With the Messenger’s permission, he laid siege to the fortress of Juras. As a result of the siege, a peace treaty was concluded, and Abu Sufyan was appointed governor of Ta’if.

In the eighth year after the Hijrah, Amr ibn al-As went to the Banu Izd tribe living in the city of Oman, carrying the Messenger’s (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) letter inviting them to Islam. Two men named Ubayd and Ja‘far were their chiefs. Banu Izd accepted Islam.

We will discuss later those tribes that, in the Year of the Delegations, voluntarily sent delegations, accepted Islam, or at least pledged allegiance to the government of Medina.

Moreover, wherever a group expressed a desire to pledge allegiance or conclude a truce as a result of military expeditions, that opportunity was immediately granted. The established policy of the state of Medina was that whenever anyone engaged in combat expressed a desire for a truce, his wish would be respected. After entering the battlefield, several tribes either accepted political submission and subordination or embraced Islam. The case of the Jews of Khaybar and the surrounding areas is noteworthy in this regard. After they were defeated, when they wished to remain there, they were allowed to stay under agreed conditions.

A review of all these events leaves no alternative but to acknowledge that avoiding conflict and building friendly relations was the most important policy of the government of Medina. There was a department devoted to this. The Messenger (PBUH) and his Companions undertook many efforts and journeys for this purpose. These efforts are vivid proof of the peace-loving outlook of the Islamic state. Furthermore, despite knowing the demands and requirements of an idealistic state in this matter, the Messenger (PBUH) showed such generosity in formulating policy that he accepted even purely political alliances from tribes that had not embraced Islam. In several cases, he appointed non-Muslim rulers or chiefs himself, or retained them in their positions. The purpose was likewise to reduce the possibility of conflict to the lowest possible level. Later, however, in light of many bitter experiences, it became necessary to decide that at least the surroundings of the territory that served as the principal homeland of the Islamic movement had to be freed of hostile people in order to keep it pure and peaceful. Otherwise, their treachery would inevitably bring disaster.

A review of the alliances described shows that wherever Islam reached, the state of Medina naturally gained political allegiance there. Similarly, wherever political alliances were established, the banner of Islam was raised there soon afterward. The reason is clear. When the tribes had greater opportunities to mix with the Muslims of Medina, they were overwhelmed by seeing firsthand the remarkable features of the Islamic way of life, while the workers of the Islamic movement found a peaceful environment in which to carry out their missionary work. It was because of this unity of religion and politics that an area of ten to twelve hundred thousand square miles could be infused with Islam within only a few years.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

In the history of the Islamic movement led by the Messenger (PBUH), the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was an event that initiated the most important change in the course of events. As a result, the Islamic movement suddenly gained the opportunity to expand to the level of universality. This event demonstrated the Messenger’s (PBUH) supreme political foresight and wisdom: he induced even the vilest and most brutal enemy engaged in war to reach an understanding and tied their hands for several years.

When the Jews exiled for rebellion and treachery established bases in Khaybar, Tayma, and Wadi al-Qura, Medina found itself facing two enemies at once. The alliance between Quraysh and the Jews had brought a large number of invading troops to stand before Medina. After safely emerging from the Battle of the Trench, the complex problem confronting the Messenger (PBUH) was how to break this alliance between the two enemies. In the present circumstances, if he attacked toward Mecca, the Jews of Khaybar and Banu Ghatafan might attack Medina. The Messenger (PBUH) was able to assess with extraordinary accuracy that, among these two enemies, the Jewish stronghold of Khaybar could be utterly destroyed with a single blow. At the same time, the Quraysh of Mecca could easily be induced to conclude a truce. Indeed, the strength of Quraysh had become hollow from within. However boastfully they behaved outwardly, they had little real capacity for resistance. Moreover, the Messenger (PBUH) had some supporters in and around Mecca. Some of his measures had further invigorated these supporters. By sending food grains and cash to Mecca during the days of famine, the Messenger (PBUH) had earned immense popularity among the poor there. For this reason Abu Sufyan said, “Now Muhammad (PBUH) wants to lead our people astray in this way.” The Messenger (PBUH) had taken another measure as well: he had married Umm Habiba (RA), the daughter of Abu Sufyan, Mecca’s greatest leader. This marriage brought highly significant political benefits. In any case, another step was now necessary, whatever it might be, and the Messenger (PBUH) was making every possible effort toward that end.

On the other hand, there was also a major problem: the Muslims had left Mecca nearly six years earlier. The matter was not limited merely to love of their homeland; it was also connected with the Holy Kaaba, the center of the call of Ibrahim (AS). The Muslims were renewing that Abrahamic call. Therefore, it was impossible for them to remain separated forever from this ideological center. The Quraysh still refused to allow them to go to Mecca, and apparently it would take a long time to resolve this conflict. Consequently, the Muslims’ emotions were becoming increasingly restless and heated. It had become necessary to declare that the Islamic community had a right to the Sacred Sanctuary.

Meanwhile, the Messenger (PBUH) received an indication in a dream that he should perform Hajj. As soon as he received this indication, his incomparable wisdom led him to adopt the best program at the best time and implement it in the best manner. He decided to perform Umrah during the sacred months of Hajj with a large group. He took only those who wished to go voluntarily. Fourteen hundred Muslims accompanied him. He appointed Numaylah ibn Abdullah al-Laythi as acting governor of Medina and left a large portion of the Muslims behind to protect the city. He took seventy sacrificial camels with him. No weapons were taken. The journey began in complete silence. When they reached Dhu al-Hulayfah, the sacrificial animals were marked.

This journey was, on the one hand, a religious journey. On the other hand, it inherently included an important political aspect. We find this combination and convergence of religion and politics throughout the entire history of the Messenger’s (PBUH) life. Moreover, including worldly affairs or political activity in a Hajj journey is entirely permissible. Thus, this pilgrimage posed a great challenge to Quraysh. If these pilgrims to the Sacred Sanctuary were not stopped, it would mean that Mecca had become permanently open to the Muslims. Furthermore, the arrival of the Messenger (PBUH) and his Companions at the Sacred Sanctuary was likely to have a profound impact on the minds of the city’s inhabitants. The arrival of these callers to the Islamic revolution would revive the Islamic movement in the hearts of the people of Mecca. The people would also say among themselves that the formidable power of Quraysh had come to an end. This became clear later from the remarks of Suhayl ibn Amr, Mecca’s representative in the discussions concerning the truce. He said, “If we let you enter the Kaaba, all the Arabs will say that we opened the way for you out of fear of your power.”

The Messenger (PBUH) learned everything along the way. A Khuzai spy named Bashir ibn Sufyan came to a place called Usfan and reported that Quraysh was preparing resistance. They had vowed never to allow Muhammad (PBUH) to enter Mecca. To prevent him, Khalid had come with a cavalry force as far as Kurai al-Ghamim. Hearing this, the Messenger (PBUH) said: “This is the misfortune of Quraysh. Their strength has been exhausted by constant warfare. If they had stepped aside and left me alone to reach an understanding with all the Arabs, what difficulty would that have caused them? If the Arabs had killed me, their wish would have been fulfilled. And if I had prevailed, they could then have embraced Islam with everyone else if they wished. Otherwise, they would still have had their strength and could have fought then. If they do not give me this opportunity, then, by Allah, with the supreme truth with which He has sent me, I will fight until the final moment: either this supreme truth will triumph, or my head will be cut off.” In these words he hinted at the possibility of a truce, issued an ultimatum, and pointed to the declining condition of Quraysh.

On the other hand, even if Quraysh succeeded in stopping the pilgrims’ caravan, its reputation would suffer. It would become notorious for preventing the exercise of a religious right. If it launched the first attack, it would again be accused of violating the restrictions of the sacred month. Everyone already knew that the Messenger (PBUH) had shown complete respect for the sanctity of the Sacred Sanctuary and that they were traveling unarmed solely to perform Umrah. Their lack of weapons and the animals marked for sacrifice testified to the nature of their journey. It may be said that Quraysh had been surrounded by an extremely difficult situation. At this delicate moment, its supreme leader Abu Sufyan was away. However loudly Quraysh might boast, only the Messenger (PBUH) possessed the insight to recognize that they had no alternative but to conclude a truce. The wisdom of accurate assessment alone can change circumstances. In this way, one can appreciate the true value of a man of action’s wisdom and insight.

Driven by its old stubbornness and obstinacy, Quraysh quickly gathered the allied tribes, especially the Ahabeesh, at a place called Baldah.

Immediately, diplomatic efforts began. First, Budayl ibn Warqa, chief of the Khuzaa tribe, who was sympathetic toward Islam, came to meet the Messenger (PBUH) with several prominent companions. The Messenger (PBUH) told him, “We have come only to visit the Kaaba. We do not intend to fight. Quraysh is intoxicated with the desire for war, although war will bring them nothing but harm. What harm would there be if Quraysh made a truce with us for several years?” Thus, the Messenger (PBUH) stated his real position at the outset. Budayl went and spoke with Quraysh. He said, “Do not be hasty. Muhammad (PBUH) has not come to fight; he has come solely to visit.” The hot-tempered young men were unwilling to listen to anything, but the older men heard him out. Then they sent the Ahabeesh leader Ulayes ibn Alqamah. When he saw the sacrificial animals grazing in the field, his attitude changed. He went to Quraysh and openly said, “It is not right to stop these pilgrims. We did not come for this purpose either.” The Ahabeesh leader was calmed with the request that he at least give them an opportunity to have their conditions accepted. Then Quraysh sent Urwah ibn Masud al-Thaqafi as its representative. Urwah came and said, “O Muhammad! If you destroy the people of your own tribe, that will not be praiseworthy. The riffraff you have gathered and brought here will abandon you after a few days, leaving you alone.” Hearing this, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) became angry and rebuked Urwah in somewhat harsh language. In accordance with the Arabs’ customary familiar manner of speaking, whenever Urwah reached toward the Messenger’s (PBUH) beard, Mughirah ibn Shubah (RA) immediately pushed his hand away with the sharp point of his sword. The Messenger (PBUH) also presented his position before Urwah. Deeply impressed by the atmosphere he witnessed, Urwah returned. He said, “I have never seen such love and loyalty toward a leader, not even at the court of any king. Muhammad’s (PBUH) Companions do not hesitate to give their lives for him. They are ready to die at a gesture of his hand. No one even speaks loudly in his presence.” Urwah’s reaction shows that the true source of the Islamic movement’s strength is the deep love and loyalty that the group holds for its leader. Love and loyalty together give birth to an irresistible force. When such an atmosphere exists within a group, it weakens and terrifies its opponents. It is not merely like the atmosphere of a democratic institution, where members remain occupied with refuting one another’s arguments. The chairman has no sincere relationship with the members, nor do the members feel any heartfelt attachment to the chairman. Mere outward obedience to the constitution and rules is considered sufficient. It is repugnant even to imagine the filthy atmosphere in groups where slander, backbiting, condemnation, whispering, and ever-new conspiracies against the leader continue. The internal atmosphere of an Islamic organization is one of goodwill, loyalty, devotion, and love. Every member’s personality is valued. Yet the leader remains the center of love for everyone. Otherwise, an atmosphere of compassion and love would not arise among them, nor would the Islamic organization become a wall of steel. This characteristic of the Islamic organization was fully manifest on the field of Hudaybiyyah. That is why the scene overwhelmed Urwah, and he conveyed this reaction to the leading figures of Mecca.

To advance this process of discussion, the Messenger (PBUH) sent Kharash ibn Umayyah to Quraysh. Mecca’s lawless and disorderly atmosphere already prevailed. The unruly people killed the camel on which Kharash had ridden to Mecca for the Messenger (PBUH). Kharash himself barely escaped with his life. Then Uthman (RA) was sent. A group of unruly men had come out to observe the situation. They provoked the Muslims at various places and threw arrows and stones at them. They were arrested, but the Messenger (PBUH), in the interest of the greater good, released them. In short, the warlike men of Quraysh were trying by one means or another to provoke a war. But Allah “restrained the hands of both sides.” Thus the atmosphere of peace remained intact, and the effort to preserve peace prevailed. Quraysh detained Uthman (RA), and his return was greatly delayed. Because of the ominous and unwanted events, a rumor spread that Uthman (RA) had been martyred. The Messenger (PBUH) immediately gathered the Muslims and obtained their pledge to fight to the death if necessary. He said, “If this report is true, we will not return home without fighting them.” Uthman’s life had become extraordinarily precious that day. For, in the words of the Messenger (PBUH), the situation was this: “Uthman has gone to fulfill the responsibility entrusted to him by Allah and His Messenger.” He called one of his own hands Uthman’s hand, placed his other hand over it on Uthman’s behalf, and said, “Pledge allegiance.” His Companions were already overwhelmed with emotion. They came eagerly, one after another, and began to offer their pledge and allegiance with sincerity. This sudden moment was an ideal opportunity for strengthening faith and building character, and at that time the Muslims elevated themselves to such a high level that the Messenger (PBUH) said, “Today you are the best of all people in the world.” Because of the faith-inspired fervor and sincerity of that moment, they earned Allah’s pleasure. Only one hypocrite, Jif ibn Qays, was deprived of the good fortune of that moment. Many such moments come in the lives of the soldiers of truth, and the souls of devoted people draw strength from them. The fourteen hundred Muslims immediately received the reward for their pledge to fight to the death, without a drop of blood being shed. When Quraysh received the news, it immediately sent Uthman back, for in reality it too wished to avoid fighting.

Mikraz ibn Hafs came from Mecca. See how skilled the Messenger (PBUH) was at recognizing people. He identified him from a distance and said, “There comes a deceiver.” In other words, he indicated that no matter could be properly settled through that man.

Finally, Quraysh sent Suhayl ibn Amr. As soon as he saw him, he understood that they had become ready for a truce. Urgent discussions about the conditions took place. At last, Ali (RA) was summoned to write the treaty.

The treaty was being written at such a delicate moment that tension threatened to erupt at every word. At the beginning of the treaty, when the Messenger (PBUH) instructed that “In the name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful” be written, Suhayl said, “What is this ‘Most Compassionate, Most Merciful’? According to our custom, let it simply say, ‘In Your name, O Allah.’” The Messenger (PBUH) accepted this demand as well. Then he said, “Write: ‘The following treaty is concluded between Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, and Suhayl ibn Amr.’” Suhayl objected, saying, “If I acknowledged you as the Messenger of Allah, would I have fought you? Write only your name and your father’s name.” Ali (RA) had already written “Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah.” Thinking it would be a grave act of disrespect to erase the words “the Messenger of Allah,” he could not cut them out. The Messenger (PBUH) took the document and erased those words with his own hand, replacing them with “Muhammad ibn Abdullah.”

Seeing all this insolence from Suhayl, the Messenger’s (PBUH) Companions became agitated with anger. But they exercised restraint out of respect for the Messenger (PBUH). The following conditions were then written:

—Both sides shall observe a ceasefire and truce for ten years.

—The Muslims shall return this year and come to visit the Kaaba next year. They may then remain in the Sacred Sanctuary for only three days, carrying only sheathed swords.

—The Arab tribes may form an alliance with whichever of the two parties they choose.

—The commercial caravans of Quraysh shall enjoy complete security when crossing the territory of Medina.

—If anyone from Quraysh goes to Medina without permission, he shall be returned. But if any Muslim comes to Mecca, he shall not be returned.

The last condition caused terrible unrest among the Muslims. A consideration of the entire psychological atmosphere makes it clear that such unrest and agitation among them was natural. First, at this stage, an agreement of compromise of this kind was an extremely rare occurrence. Quraysh had driven so many people from their homes, imposed war upon the Muslims, still refused to let them enter the Sacred Sanctuary, and was sending back their sacrificial animals. For the Muslims, suddenly establishing a truce and understanding with such oppressive and aggressive polytheists was extremely difficult. Until then they had learned a basic principle regarding the unbelievers: “Perpetual enmity and hatred have arisen between us and you, and it will continue until you believe in the One Allah,” and “Continue fighting them until persecution and disorder are eliminated and obedience is devoted entirely to Allah.” They knew only the straightforward formula that Allah’s word must remain supreme and the word of the unbelievers must remain below it. They did not know that there could be room for compromise between truth and falsehood. In fact, if an ideal is accepted only theoretically and philosophically, that is another matter. But if it is brought into the world of reality and one must struggle for it, then different steps must be taken in light of the time, the opportunity, and the condition of the forces on both sides. One cannot simply continue along a straight path at the same pace with one’s eyes closed. At some places one must stop; at others one must turn aside for a couple of steps; and somewhere one must step back in order to seek a new route. To defeat different kinds of enemies successively, it becomes unavoidable at different times to reach temporary compromises with different ones among them. This broad historical reality was visible only to the Messenger (PBUH); the vision of the Muslim organization had not reached that far. Moreover, when the words “In the name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful” and “the Messenger of Allah” were erased before their eyes, a storm was bound to arise in their emotions. On top of that, when those unequal and unjust conditions were imposed, it became difficult for them to maintain patience and restraint. The major problems for which the Messenger (PBUH) was seeking solutions through this treaty were unknown to Quraysh. The Muslims did not understand them either. During the activities of great movements, there are sometimes such delicate moments when the psychological distance between the group and its leader grows because of their differing understanding of future problems. The leader’s vision extends far into the distance, while the group thinks about matters that are comparatively nearer. Such situations are crisis-ridden, and it is in these rare circumstances that excessive procedural democracy becomes dangerous. In such cases, only leadership that enjoys the highest confidence and cooperation of public opinion, and for which there is no alternative, can properly fulfill its responsibility and duty. Such sincere and stable leadership carries the group toward significant success through its own moral strength alone. The group can become convinced of the soundness of the leader’s decisions and measures only after seeing the subsequent course of events and circumstances.

The problem was that, in the midst of this very complex situation, Abu Jundul, the son of the Quraysh representative Suhayl, arrived from Mecca in chains. He had been beaten and tortured. He presented himself before the Messenger (PBUH) and the Companions. Suhayl ibn Amr said that, according to the proposed conditions, Abu Jundul was the first person whom the Messenger had to send back. The Messenger (PBUH) said, “The treaty has not yet been signed. Therefore, let Abu Jundul’s case remain outside its scope.” Suhayl said, “Then there can be no compromise.” The Messenger (PBUH) then explained gently, “Very well, let him go with me to Medina for my sake.” Suhayl refused. Compelled by the greater interest, the Messenger (PBUH) accepted this unjust demand. Abu Jundul then addressed the assembled Muslims: “Muslim brothers, you are sending me back to the polytheists, yet they will torture me to turn me away from faith.” Abu Jundul’s appeal was extremely provocative in that atmosphere. But the Messenger (PBUH) then demonstrated unparalleled composure. He explained gently to Abu Jundul, “We have accepted a provision in the treaty. Now we cannot violate the treaty. Allah will create a way of deliverance for you and the other oppressed. Have a little patience.” The Muslims’ unrest and agitation were steadily reaching an extreme level. All the anti-Quraysh agitation stored in the hearts of the Muslims seemed to have become concentrated in Umar alone, leaving him bewildered. This was not a matter involving any personal interest of Umar. His concern for the truth and Islamic honor were what made him restless. In this state of agitation, he first discussed the matter with Abu Bakr and then with the Messenger (PBUH), as follows:

Umar (RA): “O Messenger of Allah, are you not Allah’s Messenger?”

The Messenger of Allah (PBUH): “Of course. I am Allah’s Messenger.”

Umar: “Then are we not Muslims?”

The Messenger (PBUH): “Why would you not be?”

Umar: “Then are they not polytheists?”

The Messenger of Allah (PBUH): “Why would they not be?”

Umar: “Then why should we conclude a treaty by yielding regarding Islam?”

The Messenger (PBUH): “I am Allah’s servant and His Messenger. I have not disobeyed any of His commands. Nor will Allah deprive me of His help.”

Umar did become silent at this point, but his emotions did not calm for a long time. The treaty was written, and Umar signed it as a witness, establishing an unforgettable example of obedience. Although he was not satisfied with the conditions, by signing he expressed the attitude that once the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) had made a decision, it could not be rebelled against.

After this truce agreement at Hudaybiyyah was signed, the Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered the Companions to sacrifice their animals and shave their heads. But because of their agitation, grief, and sorrow, no one moved. He issued the order a second time, but it had no effect. He issued it a third time, yet the situation remained unchanged. This shows what kind of psychological crisis and paralysis had arisen even within the group trained directly by the Messenger (peace be upon him). This incident also shows how many varied situations can arise in the course of human activity. Seeing this state of affairs, the Messenger (peace be upon him), deeply distressed, went to his tent. He complained to the Mother of the Believers, Hadrat Umm Salamah, saying, “What has happened to the people that they have not carried out the order I gave?” Hadrat Umm Salamah (may Allah be pleased with her) consoled him and said, “They are distressed by the fulfillment of the treaty’s terms. Go outside, sacrifice your animal, and shave your head.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) rose, went outside, sacrificed his animal, and shaved his head. This practical step restored the obedience of the entire company. Yet even then the situation was such that it seemed they might devour one another. In any case, this was a temporary and fleeting matter, and it soon passed.

This shows that, in order to advance beyond war and create an atmosphere of understanding and reconciliation, the Messenger (peace be upon him) did not hesitate to face extremely difficult circumstances, and for this purpose he even sacrificed the profoundly deep, pure, and sincere emotions of his beloved group.

He gained several very significant benefits through this agreement. First, it created an opportunity for unrestricted interaction among Muslims, polytheists, and ordinary Arabs. People began coming and going. Relatives who had not met for many years gained the opportunity to sit together and associate. Muslims gained the opportunity to learn about and dispel the misconceptions that the polytheists had spread in Makkah about the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslims. They began answering people’s questions. They gained opportunities to inform ordinary people about their spiritual, psychological, moral, material, and intellectual advancement. Open discussions about Islam’s message began taking place from house to house. During this peaceful period after the truce, Islam spread so rapidly that, in only the two years after the Hudaybiyyah truce, far more people voluntarily and gladly accepted Islam than had embraced it altogether during the preceding eighteen or nineteen years. Even enterprising young men such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As joined the Islamic group after this truce.

The second benefit was that, freed from warfare, the Muslims gained the concentration needed to complete the moral and psychological reform of the Muslims and the administrative reorganization of the state. After security was achieved on the internal front, they also gained the opportunity to invite foreign governments to Islam.

The third benefit was that the government of Madinah became free from concern about the Quraysh and was able to eliminate the Jewish revolt at Khaybar. Immediately after the Hudaybiyyah truce, the Islamic government was able to resolve this problem.

The fourth benefit was that all the tribes of Arabia became free. Any tribe that wished could support and assist the government of Madinah. This was a newly opened door through which many new people could enter Islam or offer help and assistance to the Muslims, while the Quraysh were unable to prevent it. The Banu Khuzaah tribe took advantage of this opportunity to establish relations with the Islamic government.

It also falls within the fourth benefit that, only a year later, the Muslims went to Makkah with great splendor to visit the Kaaba; in accordance with the Quran’s prophecy, the atmosphere was one of complete fearlessness.

Thus it may be stated without hesitation that inducing such staunch enemies as the Quraysh to enter into a truce was the most remarkable miracle of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) political strategy. By apparently yielding somewhat on one condition, the Messenger (peace be upon him) gained successes and advantages that the Quraysh could not even have imagined at the time. Could they have imagined that Khaybar, the military base of their Jewish supporters, would soon fall and that the Quraysh would be left alone? On the other hand, who could have guessed that Islam would attract such a vast number of people, that its influence would spread even through Makkah itself, and that the power of the Quraysh would fall below its present level? In reality, this agreement endowed Islam with the revolutionary power to conquer Makkah within only a few years.

On the way back to Madinah, Surah al-Fath was revealed. Reviewing past events and hinting at future opportunities and benefits, Allah gave the Muslims the good news that they would soon win a battle—the Battle of Khaybar—in which they would obtain abundant spoils, and would then achieve extraordinary success and victory that had until then been completely beyond their reach. It was also said that although they were capable even then of defeating the polytheists of Makkah, and the latter would surely have fled, there were many men and women among them who had accepted Islam without the Quraysh knowing and who were secretly their supporters. If war broke out, they would be compelled to come against the Muslims, and because the Muslims would not recognize them, they might strike them. Thus it was Allah’s special favor that He protected both sides from conflict. This was especially so when the unbelievers had displayed their ignorant arrogance with extreme insolence, could not tolerate even the words “the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate” and “the Messenger of Allah,” and had shown extreme obstinacy concerning Abu Jundal. When one side adopts such a crooked course, the other side too cannot remain gentle and calm. But Allah’s favor lay in the steadfastness He sent down upon the Messenger (peace be upon him) and the Muslims, in controlling their emotions, and in keeping them firm in God-consciousness and restraint. In confronting the polytheists, you were suited to behave in precisely this way. Otherwise, had you also become agitated, conflict would have broken out, and the opportunity and success being obtained so easily would have been lost.

Surah al-Fath begins with the words: “Indeed, We have granted you a clear victory.” Hadrat Umar asked in astonishment, “Is this truly a clear victory?” The Messenger (peace be upon him) replied, “Yes, it is a clear victory.” In reality, tranquility and satisfaction of reason and conscience came much later, in light of the unfolding events. At that time, because Hadrat Umar had sincerely supported Islam, he continued performing voluntary acts of worship for a long time and seeking Allah’s forgiveness for the emotional reaction he had displayed. This is a sign of sincerity. Hadrat Abu Bakr, on the other hand, remained calm and composed even during the general turmoil. This diversity in the temperaments of the members of a human organization gives the organization a particular structure and balance. At one end is Siddiqi gravity, and at the other is Faruqi vigor and firmness.

Now listen to how the very clause they had added to the treaty, nearly celebrating their victory, became the cause of their ruin. First, because of it, the number of those secretly accepting Islam in Makkah began to increase, since according to the treaty their route to Madinah was blocked. As a result, the strength of the Quraysh began to decay from within. Meanwhile, a serious incident occurred. Abu Basir, who had accepted Islam, somehow escaped from Makkah and reached Madinah. The Quraysh sent two men to bring him back. Remaining firm on the principle of honoring the treaty, the Messenger (peace be upon him) returned Abu Basir. He consoled Abu Basir as well, saying, “Allah will surely make a way out for you.” Having no alternative, Abu Basir returned. On the way, he overpowered one of the two men sent by the Quraysh, killed him with that man’s own sword, and returned to Madinah. The second man also came to Madinah to lodge a complaint. Abu Basir explained to the Messenger (peace be upon him), “You have fulfilled your promise and handed me over to the enemy. But I did not want to place myself in the grip of the polytheists and endanger my faith. Therefore I did this on my own responsibility. You bear no responsibility for it. Allah has saved me.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “If this man can gather some people, he will surely start a war.” Abu Basir thought that he would perhaps be sent back to Makkah again. So he secretly left Madinah, reached a place called Isa on the seacoast, and settled there. Abu Jundal later joined him there. Then others also began leaving Makkah and going to the seacoast. Gradually, a force of seventy men was formed there. They had an ideological conflict with the people of Makkah, and, having personally suffered oppression and persecution, they also desired revenge. They were not citizens of the state of Madinah, so they were not bound by the treaty. This was an “independent Islamic front.” They began guerrilla attacks on the Quraysh’s commercial caravans. The Quraysh were thrown into difficulty. At last, they themselves petitioned for their favorite clause to be removed from the treaty. The Messenger (peace be upon him) then summoned these young men to Madinah. Meanwhile, the route for the migration of the new Muslims from Makkah was also opened.

A serious problem arose when Umm Kulthum, the daughter of the prominent leader of Makkah, Uqbah ibn Abi Muayt, migrated to Madinah. Her two brothers, Ammarah and Walid, came to take her back. The matter was brought before the Messenger (peace be upon him). By Allah’s command, he refused to send Umm Kulthum back. Handing a Muslim woman over to the enemy is not the same as handing over a Muslim man. The Messenger’s (peace be upon him) refusal had a moral force. Thus, when the two brothers returned unsuccessful, the Quraysh accepted the matter. Since, under the instruction of Surah al-Mumtahanah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) had made several other decisions along with this refusal—for example, every Muslim had to divorce his unbelieving wife who remained in Makkah, and dowries had to be paid from both sides—the Quraysh found this decision acceptable overall.

This was the historic Hudaybiyyah truce, which in terms of its results was a great victory. Inducing the Quraysh to conclude this agreement and crossing all its complicated stages demonstrated the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) political insight and leader-like wisdom. Through it, Muslims of later generations will continue to learn until the Day of Resurrection. This truce is an unparalleled example of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) political skill and one of his extraordinary achievements.

The Compensatory Umrah

The Hudaybiyyah truce agreement stipulated that the Muslims would return this year and come back the following year to perform the visitation. Accordingly, in the seventh year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) set out toward Makkah with his Companions. Although this journey was religious in its initial phase, it was political in its second phase. As a result, it had a profound impact on the atmosphere. Islam’s influence therefore increased not only in Makkah; throughout Arabia, the Muslims’ unrestricted entry into Makkah produced a striking psychological effect.

Two thousand people set out, accompanied by one hundred horses and sixty camels—or eighty, according to another report. The weapons were taken along sheathed. In accordance with the agreement, the Quraysh were compelled to open the Sacred Precinct completely for three days. Some of the staunch opponents left the city for distant mountains so that they would not have to witness this scene. But the ordinary people of Makkah, its women and children, stood in rows watching the revolutionary Islamic force perform the Umrah.

As they entered, Abdullah ibn Rawahah advanced holding the reins of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) riding animal and singing a revolutionary song. The words of the song were as follows:

“I enter in the name of the One besides whose religion there is no other religion. I enter in the name of the One whose Messenger is Muhammad (peace be upon him).”

“O sons of unbelievers, move aside from His path. The Merciful Allah has taught in His Book:

The struggle waged in His path is the best struggle. O my Lord, I believe in Your word.”

The message of Islam was being delivered through the song itself, although Makkah had been deprived of the sound of this message for many years. It also proclaimed the call to jihad. The beloved name of Allah, “the Most Merciful,” was being uttered—something the Quraysh could not tolerate at all. It also proclaimed the messengership of Muhammad (peace be upon him). In meaningful words, the forces opposed to Islam were being told: step aside from the Messenger’s path and stop obstructing it. On that day no one in Makkah was able to offer resistance. The Hudaybiyyah truce had bound their hands and silenced their mouths.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered the members of his group to walk with their chests out and heads held high, and to perform the tawaf with a brisk, spread-out gait, so that the false propaganda that the emigrants had become weak from hunger and fever would be disproved. It was necessary to intimidate the enemy that day. The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “May Allah have mercy on the person who displays strength before the unbelievers today.” For this reason, he walked gently and slowly from the Yemeni Corner until touching and kissing the Black Stone, and while they remained in this section the spectators could not see those performing tawaf. Then he proceeded with a light trot along the next stretch, where the people performing tawaf could be seen. This shows that every effort should be made to prevent any kind of weakness among Islam’s fighters from becoming visible to the opposing camp, even if it is merely physical; rather, opponents should be frightened and intimidated through splendor and displays of strength. This is an important strategy of Islamic politics. It is so important that it was observed even in the Sacred Precinct and during tawaf. This display of strength should not be defined as pride or arrogance. Rather, it is a meritorious act. In such circumstances, if humility is displayed, the result will be the opposite. These small pieces of evidence prove how deeply the Messenger (peace be upon him) observed the political demands of his time and how much importance he attached to fulfilling them. This policy was not for his personal status; it was essential for establishing Islamic justice and principles. Therefore it was wholly a religious act, and every one of its activities was worship.

Consider what kinds of thoughts must have been turning in the minds of the men, women, and children of Makkah as they watched this gathering of callers to the true religion. They must have been thinking: the fruit of the Islam that began in Makkah is present before us today. Then historic places such as the Cave of Hira, the Cave of Thawr, Arqam’s house, the Valley of Abu Talib, and Dar al-Nadwah seemed to rise before them and say, “Look how great and noble this pious group has become. Compared with them, how base and wretched you have remained.”

Every speck of dust in Makkah’s lanes seemed to say, “This is the group of the patient ones whom you tormented for years without cause. Look where they have come from and where they have reached today.” The first public recitation of the kalimah and the mob beating of Hadrat Abu Dharr al-Ghifari in the courtyard of the Kaaba; Hadrat Bilal’s cry of “Ahad, Ahad” and his excruciating torture in Makkah’s desert; and the memory of the terrible conspiracy at Dar al-Nadwah to assassinate the Messenger (peace be upon him)—all seemed to emerge one after another, saying, “Look at how much change the message of that great man, the victim of your persecution and conspiracies, has brought everywhere today!” Thirteen years of history poured down from every direction in a flood of memories. Perhaps the souls of the relatives lost at Badr and Uhud appeared before them wearing crimson robes and implored them: “O people of Makkah, awaken as well; change yourselves; move forward and immerse yourselves in this flowing stream of piety.”

On the one hand, the people were overwhelmed by seeing the Muslims’ worship. On the other, they were impressed by their moral standard. For such a vast number of people had remained in the city of Makkah for three days, yet despite the most intense enmity, not the slightest harm had come to the life or property of any Makkan. The houses that the polytheists had locked before leaving remained just as intact and secure.

Among the supporters of Islam who were living in Makkah while concealing their faith, those who saw this scene must surely have been delighted; their emotions must have been stirred by a new strength. New hope was awakened within them. The opponents, meanwhile, felt completely cornered. A dark future appeared before their eyes.

This gathering of the pious remained in the city of Makkah for three days. On the fourth day, Suhayl ibn Amr and Khuwaitib ibn Uzza came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and said, “The three days are over. Now leave my land.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) was speaking with some Ansar at the time. Sad ibn Ubadah could not tolerate the manner in which Suhayl spoke. He said, “You bastard, this land belongs neither to you nor to your father. We will never leave.” To calm the heated atmosphere, the Messenger (peace be upon him) adopted a somewhat lighthearted tone. He had married the Mother of the Believers, Hadrat Maymunah, at that time. Referring to this, he said, “Look, I have married here. Would it be wrong to arrange a feast on this occasion? We will eat, and you may join us.” But this did not change the harshness of their mood. They said, “We do not need your feast or anything of the sort. Leave.” What else could they say? He saw that the entire atmosphere was deteriorating. Because of their obstinacy, the Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered his group to set out. As they were leaving, the child daughter of Hadrat Hamzah ibn Abdul Muttalib suddenly ran up crying, “Ya Amin, Ya Amin” (“Uncle, uncle!”), and embraced the Messenger (peace be upon him). What a heartbreaking scene! The Messenger (peace be upon him) took the child with him and entrusted her to her maternal aunt. This aunt was the wife of Zayd ibn Harithah.

It may be recalled that, while returning from Hudaybiyyah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was asked, “You said that we would go to the Sacred Precinct and perform tawaf. That did not happen.” In reply, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “When did I say that I would perform tawaf this year?” In fact, although it would have been possible to go to the Sacred Precinct and perform tawaf in the year of the Hudaybiyyah truce, that is, the sixth year after the Hijrah, it would not have been done with the splendor of this year; it would have taken place amid bloodshed. Performing the Umrah with splendor in a normal atmosphere is an immensely blessed act.

Later, when this event was discussed among the other tribes of Arabia, it can be stated beyond doubt that public opinion had changed from before. People surely understood that the Muslims, who had been driven out of Makkah, had now entered it with their chests out and heads held high. The very Quraysh who had wiped the Muslims out from the face of the earth had demonstrated their own incapacity by making a truce with them. The people therefore must have concluded that the country’s future would remain under the control of the state of Madinah. Islam’s acceptability in public opinion consequently increased further. In short, the Compensatory Umrah also helped the growth and expansion of Islam.

The Impact of Jihad on Public Opinion

We have already demonstrated very forcefully that the real contest between the Islamic movement and jahiliyyah took place not on the battlefield but on the broader field of public opinion. That contest continued for eighteen or twenty years, and its final decision was also made on this broader field. However, this does not mean that armed jihad made no contribution to reaching this final decision.

Powerful preaching is undoubtedly an important necessity for reform, correction, and reconstruction. But no revolution in collective life has ever been organized whose initiators were unable to prove themselves strong, superior, and victorious in the practical arena, and unable to employ force successfully when necessary to remove obstacles from the path and eliminate resistance motivated by evil aims. Religion is connected with only a small part of human life. If one wishes to live with religion alone, no activity beyond sermons, exhortation, and spiritual instruction is needed. Whatever kind of state and social system exists above people, and however social and economic affairs are conducted, there may still be room to instill some sound beliefs in people’s minds. They may be taught some litanies, incantations, litanies of supplication, prayers, and the like, and may be somewhat adorned with virtues such as humility, gentleness, compassion, and sympathy. The wounds inflicted on the conscience while operating within a false, exploitative, and oppressive social and political system, and while earning a livelihood and pursuing interests through the extremely anti-human paths created by that system, are covered with various salves by the individualized reform and correction processes of Sufism and the institutions of spiritual mastership and discipleship that it creates. Religions that build tiny homes of peace and security within the worst social systems are in fact products of the human tendency to flee. After committing major crimes in collective life and carrying out horrific oppression, a person satisfies his god and his agitated conscience through the power of private religion and spirituality. But a religion that is not satisfied merely by attaching the remembrance and meditation of Allah to man-made laws, and instead seeks to regulate and direct the whole of life, cannot fulfill its task through mere sermons and exhortations centered on appeals and pleas, secluded spiritual exercises, and limited charitable activity. Rather, it must break the cage of falsehood, resist tyranny, and lay the foundations of a new civilization based on peace and justice. Bringing change to collective life is impossible without opposition. Mere sermons and exhortation are not enough to remove that opposition. Those whose entrenched interests are overthrown and whose established social structures are changed devote all their strength to destructive activity. Until a movement uses force to remove them from its path, the dream of social reform can never succeed.

When Islam emerged and struck at the very foundations of the Arab jahili social order, its custodians immediately understood that this was an all-out assault. The blow had been struck to demolish the entire structure and build a new one. That is why the Islamic movement was opposed with all possible force and obstacles were placed in its path. Whenever such a call and movement for fundamental revolution and comprehensive change arises, society generally divides into three groups. One group moves far more rapidly than the present age and can see into the distant future. These are usually the most intelligent and energetic people in society. They are the smallest in number and gradually embrace the revolutionary call. Opposing them is the class that leads the old order and represents major vested interests. This class becomes active without delay and draws a large number of supporters from the groups under its influence. Of these two classes, the first is a growing minority, while the latter is a shrinking and divided majority. A prolonged conflict continues between them. The two active classes enter the arenas of thought and politics and begin a wrestling match. The general public remains silent spectators outside, watching to see who will win, who will lose, and what the final result of the contest will be. The most intelligent and active members of this third group also gradually join the struggle, but the overwhelming majority wait for the final outcome. Many among them are blind worshippers of the old order. They cannot even imagine that their beloved old system could ever be defeated. Until they see signs of its destruction, no mental change can take place within them. Many in this class are influenced by the arguments and character of the emerging force. Some even hope that the new force will prevail, but they fear the established old power. Some, influenced by the revolutionary call, wish to move forward, but the former leadership binds them so tightly that they dare not move. There are also many who believe that whichever of the two ideologies wins should be accepted and whichever loses should be rejected. This way of thinking spreads even more widely among the people when the call is that of Islam. This mental attitude of the people becomes an obstacle to accepting any reformist and organizational call. As the intensity of the conflict rises and falls, this mental state changes accordingly, and the call is either impeded or advances freely. Thus, the path opens for the bearers of any new call only when they can demonstrate sufficient firmness in the conflict and strike the opponents with powerful, effective blows. Then the people begin to think, on the one hand, that removing the old leadership and breaking the old chains is not impossible, while on the other hand they become hopeful that the new force is strong enough to strike the oppressive jahili power. Whenever such an outlook spreads in the arena of public opinion, the public mind becomes fully open to a reformative and constructive call.

The purpose of the courage and firmness with which the Islamic government of Medina responded to the military threats of the Jews and the Quraysh was not to convert some people to Islam on the battlefield by force of the sword. Rather, its purpose was, along with self-defense against belligerent resistance, to increase the courage of the common people and create confidence in them in Medina’s revolutionary force. This was their sole purpose. Its aim was to instill in the public mind hope of a bright future through the Islamic ideal and the conviction that the jahili system was not permanently stable.

When the Battle of Badr took place, everyone’s attention from all directions was focused on this small patch of earth, wondering who would lose and who would win. When everyone saw a handful of Muslim soldiers, who possessed not even the minimum military equipment, miserably defeat a huge army three times their number and annihilate the leading chiefs of Mecca, including Abu Jahl, the astonishing event inevitably caused a stir throughout Arabia. It was discussed in every home and deeply affected public opinion. For the first time, it inspired the hope that Medina’s Islamic force was not composed merely of people who had spent their entire lives being beaten and had become ascetics seeking Allah’s pleasure and peace of soul; rather, that force would one day transform the entire face of the country.

Then, since the Battle of Uhud remained at an even, ‘neither side could prevail’ stage, its effect was moderate. After that came the Battle of the Trench. Arab society saw enormous armies rushing from every direction like a devastating flood. Then, after besieging Medina for about a month, they scattered as though someone had blown away a mound of earth. This event created in the public mind the conviction that the roots of Muslim power were so firmly established that even a combined attack by its enemies could not harm it.

Alongside all these major battles, Medina also gave due attention to the leadership of the smaller tribes. These local leaders were appendages of the jahili leadership spread across the country, and it was impossible to free the people from that leadership without cutting off all such appendages one by one. Some of them were swept away by the force of the call itself. The rest were severed through treaty-based and alliance-based relations. Whenever the remaining appendages raised their heads, the Islamic government immediately focused on them and crushed them. Timely measures were taken against rebellious thieves, bandits, and subversive conspirators, just as the devil attempting to eavesdrop at the gates of heaven is greeted with fiery arrows. Law and order were fully maintained around Medina, and an unbroken peaceful environment was created. Otherwise, if the Bedouin tribes scattered around the region had found even the slightest opening, the experience of Medina’s well-organized government would have been destroyed at its inception. The historical record shows that the entire period from the first year after the Hijrah until the conquest of Mecca was filled with ever-new rebellions, anarchy, and sabotage. Yesterday there had been a military mobilization in one direction, and today a band of robbers had emerged in another. One day a group had carried out plunder here; the next day, somewhere else on the outskirts of Medina, a group of unknown assassins had harmed the lives and property of innocent citizens and disappeared. A conspiracy to start a war was underway in one place, while a rebellious plan was being prepared in another. But Medina was extremely vigilant. Guards patrolled in some places, troops were sent to others, and police units set out elsewhere to keep law and order normal.

Overall, this situation created among the Arabs the impression that Muslim power was neither mute, deaf, and blind, nor inert; rather, it was a living, alert, and energetic government. This government was waging a struggle on every front against numerous enemies at once, and one day it would certainly triumph.

Then, when the power of the Jews in Medina was crushed and, at the appropriate time, the fortresses of the enemies at Khaybar were also demolished, it is not difficult to imagine how public opinion gradually advanced toward accepting the call through these events.

Then the resounding event of the conquest of Mecca shook the Arab nation from one end to the other, awakening it from the sleep of jahiliyyah. The Islamic movement called out with the dawn call of revival: ‘Arise, the horizon has become bright!’ It became clear even to the blind that jahiliyyah faced destruction. Indeed, jahiliyyah was destroyed before everyone’s eyes. At the same time, everyone understood that the era of the ancient jahili leadership of the Quraysh had also come to an end. Even an ignorant Bedouin understood that the law brought by Muhammad was the only law guaranteeing knowledge, character, vitality, strength, progress, reconstruction, peace, order, and justice. The people opened the windows of their minds and hearts so that the light of the Islamic movement could enter.

These military activities were not purely military activities; through them, the call of Islam was also propagated. The battles were not merely clashes of swords and arrows; they were also battles of faith, ideals, and character. In these battles the Muslims introduced a new slogan: ‘Allahu Akbar.’ Even on the battlefield they established gatherings of bowing and prostration. Although they attacked the enemy with all their strength, they did not hesitate to bow their heads before the enemy as a sign of their wholehearted obedience to Allah. Moreover, the rules and discipline of these wars were unprecedented. To the battlefield they brought the belief in martyrdom, Paradise, Allah’s pleasure, and eternal life. Driven by longing for these things, every Muslim soldier advanced while looking death in the eye and joyfully sacrificed his life to attain his goal. They also possessed a remarkable military character. Others fought to the rhythm of music, while the devoted soldiers of the Islamic movement marched to the sound of the slogan of tawhid. Others displayed their courage after drinking wine, while Muslim soldiers were inspired to struggle by drinking the pure beverage of a sense of duty. Others showed bravery out of greed for war booty, while the followers of the Messenger fought in the blood-soaked field solely in hope of Allah’s pleasure. Others attacked out of pride in their nation, tribe, and lineage, but the soldiers of Allah fought only for truth, justice, and Islam. Others carried out the most brutal and savage destruction during war. Burning enemies, killing them after binding them, dishonoring corpses, drinking wine from the skulls of the slain, chewing their livers, slaughtering women and children, cutting open the bellies of pregnant women—such barbaric acts were their daily practices. But the Islamic force brought to the battlefield an unprecedented army that respected the moral limits of humanity even during combat. They never killed anyone in an inhuman manner. They did not dishonor corpses or show off their courage against women and children. Rather, while patiently enduring the unjust conduct of morally corrupt enemies in such matters, they set examples of better conduct on their own part. Others treated prisoners like animals, but the Muslim army kept them as brothers alongside its own citizens. Others made treaties and then violated them, but the Muslim force honored treaties even at extremely sensitive moments and despite suffering the greatest losses. When it gave someone protection or accepted responsibility for someone, it fulfilled that responsibility properly. Others entered conquered settlements and oppressed and persecuted civilians, but the Muslim force declared it forbidden for its soldiers to enter homes and kill civilians, plunder or appropriate anyone’s personal property, or even forcibly collect taxes from enemy civilians. For others, warfare was a worldly activity, but Islam declared it an exalted act of worship.

At the Messenger’s instruction, the call of Islam was presented to the enemy even on the battlefield. Three alternatives were left open to the enemy: either accept Islam and become brothers, or acknowledge political subordination, or confront us on the battlefield. Among the others, however, there was no such ideological call. They left only two options: either surrender to us or come to the battlefield.

This vast difference between the two sides became very clear on the battlefield. Understanding this difference, the entire Arab nation was fascinated and influenced. In other words, the rapid growth of Medina’s Islamic organization on the one hand, and its proving the truth and superiority of its ideals through its own character on the other, were two kinds of success reflected in Arab public opinion through the military campaigns. The more these two successes smoothed the path for the call to truth, the more people continued to accept Islam. This success intensified after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Therefore, at that time the people advanced toward Islam with greater speed. After the conquest of Mecca, this success fully assumed the appearance of victory. Thus all Arabia came within the scope of this reformative movement at once. The speed with which the people accepted Islam in these two periods shows how great an obstacle the Quraysh leadership had been in the people’s path. As soon as that obstacle was removed, a mental revolution took place. Wherever a victorious class representing entrenched interests sits as an obstacle in this way, admonition and preaching cannot have a very broad impact among the people. Such obstacles must be removed to change the overall environment. For this reason, an all-out political struggle must be continued. The fulfillment of Islam’s call and propagation depends precisely on political struggle.

The Government Itself Taught the Revolution

Thereafter, the areas that came under the authority of Medina’s Islamic government through the Islamization of their tribes, the establishment of treaty-based relations, or the acknowledgment of political subordination were not simply left as they were. Rather, the detailed call and teachings of Islam were conveyed to them, and effective arrangements were made to train them. It was not a matter of capturing an area by waving a baton and displaying force, then driving people around like cattle and goats without changing and reforming them from within. If everything had been done by prodding with the sword and all change had been imposed by the force of the baton, this despotism would have lasted only a few days. Then the people would have rebelled. And if the people’s discontent and protest had once exploded, all the achievements would have been destroyed. In fact, the use of force in the Islamic movement was less than in any other system, while preaching, education, and training constituted its largest component.

Every idealistic government is centered on propagation, and in all its activities priority is given to ensuring that the people understand with their hearts and accept with their hearts the faith and ideal on which its way of life is founded. All the departments of such a government must perform this central responsibility in addition to their specific duties. Such a government will reject everything that harms its fundamental ideal. It will accept even things that bring no material profit if they firmly implant its fundamental ideology in the minds of the people. Its most important goal is that the people become one with the new ideal and remain sincerely united with it; that they do what must be done and abolish what needs to be abolished.

On the one hand, Medina’s Islamic government continued sending preaching and missionary groups to the surrounding regions even under the most difficult wartime conditions. In at least four cases, assassins martyred those who had gone from Medina on preaching missions. The number of Companions martyred after suffering terrible persecution while engaged in preaching was by no means small; indeed, it was greater than the combined number of Muslim martyrs in the battles of Badr, Uhud, and the Trench. Even amid extremely delicate and conflict-ridden circumstances, no slackness was shown in carrying out this fundamental duty. Rather, it was continued despite much sacrifice and offering. Some Companions were trained in Medina for a period and then appointed to preach among their own tribes. Some such Companions were: (1) Tufayl ibn Amr al-Dawsi (the Daw s tribe), (2) Amurah ibn Masud (the Thaqif tribe), (3) Amir ibn Shahr (Hamdan), (4) Dimam ibn Tha‘labah (Banu Sa‘d), (5) Munqidh ibn Habban (Bahrain), and (6) Thumamah ibn Uthal (Najd). In addition, particular preachers were appointed and sent to certain tribes or individuals. Thus, Ali was sent to Hamdan, Hudhaymah, and Madhhaj; al-Mughirah ibn Shu‘bah to Najran; Dhabar ibn Nathnis to the Persians living in Yemen; Muhaysah ibn Masud to Fadak; Ahnaf to the Sulaym tribe; Khalid ibn al-Walid to Mecca; Amr ibn al-As to Oman; and Muhajir ibn Abi Umayyah to the Yemeni prince Harith ibn Filal.

But the Islamic government obtained far more preaching and missionary work from its civil servants. The employees of the Islamic government did not consider themselves professional career officials, nor did they accept office for the purpose of earning money. Their sole aim was to uphold Allah’s word and law and guide people toward well-being. This work could not be entrusted to mere salary-seekers. It was possible only for the selfless servants of the Islamic revolution. They were neither ambitious for office nor absorbed in thoughts of grades and promotions. Office and responsibility called them, and they fulfilled high responsibilities for minimal salaries. One example will suffice. Attab ibn Usayd was appointed governor of Mecca at a salary of one dirham a day. In a sermon he himself said, ‘May Allah keep hungry the person who remains hungry even after receiving one dirham a day.’ (Ibn Hisham) Before everything else, they were callers to their cherished faith and ideal. Those whom the government of Medina appointed as governors, judges, tax collectors, or finance officials became, in their respective workplaces, callers to tawhid, teachers of Islam, and instructors in morality. When their departmental responsibilities were explained to them, the Messenger also reminded them of this fundamental duty. When Muadh ibn Jabal was sent to Yemen with financial, administrative, and judicial responsibility, he was also told, ‘Teach the people the Quran and teach them the laws of Islam.’ He was then specially instructed in the method of calling the People of the Book according to their needs. He was told, ‘First invite them to tawhid. If they accept it, teach them prayer. Then teach them about zakat.’ In most cases, all these officials served as prayer leaders at their respective headquarters. However, in large population centers where responsibilities could not be combined, separate prayer leaders were appointed alongside the administrative officials. Thus, Attab ibn Usayd was appointed imam in Mecca, Uthman ibn Abi al-As in Taif, and Abu Zayd al-Ansari in Oman.

There were a great many civil officers, so their list is not being given. But their number and the areas in which they were appointed show how important a role the civil service of the Islamic government played in spreading the call of Islam. Moreover, while carrying out their duties, these callers were not merely officers in the conventional sense. They remained far removed from fearlessness before Allah, pomp, oppression and excess, aloofness from the people, indifference to people’s needs, driving everyone away by shouting at them when they went out, excessive crowds of guards and attendants, building grand palaces, plunder, bribery, being surrounded by flatterers, wasting public money by distributing rewards at will, holding drinking parties, and arranging musical and dancing gatherings. These civil officers were entirely different kinds of officers. Their rule was a novel experience for the people. These modestly paid, simply living, honest, subjects, just and principled, God-fearing officials and employees won the people’s hearts through their character. When they called people to the religion, that call penetrated to the innermost depths of the listeners’ hearts. Abu Musa al-Ashari was appointed administrator of the regions of Zubayd and Aden. Everyone there became Muslim very quickly through his preaching. Similarly, Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali was appointed to oversee the royal house of Yemen. He exerted such influence that they all joined the Islamic movement. In his joy, he freed four thousand slaves.

In short, the civil departments of the government continued their preaching and propagation work tirelessly, with deep concentration and dedication. The result of this broad-based preaching and educational work was that not only a political but also a mental revolution took place among the peoples of even the remotest regions of Arabia, accompanied by a fundamental moral transformation. In the end, the entire social system of Arabia assumed a completely new form.

The Economic Prosperity of the People

A large number of Arabia’s Bedouin inhabitants were generally poor. Most desert tribes were nomadic. Apart from the meager livelihood obtained from their livestock, armed robbery and plunder were their principal means of subsistence. Some Bedouin tribes had permanent settlements far from the cities, but they too were extremely poor. The sheikhs and chiefs of these tribes monopolized most of the benefits of economic activity and deprived the common people of them. By cities were meant such places as Mecca, Medina, Taif, Sana, and Hadramawt. These were not large cities, and their populations were very small. Overall, however, they were prosperous and well-off. They too had upper and lower classes. The upper class exploited the lower class. In Medina, the Jews not only dominated trade and culture but had also spread a network of usury. Similarly, the wealthy people of Mecca and Taif engaged in usury alongside other means of earning money. Some high-ranking families lived lives of extreme luxury. Music, drinking, romantic affairs, and adultery were among the notable features of their culture. Yet the deprivation of the common people of Arabia had no limit.

Driven by poverty, they even ate the flesh of dead animals. They made no distinction at all between the pure and impure or between halal and haram. Where the problems of food, clothing, and shelter could not even be solved, questions of education, health, and other higher concerns were out of the question. For medical treatment they prayed to deities, practiced magic, and appealed to astrologers and mendicants. Educational facilities were extremely limited. Education was confined to a handful of people from wealthy urban families. A fundamental and practical problem there was the food problem. A people whose overwhelming majority is constantly preoccupied with the question ‘What shall we eat?’ cannot be given knowledge of higher and nobler matters, nor can it accomplish memorable deeds for higher purposes. Without remedying the deprivation of those suffering economic exclusion, no one can make them broadly active in a movement merely through sermons, exhortation, and good advice. If an ideology seizes power by force of arms but cannot solve people’s basic economic problems, ordinary people can never be prepared to accept mere advice on moral reform and reconstruction. Rather, they regard such attempts at reform and reconstruction as a nuisance and become eager to escape them. The Islamic way of life can conquer humanity only when it ensures prosperity in this world as well as in the Hereafter and solves economic problems alongside moral reform and correction. Just as a movement concerned solely with economic problems amounts to pushing humanity toward moral destruction, separating moral reform from life’s economic claims and needs likewise amounts to making moral reform unsuccessful. Islam fulfills both needs at the same time. The movement led by the Messenger illuminated hearts with the light of faith and enriched souls with moral values, while at the same time making the best arrangements to provide food for the stomach. From the very beginning, Islam’s briefest moral code included the command of ‘it‘amu masakin,’ that is, feeding the poor. Moreover, helping orphans, widows, and travelers was obligatory for every Muslim.

Arabia was a country of low productivity. All kinds of resources—minerals, industry, and livestock—were limited and concentrated in the hands of certain classes. Bringing these sources of wealth within the reach of the common people was a very complex problem. Without solving this problem, it was impossible to solve the other major problems of life. Islam’s economic regulations, which were revealed gradually, were sufficient under ordinary conditions to keep wealth circulating among all classes of society. But even before these regulations could be implemented, access to the sources of wealth was the most complex problem. Only through jihad-oriented activity was it possible to solve this problem so effectively; no alternative method could have produced such a successful solution.

From ancient times through the modern era, seizing the weapons and equipment of defeated enemies as booty has been regarded as a universally acknowledged right. To stop a war, depriving the opposing side of weapons, equipment, and supplies is a more effective and unfailing strategy than killing people. Moreover, weakening the opponent’s military economy is another successful course of action. Islam also upheld the right to booty and, for that reason, imposed special ethical restrictions. It is not possible for us to engage here in a theoretical discussion. In practice, however, by applying this principle, the Islamic forces released accumulated wealth from confinement and set it into circulation in various places. The wealth of Jews and usurers, extracted from the people, was put into circulation according to the rules governing booty. The accumulated wealth of the Thaqif tribe was removed from their ownership and spread throughout Arabia. Likewise, the Muslim forces seized a large portion of the wealth of the affluent leaders and chiefs of the rebellious tribes around Medina that had plotted to create anarchy, taking it from their control and putting it into circulation through fair distribution.

Regarding war booty, the practice in the Age of Ignorance was that whoever found anything on the battlefield simply took it and left. Some stole, some appropriated things through deception, and the larger and more powerful a person was, the larger and better share he seized by force of authority. Islamic military policy brought forth a completely novel morality. According to this policy, all war booty was first collected down to the last item. Not even a needle was left behind. Then it was distributed on the commander’s instructions. Twenty percent of this wealth went to the Islamic treasury, that is, the Bayt al-Mal. The greater portion was delivered to the poor and needy. Thus, unrestricted circulation of the country’s wealth began. Subsequently, as financial rules and regulations were gradually introduced, its flow was brought under control.

Thereafter, the Islamic state collected revenue from owners of land, livestock, and commercial capital in the form of zakat if they were Muslims, and kharaj and jizya if they were non-Muslims. A large portion of this revenue, especially zakat, was earmarked for the poor classes. Every year, a considerable portion of grain, dates, and domesticated livestock was transferred from the wealthy to the poor.

Moreover, the economic problem was not solved solely through the force of law. Provision was also made for its resolution by moral means. In Medina’s central society, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) presented the world with an extremely successful experience of economic brotherhood alongside social equality. All Arabia could see that, after accepting Islam, people expelled from their homes, slaves stripped of everything, Bedouins tormented by hunger, and a group of youths intoxicated with love for Allah were undergoing a wondrous transformation overnight. On the one hand, they stood shoulder to shoulder with great aristocratic leaders and challenged extremely arrogant and haughty opponents with unimaginable courage. On the other hand, all their hardships, deprivation, and complaints were disappearing. They found shelter, work, weapons, and even animals for transport, and they married and established households. The beneficial influence of Islamic brotherhood was not confined to Medina; it gradually spread in every direction, and one day all the people of Arabia enjoyed its benefits.

The people of Arabia viewed and experienced this unparalleled new system of social equality and economic brotherhood from afar as the paradise of this world. They also knew that the key of tawhid alone was sufficient to enter this paradise. Under these circumstances, if people crushed for generations beneath the millstone of the worst social and economic exploitation developed a desire to enter this paradise, what was there to wonder at?

Taking into account the problems of the ordinary people of Arabia, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) personally demonstrated generosity and charity at the highest level. As a statesman, he too adopted a policy of utmost generosity and magnanimity. He never allowed wealth to remain accumulated in his personal possession. Rather, he distributed it as quickly as possible among local and visiting people in need. He never allowed money to remain in the Bayt al-Mal; whenever a needy person appeared before him, he gave whatever he was able to give. For the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), people were of primary importance. He regarded wealth as the servant of humanity. Indeed, there were many occasions when, having nothing in the Bayt al-Mal or with himself, he took a loan in order to give to a person seeking help. (Shama’il al-Tirmidhi)

Hearing of his reputation for generosity, needy villagers and desert-dwelling Bedouins would rush to Medina from distant places and return fulfilled by his boundless gifts. It is well known that once a Bedouin came, tugged at the Messenger’s cloak, and audaciously said, “O Muhammad, peace be upon him, all this wealth belongs to Allah. You do not have to give anything from your parents’ property. Come on, load my camel’s back.” The compassionate Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) remained silent for a moment and then calmly said, “You are right. All this wealth belongs to Allah, and I am His servant.” He then ordered that the Bedouin be given one camel-load of grain and one camel-load of dates. The man departed very happily. On another occasion, an exceptionally large amount of revenue arrived from Bahrain, more revenue than had ever before come to Medina. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) piled it in the courtyard of the Prophet’s Mosque. Then he began giving it, one by one, to those who came. Afterward, he dusted off his clothes, got up, and went home. Such acts of charity occurred frequently in Medina, and people arriving from various regions benefited from them. These people would return to their own areas and recount the generosity of the Islamic government; and who can say how many people, overwhelmed by those stories, embraced Islam?

I shall give another example of the generosity of the Noble Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). A man came, described his financial distress, burst into tears, and asked for help. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) gave him a herd of goats grazing on a nearby mountain. Receiving this unimaginable gift, the man became overwhelmed with joy and went to his tribe saying, “Become Muslims. Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) gives such gifts that no sorrow remains for the poor.” (Al-Mawahib al-Ladunniyyah). Safwan ibn Umayyah said, “The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) gave me three hundred sheep. As a result, my state of mind became such that previously no one was more hateful to me than he, whereas now no one is dearer to me than he.” The following verse was recited in this connection: (*****Arabic******)

“He is the one who, when giving,

does not fear becoming impoverished himself,

no matter how many people come to him

and continue to come.”

The result of this widespread reputation for generosity was that, when he was returning after distributing the booty of Hunayn, a Bedouin came to him, embraced him, and said, “Give me something too.” The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), distressed, stood leaning against a tree. Then he expressed his inability, saying, “If I had as many camels as there are trees in this forest, I would distribute every one of them among you. You would never see me being miserly, nor would you see in me an inclination or inability to speak unrealistically.” (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Small-minded people may describe this generosity as an attempt to win hearts with money and make supporters through bribery. But that is not the reality at all. Rescuing people who have fallen into economic hardship and freeing them from inferiority is one of Islam’s principled and ideological demands. Those classes of human society that, because of the oppression and exploitation of higher classes, suffer such terrible deprivation that they do not even get the opportunity to attend to the higher and nobler ideological needs of life—people fallen into such a miserable crisis receive mercy even from Allah. Most of the people of Arabia were victims of such circumstances. They needed food and clothing just as they needed the Kalimah Tayyibah. Through the blessings of Islam’s economic brotherhood, the people of Medina perhaps gained, for the first time, the opportunity to rise above the body’s basic needs, contemplate life’s spiritual needs, and cultivate noble moral values. Economic reform paved the way for the spread of Islam. The complete development of Islam’s economic system was achieved later, when all its laws, rules, and principles had been implemented. But even its initial signs made the people hopeful about Medina. They understood that from here they would receive not only the light of truth but also solutions to their economic problems.

The Statesman’s Far-Reaching Relationships

Whatever a person’s purpose and objective may be, and however high-level the ideological work he undertakes, the breadth of his personal relationships can greatly help him achieve success. From ordinary dealings to ideological revolution, in the various collective activities at different levels, few people can succeed if their ordinary human relationships are very limited and they are reclusive and antisocial. Kinship through lineage and blood, marital relationships, friendship and fellowship, sharing in joy and sorrow, mutual visits and exchanges of greetings—all these increase a person’s ability to exert influence. Personal relationships unconsciously alter the course of many major ideological activities, and many political decisions have even been made because of them. In short, generally speaking, the person who succeeds in leading people is the one whose circle of relationships is broad, who himself makes those relationships broader and more extensive, and who fulfills the claims of every relationship.

When we look at the noble personality of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) from this perspective, we find that the scope of all his relationships was extremely broad. At the same time, his friendships and ordinary personal relationships were continually expanding. We do not see him wishing to withdraw from any of these relationships at any stage, nor do we observe in him, as in some lofty spiritual person, any reluctance or disdain toward maintaining relationships with ordinary people. Rather, he maintained all relationships in an excellent manner, fulfilled their rights and claims, and kept them stable. He showed such respect even for distant kinship that, when the Muslim army conquered Egypt, he instructed it to treat the inhabitants well. He said, “The mother of Prophet Ismail, Hajar, was an Egyptian. Therefore, you bear the responsibility of protecting ties of blood relationship.” The Messenger’s broad personal relationships helped the Islamic movement develop and increased the influence of the Islamic call.

It is necessary to give a brief account of these relationships. This will show how they supported the Islamic movement and how they made the Islamic revolution easier. We shall divide his relationships into several categories:

1. Lineage Relationships

The lineage of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) is as follows:

Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) (1), son of Abdullah (2), son of Abd al-Muttalib (3), son of Hashim (4), son of Abd Manaf (5), son of Qusayy (6), son of Kilab (7), son of Murrah (8), son of Ka‘b (9), son of Lu’ayy (10), son of Ghalib (11), son of Fihr (12), son of Malik (13), son of al-Nadr (14), son of Kinanah (15), son of Khuzaymah (16), son of Mudrikah (17), son of Ilyas (18), son of Mudar (19), son of Nizar (20), son of Ma‘add (21), son of Adnan (22), son of Udd (23), son of Muqawwam (24), son of Nahur, son of Tayrah, son of Ya‘rub, son of Yashjub, son of Nabit, son of Ismail, son of Ibrahim.

The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) stated that the names after Adnan up to Prophet Ismail (peace be upon him) are not particularly reliable. Historians have expressed differing opinions concerning those names. The Messenger’s relationship to Adnan stands at the twenty-first ancestral level. The time interval is 1,158 years. The Messenger’s relationship to the Arab tribes converges with them at one level or another.

Adnan’s son Udd, the brother of Ma‘add, went to a region of Yemen called Ghassan, established a kingdom there, and married into the Ash‘ari tribe. Islam spread very rapidly in this region. Many delegations from various parts of Yemen came to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and embraced Islam. The Ash‘aris were among them. Nizar, the twentieth ancestor, had four sons. Among them, the descendants of Anmar settled in Najd and the Hijaz. The descendants of Iyas lived in Shughr and its surrounding areas. Mudar, the nineteenth ancestor, and Rabiah settled in central Arabia.

Let us now identify those famous tribes that belonged to the same tribal lineage as the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), whose names are recorded in the books of sirah, history, and hadith:

Banu Tamim—descendants of Tamim ibn Murr ibn Udd ibn Tanja ibn Ilyas (18).

Banu Ghatafan—descendants of Ghatafan ibn Ghatafan ibn Sa‘d ibn Ilyas (18).

Banu Dhubyan—descendants of Dhubyan ibn Bu‘aydh ibn Rayish ibn Ghatafan—of Ilyas.

Banu Hawazin—descendants of Hawazin ibn Mansur ibn Ikrimah ibn Khasfah ibn Qays Aylan ibn Ilyas.

Banu Sa‘d—descendants of Sa‘d ibn Bakr ibn Hawazin … of Ilyas.

Banu Thaqif—descendants of Thaqif ibn Hawazin … of Ilyas.

Banu Sulaym—descendants of Sulaym ibn Mansur … of Ilyas.

Banu Hudhayl—Hudhayl ibn Mudrikah (17).

Banu Hawun—Hawun ibn Khuzaymah (16).

Wayshi—Waysh ibn Qarrah ibn Hawun ibn Khuzaymah.

Azali—Azal ibn Qara … up to Khuzaymah.

Banu Asad—Asad ibn Khuzaymah … up to Khuzaymah.

Banu Nadar—Nadar ibn Kinanah (15).

Banu Kinanah—the same.

Banu Mustaliq—Mustaliq (Khuzaymah) ibn Abd Manat ibn Kinanah (15).

Al-Ahabish—Ahabish ibn Kinanah.

Banu Malik—Malik (13) ibn Nadar ibn Kinanah.

Quraysh—Fihr, or Quraysh (12), ibn Malik.

Banu Muharib—Muharib ibn Fihr.

Banu Taym—Taym ibn Ghalib (11) ibn Fihr.

Banu Awf—Awf ibn Lu’ayy (10) ibn Ghalib.

Banu Amir—Amir ibn Lu’ayy.

Banu Harith—Harith ibn Lu’ayy.

Banu Hasيس—Hasيس ibn Ka‘b (9) ibn Lu’ayy.

Banu Sahm—Sahm ibn Ka‘b.

Banu Jumah—Jumah ibn Ka‘b.

Banu Adi—Adi ibn Ka‘b.

Banu Kilab—Kilab (7) ibn Murrah (8).

Banu Taym—Taym ibn Murrah (8).

Banu Makhzum—Makhzum ibn Murrah.

Banu Qusayy—Qusayy (6) ibn Kilab.

Banu Zuhrah—Zuhrah ibn Kilab.

Asadi—Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy (6).

Muttalibi—Muttalib ibn Abd Manaf (5).

Banu Umayyah—Umayyah ibn Abd al-Shams ibn Abd Manaf.

Nawfiliyyun—Nawfal ibn Abd Manaf.

Banu Hashim—Hashim ibn Abd Manaf.

This long genealogical chain extends so far that many close Companions of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) of the highest rank were connected to it. For example, the lineage of Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) goes through Zarrah ibn Adi ibn Ka‘b (9), while Abu Ubaydah was connected by lineage to Zarrah ibn Adi. The Messenger’s mother, Aminah, was a descendant of Wahb ibn Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab (7). Abu Bakr was descended from Taym, the brother of the same Kilab ibn Murrah. Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, one of the Asharah Mubashsharah—that is, the ten Companions given the glad tidings of Paradise during their lifetimes—was connected to the Messenger through Malik ibn Uhayb ibn Manaf. Uthman ibn Talhah, keeper of the key to the Ka‘bah, was descended from Abd al-Dar ibn Qusayy (6). Another member of the Asharah Mubashsharah, Zubayr, was a descendant of Awam ibn Khuwaylid ibn Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy (6). Likewise, Khadijah al-Tahirah was the daughter of Khuwaylid ibn Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy. Waraqah ibn Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid was her brother. Harith ibn al-Muttalib ibn Abd Manaf (5) had three sons—Abu Ubaydah, a martyr of Badr, Tufayl, and Hadith—who were famous Companions. Imam al-Shafi‘i’s lineage was also connected to al-Muttalib. Uthman was a descendant of Umayyah ibn Abd al-Shams ibn Abd Manaf.

There is disagreement about how many paternal uncles the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) had. The details of two of them are unknown. One uncle died long before. Among his uncles, the following individuals are especially noteworthy. They were connected with the history of Islam, and their accounts have also been preserved.

One uncle, Harith, died before the rise of Islam. His four sons—Nawfal, Abdullah, Rabiah, and Abu Sufyan—embraced Islam and played notable roles in Islamic history. It was by relinquishing the demand for retaliation or compensation for the killing of Rabiah ibn Harith that the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), at the time of the conquest of Makkah, first announced: “Today, all demands for retaliation or compensation for killings committed in the Age of Ignorance are abolished.”

One uncle was Abu Talib, who fully fulfilled the responsibility of caring for the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). Although he remained outside the Islamic movement, he supported him wholeheartedly and in every way. Today, there is hardly anyone unfamiliar with the names of Abu Talib’s worthy sons, Ali, Ja‘far, and Aqil. Abu Talib’s two daughters, Umm Hani and Jumana, also embraced Islam. Umm Hani gained special renown in connection with the event of the Mi‘raj.

One uncle was Hamzah, who attained martyrdom in the Battle of Uhud. Hind treated his corpse with extreme brutality. This uncle was the one who vehemently protested Abu Jahl’s wicked conduct toward the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and embraced Islam while taking enormous risks.

One uncle was Abbas. From the beginning, he played a guardian-like role. In particular, he played an important part in the discussions concerning the Pledge of Aqabah. He warned the Ansar about their grave responsibility. Moreover, while remaining in Makkah, he kept the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) informed about the situation. When the sensitive period of conflict and confrontation had passed, he announced his acceptance of Islam and set out for Medina.

One uncle, Zubayr, died before the advent of Islam. He was an extremely kind man and actively participated in the establishment of Hilf al-Fudul.

One uncle was Abu Lahab. This uncle was not merely a staunch opponent of Islam; he was also an active commander of the opposing camp. His wife too was a bitter enemy of Islam and was foremost in personally causing distress to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). Abu Lahab suffered an exemplary fate. He died of plague. His corpse lay rotting for three days. No one went near it. Finally, stones were thrown from beyond the wall to cover the corpse, and that heap of stones became its grave. Abu Lahab’s wife died miserably with a rope noose around her neck. Two of Abu Lahab’s sons died as unbelievers, while two others submitted to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) during the Battle of Hunayn. His daughter Durr<PRIVATE_PERSON> was blessed with the good fortune of embracing Islam.

Among the paternal aunts of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) was Umm Hakim Raydah, wife of Qusayr ibn Rabiah, a descendant of Abd Manaf. Her son Amir embraced Islam on the day of the conquest of Makkah. Amir’s son Abdullah ibn Amir also became a Companion and was appointed governor of Khurasan during the caliphate of Uthman. Arwa, the mother of Uthman, was also the daughter of this Umm Hakim. Another paternal aunt was Umaymah. She married Jahsh ibn Rubab. One of her daughters, Umm Habibah, was the wife of Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf. Her other daughter, Hamnah, first married Mus‘ab ibn Umayr and then Talhah ibn Abdullah. The two children born of the second marriage, Muhammad and Imran, became heroic soldiers of the Islamic movement. Abdullah ibn Jahsh attained martyrdom at the Battle of Uhud and was buried beside his maternal uncle, Hamzah. The third paternal aunt was Atikah, who had a dream before the Battle of Badr. The Quraysh mocked this dream extensively, saying, “Now even the daughters of Banu Hashim have begun claiming prophethood.” The fourth paternal aunt was Safiyyah. Her first marriage was to Harith ibn Harb ibn Umayyah, and her second was to Awwam ibn Khuwaylid. Zubayr, one of the Asharah Mubashsharah, was born from this marriage. Sa’ib ibn al-Awwam was also her son. Sa’ib participated in many jihads. Seeing the body of Hamzah lying there and witnessing the inhuman treatment inflicted upon it, he displayed a rare example of patience. The fifth paternal aunt, Barra, was the wife of Abd al-Asad ibn Hilal. Abu Salamah was her son. This Abu Salamah was the first husband of Umm al-Mu’minin Umm Salamah. Another paternal aunt, Arwa, was married to Umayr Uhayb. When her son Tufayl informed her that he had embraced Islam, she said, overcome with intense emotion: “Your maternal cousin is most deserving of your service and help. By Allah, if we women were as powerful as men, we would protect him and give his enemies an appropriate response.”

Behind these words were both the fervor of faith and the sincere affection of an aunt. There are several other aspects of the Messenger’s genealogical relationships. Here, however, we have presented only those kinship ties of his that were in some way connected with the Islamic movement. It is true that the conflict was extremely difficult and complex because it was fundamental and ideological. The Quraysh had maintained a very long-standing and formidable opposition camp in this regard. But these kinship ties continued to exert an influence from within. The Banu Hashim, on the whole, behaved more sympathetically than the others. It was because of kinship that, seeing Abu Jahl’s oppression, Hamzah became enraged and abandoned the Age of Ignorance to become a companion of the Messenger. During the siege, when Abu Jahl prevented food from reaching Abu Talib’s quarter, Abu al-Bukhtari objected. Abbas quietly remained in Makkah and provided assistance. Even in the Quraysh councils, some people occasionally showed partiality toward the Messenger because of their kinship. Some suggested that even if the Messenger went outside Makkah and succeeded in working among the Arabs, so be it. They also remarked that in that case his success would be the success of the Quraysh. Then, after years of obstinacy, when Makkah was conquered, people described the Messenger as “a noble brother and the son of a noble brother.” This kinship also exerted influence in other ways. When one of the Messenger’s close relatives was brought as a prisoner of war and began groaning at night while explaining the bonds, he lost sleep. When famine struck Makkah, his heart softened, and he sent food grains and financial assistance. After conquering Makkah, he gave generously to its inhabitants.

2. Maternal Relations in Madinah

The mother of the Messenger’s father, Abdullah, Fatimah bint Amr, was descended from Madinah’s renowned Banu Najjar tribe. Even earlier, his great-grandfather Hashim had married Hind bint Amr ibn Tha‘labah, a woman from the Khazraj tribe. For this reason, the Messenger’s father, Abdullah, maintained a very close relationship with Madinah. By coincidence, his father died during a commercial journey in Madinah and was buried there. At the age of only five, the Messenger’s mother, Aminah, took him to Madinah to visit his relatives and see his father’s grave. They stayed there for a month. They lived at Dar al-Nabighah. When he migrated to Madinah, he recalled those memories from forty-seven years earlier. At gatherings he would sometimes say that a girl named Anisah at his maternal uncles’ home had been his playmate. A bird would perch on the fortress, and the boys and girls would chase it away. My mother used to sit in such-and-such a place in that room, and my father’s grave was in such-and-such a place. The Messenger also stated that he had learned to swim well in a pond belonging to the Banu Najjar. On the return journey to Makkah from that trip, his mother died at a place called Abwa.

It goes without saying that later, when a relationship began to develop between Madinah and the Islamic movement, this connection surely influenced it. The people of Madinah, especially the Banu Najjar, regarded him as a close relative, and the Banu Najjar were especially eager to welcome him. The young girls of that tribe welcomed him by singing.

3. Milk Kinship

After his birth, the Messenger was breastfed for a few days by Abu Lahab’s slave woman, Thuwaybah. Halimah Sa‘diyyah of Banu Hawazin had the good fortune to become his permanent foster mother. Halimah’s elder daughter, Hudhafah, nicknamed al-Shayma, had cared for the Messenger during his childhood. When Hudhafah was brought as a captive after the Battle of Hunayn, she said to the military guards, “I am the sister of your leader.” When she was brought before the Messenger, he welcomed her joyfully. He spread his cloak before her. Overcome with emotion, he said, “If you wish, you may stay here with me; or, if you wish, you will be escorted to your tribe.” When she expressed a desire to return to her tribe, the Messenger gave her many gifts and sent her away. She also accepted Islam.

Invoking this foster-maternal relationship, the Banu Hawazin tribe requested the release of their captives after the Battle of Hunayn. He immediately released all the captives from Banu Hashim, and, following his example, the Companions also released their respective captives.

4. The Marriages of His Daughters

Zaynab’s marriage to Abu al-As took place in Makkah itself. Abu al-As’s mother was Lady Khadijah’s half-sister. Thus, the Messenger was his maternal uncle by marriage. Zaynab accepted Islam and migrated to Madinah. Later, her husband Abu al-As also accepted Islam and came to Madinah. Their former relationship continued. There was deep affection between husband and wife. Even though the people of Makkah pressured Abu al-As to divorce her, he did not divorce Zaynab. For this reason, while Abu al-As was still an unbeliever, he was released without ransom with the Muslims’ permission, and the commercial goods seized from him were returned.

Ruqayyah’s marriage to Uthman also took place in Makkah. This couple were the first to migrate together. When Ruqayyah died in the second year after the Hijrah, the Messenger, on Allah’s command, married Umm Kulthum to Uthman in the third year after the Hijrah. Because he married two daughters consecutively, he was called Dhu al-Nurayn, “the Possessor of Two Lights.” The Messenger married Fatimah to Ali. Apart from Abu al-As, these two leading figures of the Islamic movement were close companions of the Messenger and, in addition to their blood relations, were his close relatives through marriage. These family ties helped greatly in carrying forward the work of the Islamic movement.

5. The Messenger’s Marital Relationships

Since vehemently anti-Islamic Western philosophers have raised many objections concerning the Messenger’s marital relationships, a section among us lowers its head in shame over this reality. They think: The Messenger married so many times, and Islam permitted multiple marriages—where can we hide this shame? Therefore, through a brief discussion, I wish to offer some explanation on this matter.

The first point that must be firmly understood is that the earliest period of human history was an age of population growth. We find this age extending up to the time of the Messenger. Vast tracts of land were then uninhabited and uncultivated. The fields for producing the means of livelihood were also open and available. As a result, quite naturally, the urge to increase the human population was extremely strong. For this reason, whichever civilization or religion of that age one considers, the practice of polygamy was widespread. The laws of the Shariah revealed by Allah also permitted it. Only one or two prophets are found to have abandoned family life and devoted themselves continually to calling people to the religion. Most prophets, however, lived family lives, and did so fully. The Messenger lived in the closing period of this age of population growth and polygamy. It was in his time that the first command from Allah came to limit the number of wives in polygamous marriage. [By this command of restriction, the upper limit for multiple marriages was set at four, while strict conditions of justice were imposed and encouragement was given toward monogamy. Yet there are, and will continue to be, reasons for multiple marriages. For example, the first reason is that Islam seeks to completely prevent sexual licentiousness and adultery and has prescribed severe punishments for them. Under such a system, it was necessary to leave the opportunity for multiple marriages to those possessing greater sexual capacity. The result of ignoring this practical need in Western countries has been the creation of an opportunity to keep numerous mistresses alongside one wife. In addition, prostitution has become established and has spread so widely that it is now difficult to escape from it. Even under the name of “free love,” such a frenzy of consensual adultery is taking place that, by comparison, Islam’s system of polygamy will certainly seem many times more excellent. The second reason is that, in certain circumstances, the desire for children compels a man to marry more than once. The third reason is that a wife may suffer from a chronic illness. In such circumstances, instead of divorcing the sick wife and casting her into hardship, the husband may fulfill his natural needs. The fourth reason is that tribal and family politics, the strengthening of power, the continuation of revenge, inheritance complications, and the problems of rehabilitating orphans and widows can often be resolved through marriage. There are many examples showing that, in ancient and modern times, multiple marriages have often proved effective as the only means of achieving political stability.] The marriages contracted by the Messenger were based on special permission from Allah.

Second, most of the Messenger’s marriages were not intended to satisfy sexual desire; rather, they were undertaken for the welfare of the Islamic movement, the country, and the nation. These marriages were primarily political. The Messenger himself said, “I have no need of women” (Darimi)—that is, mere sexual desire did not induce him to take a wife. In reality, the Messenger, strictly speaking, married only twice: once to Lady Khadijah and once to Lady Aishah. Behind his other marriages were certain urgent social needs. To fulfill these needs, the Messenger placed a tremendous burden on his extremely busy life and very poor means, sacrificing himself for humanity.

It should be noted that the young man who, until the age of twenty-five, set an unparalleled example of restraint, modesty, and bashfulness—and this in a society where wine and adultery had become features of the culture—when he reached the age of twenty-five, chose a forty-year-old widow instead of an adolescent young woman in the prime of youth according to ordinary hedonistic preferences, solely because this would better help him achieve his life’s objective, and then spent the best twenty-five years of his life with that same woman, reaching the age of fifty: can such a degrading notion be held about him as is held by those who raise these objections? It is also noteworthy that the period of his numerous marriages occurred between the ages of fifty-five and fifty-nine, and in a hot country like Arabia, sexual passion begins to subside at that age. Consider, on the other hand, the ages of his wives: except for two, all were over twenty at the time of marriage. Five of them were between thirty-six and fifty. The question is: Did the Messenger lack access to young and beautiful women?

Those who raise such objections should have considered what an enormous responsibility he had taken upon himself. He had not a moment of ease during the day, nor a moment of rest at night. He gave people the great and beneficial injunction of modest covering—which Europeans also ridicule—and taught them to control their gaze and their minds. Most of his time passed in considering the problems of society and the state, and even at night, while praying during his secluded hours, his feet would swell. How can such absurd ideas be entertained about a person like this?

Moreover, none of the characteristics of hedonistic kings, monarchs, and conquerors can be seen in him. He was neither oppressive nor despotic. He had no interest in wine, music, or expensive clothing. Rather, he purified human society of all these hedonistic amusements. He neither provided his wives with the means of luxury and comfort nor adorned them with silk and gold ornaments. Rather, he instilled in them all the characteristics of his own ascetic life. He never pampered them to such an extent that winning their satisfaction would take precedence over the interests of the movement or require him to abandon even the smallest principle. Rather, in such cases he reprimanded them sternly. At one point, when they demanded an improved standard of maintenance, he openly told them: “If you can stay with me in this state of poverty, then stay; otherwise, I am prepared to send you away.” Do all these circumstances taken together not refute this pointless objection?

The special needs served by the Messenger’s multiple marriages were as follows. A feature of tribal society is that the circle of genealogical nobility is very limited and its boundaries are kept very strong. The tribal mentality sharply distinguishes between insiders and outsiders. In such circumstances, where a world-embracing ideology is needed to unite numerous scattered tribes, the leader’s personality must also be one that, even if not loved and regarded as kin by everyone, is loved and regarded as kin by most of the important tribes. In Arabia, no person without a dignified tribe of his own could in practice carry out reformative and constructive work at all. Yet intertribal relationships were needed to bring that work to success, and in some cases marital relationships successfully fulfilled this political need.

Take, for example, the case of the Mother of the Believers, Juwayriyah. She was a woman of the Banu al-Mustaliq tribe. The entire tribe was very powerful and notorious for robbery and plunder. Juwayriyah’s own father was a terrifying bandit chief. From the very beginning, this tribe began fierce hostility toward the Islamic government. They were prepared to observe no discipline and agree to no peace treaty. Rather, they were always ready to oppose the Islamic government fiercely in every matter. Eventually, this power was subdued through military action. Juwayriyah was brought as a captive. Then, when she married the Messenger, all the captives of that tribe were released. The Muslim soldiers thought that they were now relatives of the Messenger through marriage and could not be kept captive. See the blessing of this marriage: every member of the tribe abandoned banditry and became peace-loving and obedient to law and order. For the ruler of Madinah was now their close relative. In such circumstances, they could no longer engage in such activities.

Similarly, consider the case of the Mother of the Believers, Maymunah. The Najd region was extremely important politically, because a commercial route used by the Quraysh for travel to Iraq passed through Najd. Yet the call to Islam there was proving completely ineffective. The people of that region had martyred a missionary delegation consisting of seventy members. In addition, the people of Najd had conspired against Islam several times. Maymunah was the sister of the wife of Najd’s chief. As soon as she married the Messenger, the situation changed, and Najd began to come under Madinah’s influence. Moreover, several of her sisters married highly respected chiefs.

The case of the Mother of the Believers, Umm Habibah, was similar. She was the daughter of Abu Sufyan, the chief leader of the Quraysh. After this marriage, Abu Sufyan no longer came to the battlefield to fight the Muslims. This marriage not only reduced the intensity of Abu Sufyan’s hostility; it also greatly paved the way for the conquest of Makkah.

Similarly, consider the case of Safiyyah. She was the daughter of Huyayy ibn Akhtab, a leading Jewish chief. After she married the Messenger, the intensity of Jewish opposition subsided so greatly that it no longer dared to raise its head. With the Messenger’s permission, Safiyyah also provided financial assistance to her Jewish relatives.

Apart from other factors underlying Hafsah’s marriage, one important factor was that among the distinguished companions whom the Messenger made his closest advisers for the formation of Islamic society, four were foremost. He married Aishah, the daughter of Abu Bakr; married his daughter Fatimah to Ali; married two of his daughters successively to Uthman; and himself married Hafsah, the daughter of Umar. Umar could not be left outside this circle of kinship. In this way, he bound the future leaders firmly to himself.

Sawda bint Zam‘ah was a daughter of Madinah’s Banu Najjar. Her first marriage was to Sakran ibn Amr. Sakran’s brother was Suhayl ibn Amr, the Quraysh representative at the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. When Sakran died, the Messenger married his widowed sister-in-law, the fifty-year-old Sawda, in order to strengthen his relationship with Suhayl. By marrying her after Lady Khadijah’s death, the Messenger also relieved his own loneliness.

In establishing marital relationships, the Messenger also aimed to fulfill another unavoidable need. That was to introduce, alongside men, the work of calling women to Islam by women themselves and to create some female leaders and workers for this purpose. To fulfill this need while maintaining the Islamic system of modest covering, it was necessary for him to marry more than once and essential to appoint his wives to spread the call and teachings of Islam among women. It was in view of this need that the Qur’an gave special attention to the wives and daughters of the Messenger. Aishah, Hafsah, and Umm Salamah developed the ability to lead the spread of the call and religious education among women. The other wives presented themselves to women as exemplary models in moral conduct.

At times, the Messenger also had to marry in order to preserve the feelings of another party. For example, after much urging, he married his paternal cousin Zaynab bint Jahsh to Zayd ibn Harithah. This was intended to break the narrow boundaries of genealogical aristocracy. Unfortunately, however, this marriage failed and ended in divorce. The distress caused to Zaynab therefore requires no explanation, and the Messenger felt somewhat responsible for it. The best solution to this problem was for the Messenger to marry Zaynab. But an erroneous pagan superstition stood in the way. In that society, an adopted son was regarded exactly like a biological son. The Messenger had given Zayd ibn Harithah the status of his own son. Therefore, marrying his divorced wife was considered unlawful and contrary to custom. Allah abolished this custom and married Zaynab to the Messenger.

A little earlier, I described the political benefit of the Messenger’s marriage to Umm Habibah bint Abu Sufyan. But behind that marriage there was also a desire to console a broken heart. She had been married to Ubaydullah, and she migrated with him to Abyssinia. There, her husband became a Christian and died addicted to wine. Umm Habibah remained steadfast in Islam. But her husband’s apostasy and death while she was abroad were deeply painful for her. Therefore, the Messenger sent Amr ibn Umayyah al-Damri as a special envoy to the Negus and sent a marriage proposal to her through him. Umm Habibah was so delighted that she rewarded the royal maidservant who brought the good news with her own jewelry. The Negus himself officiated at the marriage. Umm Habibah appointed her maternal cousin Khalid ibn Sa‘id as her representative. The Negus himself paid a dowry of four hundred dinars and arranged a feast. Some reports indicate that the marriage was solemnized again in Madinah and a wedding feast was held.

Similarly, the Mother of the Needy, Zaynab bint Khuzaymah ibn al-Harith al-Hilaliyyah of Banu Bakr, was the wife of Abdullah ibn Jahsh, the Messenger’s paternal cousin. After he was martyred at the Battle of Uhud, the Messenger married her. This was entirely a family matter; alongside consoling a broken heart, family considerations were also taken into account.

The Messenger contracted a total of eleven marriages. Reports mentioning more than this are unreliable. Among them, Lady Khadijah died before the Hijrah, in the tenth year of prophethood, and Zaynab bint Khuzaymah died only three months after their marriage, in the third year after the Hijrah. In the Messenger’s later years, nine wives were alive at the same time. One of them, Lady Sawda, had reached such extreme old age that she was beyond physical desire. After a prohibition came from Allah, the Messenger contracted no further marriage. In one matter, the law made an exception for him compared with ordinary Muslims. Ordinary Muslims were instructed that if anyone had more than four wives, he must divorce them until only four remained. But the Messenger was permitted to retain his additional wives. The reason for this exception was that, in view of religious needs, the Messenger’s wives had been given the title Mothers of the Believers and placed within the category of women forbidden to others. If the Messenger had divorced any of them, she would have been left completely without support.

Now consider the political importance of the Messenger’s marriages. To convey the breadth of the friendships that developed through these marriages, on the one hand with the tribes and emigrants in Makkah and, on the other, with the ordinary tribes, I am mentioning the names of the tribes concerned:

(1) Banu Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza (2) Banu Amir (3) Banu Tamim (4) Banu Adi (5) Banu Makhzum (6) Banu Umayyah (7) Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah (8) Banu al-Mustaliq (9) Arab Jewish communities (10) Banu Kilab (11) Banu Kinda.

If the territories of all these tribes are viewed geographically, it becomes clear that the Messenger’s personality had in fact become an intertribal personality. He became a central figure for the major tribes and became capable of fulfilling the demand for comprehensive unity that had arisen for the Islamic movement. These marital relationships destroyed rebellious tendencies at their very inception. They even brought an end to many enmities that had continued for generations. We should now consider this: if polygamy was helpful in the tribal environment of Arabia for achieving the system of justice, the system of security, and the worldwide brotherhood desired by all humanity, why should it not have been practiced? And why all this uproar over it?

In fact, a careful examination will show that it was a tremendous sacrifice on the part of the Messenger that, for the welfare of humanity, he took upon himself such a great marital burden in his later years alongside his countless responsibilities and fulfilled the demands of supporting his family with such difficulty in his impoverished circumstances. No sane person could even imagine that, after marrying under all the circumstances described above, anyone could spend his time in amusement and pleasure, let alone live even a moment of ease. That is why I have said that, by contracting so many marriages for the sake of his noble aims and objectives, the Messenger actually demonstrated a very great sacrifice.

In short, the extensive personal relationships the Messenger developed through this made the political success and victory of the Islamic movement easier and faster to achieve and made it easier for the people to advance toward Islam.

The People’s Spontaneous Advance

Like any revolutionary idealistic movement, the movement led by the Messenger can be divided into two major phases. In the first phase, the Islamic movement itself went from door to door among the people and called them. In the second phase, the people came forward on their own initiative and spontaneously, knocked at Islam’s door, and said, “We want to come inside.” This latter phase was the phase of expansion. When this phase arrived, all resistance came to an end and every negative attitude fled the field. But before reaching this phase, the Messenger and his Companions endured great hardship and worked to the utmost. On the one hand, in the field of theoretical preaching, they proved that the power of reason and evidence was on our side. On the other hand, in the field of morality, they established beyond dispute in practice that the model of humanity and humaneness created by Islam was the finest model. Third, through political skill, wisdom, and competence, they also showed that we knew how to deal with contemporary society. Fourth, on the battlefield, they showed that we knew how to break through the walls of resistance and overthrow the oppressors. The Messenger and his companions struck the hearts of the people with tremendous force, shook and stirred them, won their emotions to their side, initiated the fortunate souls into their view and drew them close, brought peaceful tribes within the framework of treaties and peace agreements, and cleared the way by crushing the power of those enemies who wanted war. Only after doing all this did the time arrive when people from every direction rushed toward Madinah, the center of new hope.

This phase, or era, began with “ʿĀm al-Wufūd,” or “the Year of the Delegations,” that is, the year when delegations came from different regions and tribes of Arabia to accept Islam, pledge political allegiance, or simply investigate and understand the situation. At that time, a thirst for Islam had spread everywhere, and a wave of response and excitement had arisen. This period extended for three years from the Conquest of Mecca, encompassing the ninth and tenth years after the Hijrah. It may be said that this was the season when the harvest of the crop sown by the Messenger of liberation for all humanity, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, began to ripen. Although we would like to be brief, this chapter of the Prophet’s life is so important that the delegations cannot be left undiscussed. Their arrival, conversations, and reactions contained very important lessons. This account will also show how crowds came streaming to the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Various books of sīrah mention that the number of delegations arriving in Madinah was at least fifteen and at most 104. We will describe several of the most important of these groups, and give detailed accounts of only a few of them. It should be noted that although the arrival of delegations began on a large scale after the Conquest of Mecca, in the eighth year after the Hijrah, one or two delegations had begun arriving as early as the fifth year. We shall therefore begin from that time:

1. The Delegation of the Muzaynah Tribe

This was a large tribe. Their lineage joined that of the Quraysh after only a few generations. The renowned Companion Nuʿmān ibn Muqarrin belonged to this tribe. In the fifth year after the Hijrah, about four hundred members of the tribe appeared before the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and accepted Islam. This was probably the first delegation to arrive in Madinah. When they returned from Madinah, they were given a large quantity of dates as provisions for the journey.

2. The Delegation of the Banū Tamīm Tribe

This delegation too arrived in the early period with great pomp. The tribe’s leading chiefs—Aqraʿ ibn Ḥābis, Zibirqān, ʿAmr ibn al-Ahtam, Nuʿaym ibn Yazīd, and ʿUyaynah ibn Ḥiṣn al-Fazārī—were among its members. Their arrival created a festive atmosphere and considerable excitement in Madinah. When they entered the mosque, they behaved rather uncouthly, approaching the Messenger’s room and shouting: “O Muhammad, Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace! Come outside.” On this occasion Sūrat al-Ḥujurāt was revealed, teaching Muslims courteous and refined conduct. Although they had left home intending to accept Islam, their Arab sense of aristocratic pride still remained in their character. They expressed a desire for an open competition between the orators and poets of both sides. In fact, the tribes of Arabia’s elite class were accustomed to refusing to acknowledge anyone’s leadership unless they first saw that person as superior to themselves in intelligence, learning, and talent. Therefore, thinking that this proposal for an intellectual contest might be beneficial, the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, accepted it.

The Banū Tamīm tribe had a famous orator named ʿAṭārid ibn Ḥājib. He delivered an eloquent speech praising his tribe’s superiority, honor, wealth, and manpower. At the end of the speech he said, “Let those who claim to be our equals display qualifications and talents of this kind.”

At the signal of the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, Thābit ibn Qays, an orator of the Islamic movement, rose to deliver a counter-speech. In an inspiring address, he highlighted the qualitative superiority of the Islamic movement, forcefully presented its message, and described it as the principal source of the Islamic society’s honor.

Then the renowned poet of Banū Tamīm, Zibirqān ibn Badr, recited a poem. One of its lines was:

“We are the greatest. No one is our equal. Among us are kings. We build places of worship.”

The revolutionary poet of the Islamic movement, Ḥassān ibn Thābit, was not present at the time. He was summoned. The Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, “Rise, Ḥassān, and answer this poet’s verses.” The poem Ḥassān recited in response has been quoted by Ibn Hishām. The delegation admitted that the Messenger’s poet and orator were superior to their own. Thereafter, the entire delegation accepted Islam.

3. The Delegation of Banū ʿAbd al-Qays

The work of spreading Islam in Bahrain had already begun through Munqidh ibn Ḥabbān. Islam gradually continued to spread. In the fifth year after the Hijrah, a delegation of thirteen people came to Madinah. When, in answer to the Messenger’s question, they said that they belonged to the Rabīʿah tribe, he welcomed them joyfully. They said, “We live in a very distant region. The polytheists of Muḍar live along the route, and it is not safe for us to travel except during the four sacred months. Therefore, tell us a few definite things that we and all the members of our tribe can follow.” The Messenger ordered them to affirm tawḥīd, perform prayer and fasting, and give one-fifth of the spoils in the way of Allah. He forbade them to make wine and, naming four types of vessels used for that purpose in Bahrain, prohibited their use. The delegation was astonished by the Messenger’s accurate knowledge of Bahrain’s un-Islamic social customs. A leader of a movement seeking radical change cannot function without detailed knowledge of the area encompassed by its call. The Messenger had acquired this knowledge through his own journeys and from people who came to Mecca and Madinah from distant regions.

A Christian named Jārūd ibn al-ʿAlā was also in this delegation. He said, “I follow a different religion. If I abandon it and accept your religion, can you guarantee my safety? (That is, will I face no danger in the Hereafter?)” The Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, “Yes, I guarantee your safety, because the religion to which I am calling you is better than yours.” Jārūd immediately became Muslim. His fellow believers also accepted Islam.

4. The Delegation of the Banū Saʿd Tribe

This tribe sent Ḍimām ibn Thaʿlabah as its delegate to Madinah. This camel-riding delegate entered the Prophet’s Mosque with the manner of a Bedouin and asked the Companions, “Which of you is the grandson of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib?” Everyone pointed toward the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. He approached and said, “Descendant of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, I am going to ask you a few questions plainly. Do not take offense.” The Messenger gave him permission. Swearing him repeatedly, he asked whether the Messenger taught tawḥīd, prophethood, prayer, fasting, and so forth. The Messenger answered each question one by one. After receiving all the answers, he said, “My name is Ḍimām ibn Thaʿlabah. My tribe sent me. I am leaving now. I accept exactly what you have told me—neither less nor more. I will tell my tribe only these things as well.” Then he mounted his camel and departed. After he had gone, the Messenger said, “If this man has spoken truthfully, he will enter Paradise.”

Returning to his tribe, he proclaimed the call loudly, saying, “O people! I have believed in Allah and His Messenger. Lāt and ʿUzzā are worthless.” The people warned him, “Beware, lest the idols curse you because of such words, or you become insane or contract leprosy.” Ḍimām replied, “By Allah, they can neither benefit nor harm.” Before evening, the entire tribe had accepted Islam.

5. The Delegation of the Ashʿarī Tribe (Yemen)

The Ashʿarī were a respected tribe of Yemen. Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, may Allah be pleased with him, belonged to this tribe. During the Makkan period, the call had reached them through Ṭufayl ibn ʿAmr al-Dawsī and the emigrants from Abyssinia. Influenced by this call, three men set out for Madinah intending to learn the religion from the Messenger and support the Islamic movement.

Their journey was by sea. En route, the ship was caught by unfavorable winds and came to shore in Abyssinia. There they met the first group of emigrants. After staying there for some time, they set out for Madinah with Jaʿfar and several new Muslim Abyssinians. They arrived at the Messenger’s court during the conquest of Khaybar in the seventh year after the Hijrah. They were so overcome with emotion that, as soon as they reached the outskirts of Madinah, they began singing:

“Tomorrow we shall meet our beloved Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his companions.”

Upon hearing the news, the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said to his companions, “Some people from Yemen are coming to you. They are probably very tenderhearted. The people of Yemen are mature in faith and skilled in judgment.”

After that, they met, held discussions, and engaged in questions and answers. Their acceptance of Islam created a new wave of excitement in Madinah.

6. The Delegation of the Daws Tribe (Yemen)

We have already mentioned that Ṭufayl al-Dawsī accepted Islam in the early Makkan period. After returning to his tribe, he began calling people to Islam with great vigor. His father and wife immediately accepted Islam, and others in the tribe were also somewhat influenced. However, moral decline and adultery had spread widely through the tribe. Because of Ṭufayl’s excessive zeal and emotion, his missionary work made little progress. He therefore met the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, raised various complaints against the tribe, and asked him to pray. The Messenger told him to invite them gently and kindly, and prayed to Allah for the reform of the Daws tribe. When Ṭufayl returned and resumed his preaching, a new path opened. In the fifth year after the Hijrah, the light of Islam entered many homes. In the seventh year, eighty families of the tribe migrated to Madinah. Among these emigrants was a figure like Abū Hurayrah.

7. The Delegation of the Sudāʾ Tribe

Zayd ibn Ḥārithah al-Sudāʾī was the first of this tribe to accept Islam, and after returning to his tribe he carried out extensive missionary work. In the eighth year after the Hijrah, a delegation of fifteen people met the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, on behalf of the entire tribe. Saʿd ibn ʿUbādah hosted them. He not only arranged their meals but also provided clothing for them. They pledged to join the Islamic movement before the Messenger and expressed their readiness to provide support on behalf of their tribe. After this delegation returned, the call to Islam spread rapidly. At the time of the Farewell Pilgrimage, nearly one hundred members of this tribe came to Mecca.

This was the account of the delegations that arrived before the Conquest of Mecca. After the conquest, crowds began pouring in from every direction. A brief account will now be given of the delegations that came in the ninth and tenth years after the Hijrah:

8. The Delegation of the Thaqīf (Ṭāʾif)

When the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, returned to Madinah from the expedition of victory, ʿUrwah ibn Masʿūd al-Thaqafī came forward, accepted Islam, and expressed his resolve to spread Islam among the Banū Thaqīf. In view of the innate arrogance of the Thaqīf tribe, the Messenger advised him to exercise caution and expressed concern that they might try to kill him. ʿUrwah had considerable confidence in his personal influence and standing. Therefore, after much pleading, he obtained permission from the Messenger to carry out missionary work. As soon as he returned from Madinah, he stood on the roof of his house and announced his acceptance of Islam. Contrary to his expectations, however, he saw arrows being fired at him from every direction. He was struck by one of those arrows and attained martyrdom. Banū Thaqīf did commit this brutal act, but it also gave their conscience a tremendous shock. They were forced to examine the situation calmly. About a month later they convened a meeting. After realistically reviewing the situation, they considered this question: Could we alone confront the entire Arab nation that had submitted to Islam? Finally, it was decided to send an envoy to Madinah. Instead of one envoy, however, an entire delegation was sent. ʿUthmān ibn Abī al-ʿĀṣ, ʿĀṣ ibn ʿAwf, Bahāʾ ibn Khalfah (the representative of Banū Mālik), Ḥakam ibn ʿAmr, and Shuraḥbīl ibn Ghaylān (representatives of the allied tribes) joined the delegation. ʿAbd Yālīl, the chief of Ṭāʾif, went to Madinah as their leader. It may be recalled that twelve years earlier, this same ʿAbd Yālīl had refused even to listen to the Messenger’s call and had incited the city’s hooligans to attack and injure him.

The delegation reached Madinah after the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, returned from Tabūk. A camp was set up for them near the Prophet’s Mosque. Khālid ibn Saʿīd was appointed as the mediator between the two sides.

The mediator presented one strange condition after another. One condition was that their idol Lāt could not be destroyed for three years. They gradually reduced this period until they brought it down to one month. Their minds were not yet willing to accept that it was merely an inert stone. They even expressed the fear that if their idol learned it was going to be destroyed, it might kill the entire population. ʿUmar, may Allah be pleased with him, had been listening silently until then, but at this point he could no longer remain quiet. He said to ʿAbd Yālīl, “What foolish talk are you uttering? These objects of worship are nothing but stones.” ʿAbd Yālīl became agitated and said, “Son of al-Khaṭṭāb, we did not come to speak with you. We are speaking with the Messenger of Allah.” When the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, accepted none of these conditions, they finally stipulated that, if the idol had to be destroyed, they should not be made to destroy it themselves. The Messenger accepted this condition. Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb and al-Mughīrah ibn Shuʿbah were then appointed to destroy the idol. After that they demanded exemption from performing prayer. The Messenger said, “There is no good in a religion that has no prayer.”

One member of the delegation also requested, “Messenger of Allah, permit us to commit adultery. We simply cannot manage without committing adultery.” Then they said, “Let the opportunity for usury remain open to us, and let us also be permitted to drink wine.”

Their attitude was as though the Messenger had opened a shop: each person would buy as much merchandise as he needed and leave the rest. In response to these demands, the Messenger recited verses of the Qur’an, making it clear that these were the ordinances of Allah Himself, not rules devised by anyone according to personal whim. When these unjust conditions were rejected, the delegation reached a decision after consultation: if they did not accept Islamic law, their fate would one day be like that of the people of Mecca. Thus, compelled to yield, they bowed their heads and a treaty was written. The Messenger granted them concessions in only two matters. First, zakat would not initially be collected from them for certain religious obligations; second, they would not be compelled to participate in jihād. But as Islam became firmly rooted in their hearts, they voluntarily fulfilled all these demands one by one. Needless to say, this was precisely what the Messenger had hoped for.

ʿUthmān ibn Abī al-ʿĀṣ, a member of the delegation, was a devoted young man. In his spare time he studied and acquired detailed knowledge of Islam and its laws. He was appointed their amīr. When they returned to Ṭāʾif, they initially adopted a dramatically hostile attitude, saying, “Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, has imposed extremely unacceptable conditions upon us. Therefore, prepare for war.” An atmosphere of terrifying tension prevailed for two days. Finally, the people of Ṭāʾif began saying on their own, “How can we fight Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace? All Arabia is now operating under his command. Go and accept whatever he says.” After creating this atmosphere, the delegation disclosed the real matter. They said, “In fact, we found Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, to be elevated to an exceptionally high level in God-consciousness, honesty, truthfulness, and compassion. Our journey has been extremely fruitful.”

Abū Sufyān and al-Mughīrah were sent to Ṭāʾif with the delegation to destroy the idol. When they began the work, men, women, and children waited with bated breath to see what would happen to those engaged in demolishing it. Some women even burst into tears out of fear. They thought that perhaps the sky would collapse upon the earth. Some of them recited poetry, saying, “Mourn those cowards who surrendered their idols to the enemy and could not put up any resistance.”

In that very Ṭāʾif—which, like Mecca, had once stoned the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, until he bled—their jāhilī system was now being shattered before their own eyes at the Messenger’s command.

It is noteworthy that Ṭāʾif, like Mecca, was an ancient stronghold of the jāhilī system. After imposing the siege, the Messenger abandoned it for one reason: within the nationwide environment of Islam, Banū Thaqīf could not survive by creating a separate island for themselves. So what need was there for bloodshed? If Mecca had bowed before the truth, how long could Ṭāʾif, subject to Mecca, remain defiant? If someone other than the Messenger had been a warlike conqueror, he would have mobilized troops, completed the victory in war at least for the sake of his prestige, and caused rivers of blood to flow in Ṭāʾif. But since the Messenger did not favor bloodshed without unavoidable necessity, he lifted the siege and left the expedition incomplete. His purpose was that, when Thaqīf later observed the situation calmly, they would voluntarily choose the path of allegiance; this would be more effective for a constructive and reformative revolution. That is what happened later.

9. The Delegation of Banū Ḥanīfah

They were inhabitants of the Yamāmah region. The call had reached them through Thumāmah ibn Uthāl. They then came to Madinah, met the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and accepted Islam.

The notorious false prophet Musaylimah the Liar had also come with this delegation. He began uttering all sorts of absurdities. At one point he said, “If Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, decides to appoint me as his successor, I will accept Islam.” In reality, this man had become greedy after seeing the extraordinary success of Muhammad’s prophethood. He thought that some literary statements could be passed off as revelation, and that a subsequent claim to prophethood would then be credible. But he did not understand where he would find the moral strength that had crossed mountains of opposition for twenty years. These thoughts led him to adopt a businesslike approach. His position was: either make a commercial agreement with me, or I will open my own shop of prophethood.

The Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, understood his mentality. He had a date palm stalk in his hand. Pointing to it, he said, “I would not even accept anyone’s pledge on the condition that I give him this stalk.” In other words, Islam is not a shop through which anyone can gain an opportunity for personal profit. Whoever comes must come accepting the truth as truth. No conditions may be imposed.

The delegation returned unsuccessful. After returning, Musaylimah indeed claimed prophethood. In his religion, prayer was waived, while wine and adultery were declared lawful.

10. The Delegation of the Banū Ṭayyiʾ Tribe

The delegation of the Ṭayyiʾ tribe arrived under the leadership of Zayd al-Khayl. The Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, presented the call of Islam to them. The entire delegation, including its chief, accepted the call wholeheartedly. Zayd al-Khayl was both a poet and an orator. In addition, he was a brave warrior. Praising him, the Messenger said, “Whenever someone among the Arabs has been praised before me, I have found him, upon seeing him in reality, to possess fewer qualities than those attributed to him. Zayd al-Khayl is the exception. For I have found in him more virtues than all that I had heard praised in him.”

ʿAdī ibn Ḥātim was also a chief of this tribe. He was a Christian by religion. Intense hostility and hatred toward the Messenger had accumulated in his heart, and he was preparing for war. But when the Muslim army suddenly reached the Yamāmah region, he fled to Syria. When his sister was captured and brought to Madinah, she was deeply impressed by the Messenger’s conduct and the general moral integrity of the others. She repeatedly urged ʿAdī to go to Madinah and meet the Messenger. According to some, ʿAdī went to Madinah with the delegation of the Ṭayyiʾ tribe. Upon reaching Madinah, he was seeking an answer to the question of whether Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, was a king or a prophet. He met the Messenger in the mosque. The Messenger then left the mosque and proceeded with ʿAdī toward his home. On the way, an old woman wished to speak with the Messenger. He gave her ample time and listened attentively to her. At home, he sat on the floor himself and seated ʿAdī on a cushion. Seeing these two things, ʿAdī became certain that he was the Messenger of Allah, not merely a worldly king. The Messenger’s conversation then confirmed this further.

Through conversation, the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, understood what other difficulties remained in ʿAdī’s mind. He then clarified them one by one. There is a type of person in the world who quickly recognizes the truth but wants reassurance that it has a substantial practical possibility of success and that results may be achieved soon. ʿAdī was such a person. Understanding this state of mind, the Messenger said, “Perhaps you hesitate to accept Islam because you currently see the followers of Islam as poor. By Allah, the day is not far off when fountains of wealth will flow among the Muslims and such abundance will appear that no one will be found willing to accept wealth. If you are hesitant because you see the Muslims as few and their enemies as many, then know that, by Allah, the day is near when a woman will ride alone on a camel from Qādisiyyah to visit this mosque and arrive completely safely. Perhaps you are not encouraged to accept Islam because you see the power and might of the unbelievers as greater. But, by Allah, you yourself will soon hear that the Muslims have captured the palaces of Babylon.” Once ʿAdī’s doubts on this point were removed, he immediately surrendered himself to the Islamic movement. The important facts to be learned from the above conversation are:

– Islam does not merely call for moral correction and reform; its program includes economic prosperity as well as political revolution. It does not accept the welfare of the Hereafter as something detached from worldly happiness and prosperity.

– The Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had an advance understanding of the Islamic movement’s distant future. From the beginning, it was clear to him which stages had to be crossed and where the movement had to arrive.

– It is extremely important for the Islamic movement to reassure the people that the movement has a substantial possibility of practical success and that the desired Islamic revolution is not an imaginary fantasy, but an inevitable reality like the sunrise of the coming dīn. If this is not done, a large portion of the people, despite knowing the call of Islam to be absolute truth, will remain standing outside it.

– If the Islamic movement reaches the ultimate stage of success and perfection, its inevitable results will be these: (1) because of the tremendous development of economic resources and the assurance of a just distribution of their benefits, no needy or dependent person will remain; (2) politically, a government of such strength, dignity, and stability will be established that its enemies will not consider it easily conquerable. Rather, this government will be capable of crushing all the arrogance of its opposing forces; (3) internal peace and security will be raised to such a level that even if a woman travels alone from one end of the country to the other and passes near human settlements, her life, property, and honor will face no threat in any respect. These are the fundamental characteristics of an Islamic system of government.

11. The Delegation of Banu al-Harith

This delegation was from the Najran region. In the tenth year after Hijrah, Hazrat Khalid ibn al-Walid personally went to these areas and conveyed the message of Islam. He told them, “If you accept Islam, you will have security.” They accepted the invitation. Hazrat Khalid remained there for some time to teach them the Islamic creed, beliefs, and rulings, and informed the Messenger (peace be upon him) of the success by letter. In reply, a letter came from Madinah saying, “Now return, and bring with you some respected people of that tribe.” This order was carried out immediately. [Ibn Hisham has given the letter of Hazrat Khalid verbatim. In it, Hazrat Khalid explained the reason for his stay and cited the Messenger’s order. At one point he said, “I am teaching them Islam, the Book of Allah, and the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him).” He then said again, “I am doing this in accordance with the Messenger’s order.” He wrote once more, “I am teaching them Islam, the Book of Allah, and the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him).” When reading this letter, it seemed to me that every such piece of evidence found from the age of the Companions establishes the Sunnah of the Messenger (peace be upon him) as a fundamental source of Islam and considers adherence to it obligatory.]

Even in the Age of Ignorance, this group followed certain noble moral values. When the delegation arrived, the Messenger (peace be upon him) asked them in the course of conversation, “You always achieve victory in fighting your enemies and are never defeated. What is the reason for this?” They replied, “We do not voluntarily take aggressive action against anyone, nor do we initiate any oppression ourselves. Once we collectively decide to fight, none of us withdraws from it or creates disunity. Rather, we maintain unity.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) endorsed their strategy.

Qays ibn Husayn, a prominent member of the delegation, was appointed commander of the tribe.

12. The Delegation of Najran

The great benefactor of humanity, the Messenger (peace be upon him), carried out much of the work of Islamic propagation through the written word as well. He invited particular individuals and groups to Islam by letter, and he sent a letter of this kind to the Christians of Najran. In this letter, he presented the following invitation in concise language:

“I begin in the name of Allah, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. I invite you to abandon servitude to the servants of Allah and adopt servitude to Allah, and to abandon the lordship of Allah’s servants and submit to the lordship of Allah. If you do not accept this invitation, then you must pay jizyah (that is, pledge political allegiance). If you refuse that as well, war is declared.” The bishop began trembling with fear as soon as he read the letter. First he consulted several prominent people. Then he summoned the entire population of the region. There were seventy-three settlements in the area, and the population was so large that one hundred thousand fighters could emerge at any time. The leading Christian figures believed that he might perhaps be the final Prophet whose coming had been foretold from among the descendants of Ishmael (peace be upon him). After public consultation, it was decided that a delegation of the leading Christian figures would go to Madinah, speak with the author of the letter, and assess the situation. Shurahbil, Abdullah, and Habbar were appointed to this delegation. This was the first delegation to pledge political allegiance, promise to pay taxes, and return with an edict or declaration guaranteeing security and rights in exchange.

When the delegation returned with the security charter, the bishop and the principal chiefs went a considerable distance to welcome them. They handed the charter to the bishop on the way, and he continued reading it as they traveled. His cousin Bashir ibn Muawiyah also became so absorbed in reading the charter that he fell from his camel. After falling, he involuntarily exclaimed, “May ruin come upon the man because of whom we have fallen into so much trouble.” It was clear that he was referring to the Messenger (peace be upon him). So the bishop sternly said to him, “What are you saying? By Allah, he is the Prophet sent by Allah.” What happened then? The moment he heard this, a revolution took place within Bashir. He said, “Then, by Allah, I shall present myself before him immediately.” The bishop drove his she-camel behind him, trying to catch him, and said, “Listen to me! Understand what I meant. I said that for a particular purpose.” Bashir would not listen to anything. He said, “You are a bishop. What you have said cannot be wrong.” Firm in his resolve, Bashir reached the Messenger (peace be upon him), accepted Islam, and then settled in Madinah. Later, Allah granted him the blessing of martyrdom.

A nearly similar incident is also reported concerning Quraz ibn Alqamah.

When the delegation returned to Najran with its local chiefs, another Christian ascetic there was overwhelmed after hearing the whole account. Hearing of the emergence of a new Prophet, he too went to Madinah, overcome with emotion. He presented the Messenger (peace be upon him) with his own cup, cloak, and staff as gifts, expressing his devotion, reverence, and love. Then, after receiving the Messenger’s permission, he went to Najran, promising to return. However, he could not return during the lifetime of the Messenger (peace be upon him).

The Bishop of Najran, Abul-Harith Panur, who was favored by the emperor of Constantinople and widely renowned among the Christian people, went to Madinah with a delegation. The Christian mufti and judge Ayham, Abd al-Masih Akar, and twenty-four other prominent leaders were included in this delegation. It should be noted that this bishop was originally an Arab descended from Banu Bakr ibn Wa’il. After becoming a Christian, however, he attained such distinction in religious knowledge and worship that he himself became the Christians’ most trusted leader.

They spent several days in Madinah. When they wished to pray in the Prophet’s Mosque according to Christian practice, some Companions objected, but the Messenger (peace be upon him) granted permission.

With their arrival, the local Jews became extremely active and needlessly interfered, raising various contentious arguments. Discussions took place about the Trinity and the status of Jesus (peace be upon him). In every matter, they were answered with verses from the Qur’an. At the same time, the Jews stirred up the suspicion that the Messenger (peace be upon him) wanted to replace Jesus (peace be upon him) and make people worship him. In response, the Messenger (peace be upon him) recited Qur’anic verses from Allah declaring that no one to whom Allah gives the Book, authority, and prophethood is ever permitted to tell the people, “Become my servants instead of Allah.” A further dispute arose among the members of the Jewish delegation over which religion Abraham (peace be upon him) followed. The Jews claimed that he was a Jew, while the Christians claimed that he was a Christian—God forbid. The Qur’an settled this dispute in the simplest and most conclusive terms: “O People of the Book, why do you argue pointlessly about Abraham, when the Torah and the Gospel were both revealed after him? (These two scriptures gave rise to the Jewish and Christian peoples.) He was neither a Jew nor a Christian; rather, he was a true Muslim. He was never a polytheist. The people most deserving of being called followers of Abraham’s way are only the Messenger (peace be upon him) and those who believe in him!” The Qur’an also highlights the status of Jesus (peace be upon him) by stating, “Indeed, the example of Jesus in the sight of Allah is like that of Adam (peace be upon him).”

The members of the Najran delegation may have held somewhat rigid views regarding their religious beliefs. Often, even with good intentions, people remain attached to old notions. But the Jews’ malicious collusion made the situation even more complicated. Needless disputation and the obstinacy caused by it were obstructing acceptance of the truth. Therefore, the Qur’an presented before them an ultimate means of resolution. It was mubahalah. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was instructed to tell them: “Come, let us call our wives and our children, and let us also come forth ourselves. Then let us pray to Allah to decide between us and invoke His curse upon the liars.” Indeed, when a truthful person is accused of lying, nothing can be more painful for him. In such a situation, Allah Most High prescribed this method of resolution: both sides would ask Allah for judgment before the assembled public. The following day, the Messenger (peace be upon him) came out of his home with his beloved daughter Fatimah, his son-in-law Ali, and his innocent grandsons. For the people of Madinah, it was an unprecedented experience and a momentous event that a caller to the truth had brought his entire family to the field of mubahalah. How firm his conviction must have been! The members of the Christian delegation became frightened, thinking that if he truly was a Prophet, then our very names and traces would be erased in this mubahalah. Rather than proceed further with the debate, they offered political allegiance and left the determination of the amount of jizyah to the Messenger (peace be upon him). The next day, an edict was written declaring that the Christians would enjoy complete religious freedom and social autonomy. Their people and wealth would remain as they were. None of their existing rights would be altered. No changes would be made among their religious priests (bishops and monks). No one would be deprived of ownership of or rights to religious properties. They would no longer be held accountable for crimes committed during the Age of Ignorance. Muslim forces would not enter their territory. Their people would not be compelled to perform labor as by worldly kings. Justice must be upheld between the oppressor and the oppressed. No one would assume responsibility for anyone who consumed usury. No one would bear the consequences of another’s sins. Despite this large population, only two thousand uqiyyahs’ worth of clothing were imposed annually as a tax.

The accounts concerning these two delegations from Najran have become somewhat mixed. The arrival of the second delegation should have caused greater excitement. However, it was probably the first delegation that received the Messenger’s security declaration, since the second declaration contains more religious than political material. It primarily addresses the religious priests. This declaration assured the people of Najran the highest degree of religious freedom and guaranteed noninterference in the Christian system. It proves that, in the political sphere, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sought only allegiance to the governing system and was satisfied once he received it. He did not prevent any community from practicing its religion, nor did he forcibly impose Islamic beliefs on anyone. Rather, he granted minorities the greatest possible religious freedom. At the individual level, the Islamic movement sought to change faith and opinion solely through the power of reason, while it implemented its collective law through political power. Observe that the first declaration excluded usury from the protection of security and treated it as an illegal and criminal act. Religion itself was not its actual subject, because that is something greater than religion. This declaration issued by the Messenger (peace be upon him) retains the status of a binding law for the Ummah forever. It also proves how generous Islam is toward minorities who follow other religions. It is impossible to cite an example of any other law, system, or civilization showing such generosity toward minorities.

When the second delegation was leaving Madinah, it requested the Messenger (peace be upon him) to send a trustworthy official with them to collect the jizyah. The Messenger sent Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah and bestowed upon him the title “Amin al-Ummah,” meaning “the trustworthy man of the Ummah.” Along with collecting the tax, Hazrat Abu Ubaydah made every effort to spread the invitation to Islam in that region. As a result, many people accepted Islam.

It should be noted here that the inhabitants of Najran were divided into two principal groups:

Christians and ummiyyun (illiterate people). The Christians settled the matter by pledging political allegiance, while the ummiyyun accepted Islam. It is probable that the first delegation arrived toward the end of the ninth year after Hijrah and the second delegation in the early part of the tenth year after Hijrah.

13. The Delegation of Banu Asad

The tribe known as Banu Asad was an ally of the Quraysh in all military activities. In the ninth year after Hijrah, a delegation from this tribe came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and announced that they had accepted Islam. However, their manner of making this announcement retained something of the Arabs’ natural arrogance. In a somewhat self-congratulatory manner, they said to the Messenger (peace be upon him), “You did not send any missionary group to us. We accepted Islam on our own.” To correct this attitude, a revelation came to the Messenger (peace be upon him): “Do not present your acceptance of Islam to me as a favor. Rather, it is Allah’s favor that He guided you to Islam.” After this, the delegation asked about Islam’s ruling on seeking omens and making predictions through birds, and on identifying merchandise by throwing a stone—that is, after fixing the price, the leader would throw a stone from a distance at the goods, and whichever item the stone struck would be selected for himself. The Messenger (peace be upon him) opposed all these practices. Finally, they asked whether writing letters was permissible. The Messenger replied, “One of the prophets introduced this practice. What better knowledge could there be?”

During the caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, a man from this tribe named Talhah ibn Khuwaylid claimed to be a false prophet.

14. The Delegation of Banu Fazara

Banu Fazara was a powerful and arrogant tribe. Uyaynah ibn Hisn, a member of this tribe, met the Messenger (peace be upon him) with a delegation while he was returning from Tabuk and accepted Islam. The Messenger asked them about the general condition of the region. They reported that famine was prevailing in the country. Because of the famine, crops, livestock, and gardens had been destroyed, and the children had become emaciated from malnutrition. They asked the Messenger (peace be upon him) to pray. He prayed for rain, and the prayer was accepted.

15. The Delegation of Banu Amir

This was a branch of the renowned Arab tribe Qays Aylan. It had three famous chiefs: Amir ibn Tufayl, Arbad ibn Qays, and Jabbar ibn Salmah. The first two of these three chiefs were ambitious for office. Amir in particular had already committed various evil deeds. This time too, they came with a terrible conspiracy to assassinate the Messenger (peace be upon him). When the delegation appeared before the Messenger (peace be upon him), they addressed him as “Sayyiduna” (our lord). The Messenger objected to this manner of speaking and said, “The Master, or Lord, is Allah alone, and no one else.” When they then uttered some more flattering words, the Messenger again warned them, saying, “When we speak, we should be careful that Satan does not lead us astray.” What careful effort he made to protect himself from flattery! Amir ibn Tufayl regarded the Messenger’s movement as nothing more than a political effort to gain power and build an empire. Therefore, they set the following conditions for bargaining:

1. You will rule over the Bedouins, and you will let me rule over the towns.

2. Otherwise, appoint me as ruler after you.

3. Or I will attack Madinah with the support of Ghatafan.

Amir had already told Arbad, “I will keep the Messenger (peace be upon him) occupied in conversation; you take advantage of the opportunity and carry out the deed.” But under the influence of the Messenger’s solemn presence, he became stunned and stood motionless. Having failed, both men returned. Understanding their intentions, the Messenger (peace be upon him) prayed, “O Allah, protect us from their harm.” Shortly afterward, Amir died of the plague, and Arbad ibn Qays was burned to ashes by a lightning strike.

16. The Delegation of Banu Udhrah

In Safar of the ninth year after Hijrah, twelve men of this tribe appeared before the Messenger (peace be upon him). Hamzah ibn al-Numan was among them. Introducing themselves, they said, “We are descendants of Udhrah.” Through his mother, Udhrah was the brother of Qusayy. The Messenger welcomed them with great joy, saying, “Ahlan wa sahlan.” They all accepted Islam wholeheartedly. The Messenger gave them the glad tidings that the rule of the Roman Empire in Syria would end and that Heraclius would flee. He prohibited them from asking astrologers about news of the future and instructed them to abandon all sacrifices except the sacrifice taught by Abraham (peace be upon him). At their departure, he provided the delegation with provisions according to custom.

17. The Delegation of Balli

The settlement of this tribe was located in a very important area. In Rabi al-Awwal of the ninth year after Hijrah, representatives of this tribe came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) with their leader Ruwayfi ibn Thabit and accepted Islam. They stayed in Madinah for three days. Then, when they departed, the Messenger gave them dates and travel expenses.

18. The Delegation of Kindah

This was an important tribe from the region of Yemen. Sixty or eighty members of this tribe arrived in Madinah wearing costly silk garments, led by Hazrat Ashayas ibn Qays. The Messenger (peace be upon him) asked them, “Have you become Muslims?” They replied, “Yes.” In an astonished voice, the Messenger said, “Then why have you come wearing this silk?” The delegation immediately removed the silk garments, tore them into pieces, and presented a rare example of firmness in faith.

19. The Delegation of Azd

Banu Azd was a tribe from Yemen. Their delegation came before the Messenger (peace be upon him) under the leadership of Sad ibn Abdullah al-Azdi and accepted Islam. Hazrat Sard was appointed commander of the tribe.

20. The Delegation of Jarash

By then, most of Yemen had become part of the Islamic state. However, there were still rebels working within it. The city of Jahash was also under the control of rebels. A Muslim force led by Hazrat Sard al-Azdi laid a prolonged siege and defeated the rebels. After Jarash came under the control of the Muslim army, its delegation came to Madinah.

21. The Delegation of Hamadan

This delegation consisted of one hundred and twenty people. It included such prominent local figures as Malik ibn Namit, Abu Thawr, Malik ibn Anfah al-Salmani, Umayr ibn Malik al-Kharqi (or Amr ibn Malik), and Dimam ibn Malik. Malik ibn Namit praised the Messenger (peace be upon him) by reciting poetry before him. The Messenger appointed him commander of the Muslims of the tribe. Hazrat Khalid was first sent to the Hamadan region on a missionary expedition, but no success came for six months. Then the Messenger sent Hazrat Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) with a letter. Hazrat Ali went there and read the letter aloud at a public gathering. The people immediately accepted Islam. When Hazrat Ali informed the Messenger of the details in a letter, he prostrated himself in gratitude to Allah, then raised his head and said, “Peace be upon Hamadan.”

22. The Arrival of the Envoy of Farwah al-Judhami

Farwah was a governor appointed by the Roman Empire over the region of Mu’an. This area included parts of both Syria and Arabia. When the invitation to Islam reached him, he placed both his position and his life at risk and entered Islam. He also sent an envoy to inform the Messenger (peace be upon him) of his acceptance of Islam and sent him a white mule as a gift. When the Roman government learned of this, it arrested him and crucified him at a place called Afra. Allah had granted this servant such firm faith that he rose from the governor’s seat and went smiling to stand upon the wood of the cross.

23. The Delegation of Tujib

[A miscreant from this tribe named Kinanah ibn Bishr was the murderer of Hazrat Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him). Another tribe with a similar name was Tajwab, descended from the Himyarite royal dynasty. Ibn Bilham, the murderer of Hazrat Ali (may Allah be pleased with him), belonged to the latter tribe.]

This was a branch of the Kindah tribe of Yemen. They had accepted Islam earlier and shaped their lives according to its demands. A delegation of thirteen men came to Madinah with zakat property and animals. They said, “We have brought the portion of our wealth that belongs to Allah.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Take this property back and distribute it among the people of the area.” They replied, “We have brought only what remained after giving to the local people.” Hearing this, Hazrat Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) spontaneously exclaimed, “O Messenger of Allah, no delegation from Arabia has come like the delegation of Tujib.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Guidance rests in the hands of Allah Most High. For whomever He wishes goodness, He fills his heart with faith.”

They put some questions to the Messenger (peace be upon him) and returned to their tribesmen with his written answers.

There was a young man from Banu Ubayd in this group. The delegation had left him behind to supervise their belongings and animals. The Messenger (peace be upon him) summoned him specially. He said, “I have only one request: pray that my sins may be forgiven.” The Messenger prayed for him in particular. Later, when a wave of apostasy from Islam swept through Yemen, this young man kept his entire tribe firmly attached to Islam.

The Messenger (peace be upon him) also gave this delegation travel expenses as a gift for their return journey.

24. The Delegation of Banu Sad Hudhaym (Qudayah)

Several men of this tribe came to the Messenger (peace be upon him) as a delegation and accepted Islam. The Messenger (peace be upon him).

On his instruction, Hazrat Bilal (may Allah be pleased with him) gave this delegation some silver as travel expenses. After they returned, the entire tribe accepted Islam.

25. The Acceptance of Islam by the Delegation of Bahra

This too was a notable tribe from the region of Yemen. A group of thirteen people came to Madinah and accepted Islam. After staying for several days and acquiring the necessary knowledge of Islamic rulings, they returned. They too were given travel expenses according to custom.

26. The Delegation of the Dhi Marrah Tribe

Thirteen members of this tribe, led by their chief Harith ibn Awf, arrived in Madinah. Introducing themselves, they told the Messenger (peace be upon him), “We are descendants of Lu’ayy ibn Ghalib, and we are related to you by lineage.” The Messenger (peace be upon him) asked them about their region. They gave a poignant account of the famine there and asked him to pray for them. The Messenger (peace be upon him) prayed immediately. When they returned to their tribe, they learned that it had rained on the very day the Messenger (peace be upon him) had prayed, and the land had become lush with crops. They stayed in Madinah for several days to acquire the necessary knowledge of Islam, and then departed. They were provided with travel expenses.

27. The Delegation of the Khawlan Tribe

This delegation, consisting of ten people, had already embraced faith and came before the Messenger (peace be upon him) with utmost devotion and sincerity. During the Age of Ignorance, they had worshipped a deity called ‘Ammi Uns. They said that only the elderly now worshipped that deity, and that they would go and smash the idol. They also told him about the great sacrifices formerly offered in the name of this deity and the various ceremonies that had been held. During their stay, they acquired the necessary knowledge about Islamic life. When they departed, they were given travel expenses.

28. The Delegation of the Muharib Tribe

Before accepting Islam, this tribe was extremely ill-tempered and immoral. In the early period, when the Messenger (peace be upon him) went from tribe to tribe preaching Islam, he also conveyed the message to this tribe. But they behaved very improperly. A group of ten people repented and appeared before the Messenger (peace be upon him). Once, at a gathering, the Messenger (peace be upon him) recognized one of the men and looked intently at him. The man understood and said on his own initiative, “O Messenger, you have probably recognized me. You once met me at the Ukaz market. At that time I treated you very unjustly and rejected your message in a very rude manner. O Messenger of Allah! Among my companions, no one was a more bitter enemy of yours than I was. But praise be to Allah, who granted me the opportunity to have faith and obey.” He then asked the Messenger (peace be upon him) to pray to Allah to forgive the errors and faults of his former life. The Messenger (peace be upon him) told him, “By accepting Islam, all sins committed in a state of disbelief are forgiven.”

29. The Delegation of the Ghassan Tribe

Although Ghassan was Arab by lineage, because it had adopted Christianity, it ruled the Arab region on behalf of the Roman emperor. In the tenth year after the Hijrah, three members of this tribe came to Madinah and accepted Islam at the hands of the Messenger (peace be upon him). They said that the people of their tribe would not abandon the rank and privileges they currently enjoyed in order to accept Islam. The Messenger (peace be upon him) gave them travel expenses and sent them away. They went back and preached again, but that too was unsuccessful. Under pressure from the circumstances, all three concealed the fact that they had accepted Islam. During the Battle of Yarmuk, one of them met Abu Ubaydah and expressed his unwavering faith in Islam. The other two had died before then.

30. The Delegation of the Salaman Tribe

A delegation of seven members of this tribe, including Habib ibn Amr, came to Madinah. In response to their question, the Messenger (peace be upon him) said that performing the prayer at its proper time was the best righteous deed. They too described the famine and asked him to pray. The Messenger (peace be upon him) prayed. It was later learned that it had rained in their region that very day.

31. The Delegation of the Banu Isa Tribe

They too were from the region of Yemen. Their tribe also came in the tenth year after the Hijrah. They asked, “We have heard from the preachers of Islam that the Islam of one who does not perform the Hijrah is not accepted. Our situation is that domesticated animals are our only means of livelihood. It is difficult to migrate with them. So if migration is necessary, we will sell them and come.” Consider the strength of their faith and inspiration: at the slightest indication, they were ready to leave their homeland and all their means of support and possessions. The Messenger (peace be upon him) said, “Wherever you are, continue to live in fear of Allah.” In the early period, when it was necessary to strengthen the center of Islam and prepare people to carry out the work of preaching throughout the country, migration to the center was made obligatory. That stage has passed. Now it is desirable that the movement’s strength remain spread throughout the country and that preaching expand in each person’s own area; therefore, migration is no longer necessary. Associated with this second phase is the instruction: “There is no Hijrah after the victory.”

32. The Delegation of the Ghamid Tribe

In the tenth year after the Hijrah, a delegation of ten members of the Ghamid tribe came to Madinah. They all accepted Islam. The Messenger (peace be upon him) instructed Ubayy ibn Ka‘b to teach them the Qur’an. He then gave them travel expenses and sent them away.

33. The Delegation of the Banu al-Muntafiq Tribe

Two representatives from this tribe, Nahik ibn Asim and Laqit ibn Amir, came to Madinah. When they arrived at the Prophet’s Mosque, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was delivering a sermon. After the sermon ended, Laqit stood and asked several questions about the Resurrection, Paradise, and Hell. The Messenger (peace be upon him) gave detailed answers. He then also asked some questions about the prophets and earlier peoples. In response to the question of whether the Messenger (peace be upon him) possessed knowledge of the unseen, he stated plainly that only Allah possesses knowledge of the unseen.

34. The Delegation of the Abd al-Qays Tribe

I have already mentioned the delegation of the Abd al-Qays tribe that came in the fifth year after the Hijrah. The second delegation of this tribe came to Madinah in the tenth year after the Hijrah. It consisted of forty members.

35. Tariq ibn Abdullah and His Companion

Tariq ibn Abdullah had once seen the Messenger (peace be upon him) preaching Islam at the al-Majaz market. At that time, his own uncle Abu Lahab was running behind him and telling people, “Do not listen to him; he is a liar” (Allah forbid). Later, this same Tariq ibn Abdullah came to Madinah from Rabdhah with several companions to buy dates. The Messenger (peace be upon him) was passing near the place where Tariq was staying. He asked Tariq who he was and why he had come. He then bought a camel from him in exchange for dates, promising to send the dates immediately as payment for the camel. Later Tariq and his companions became worried that they had handed over the camel on credit without knowing whether they would receive the price. A noble woman traveling with Tariq’s caravan said, “I have seen this man’s radiant face. He can never be a deceiver. If he does not pay the price of the camel, I will pay it.” Soon afterward, a man arrived carrying dates. He set aside a specified amount of dates as the price of the camel and gave some additional dates separately as a gift. In this way, the Messenger (peace be upon him) won the hearts of the caravan. Later, when they came into the city, the Messenger (peace be upon him) was delivering a sermon in the mosque and urging people to give charity. Thus the way was opened for preaching Islam to them.

36. Amr ibn Ma‘dikarib, the Representative of the Banu Zubayd Tribe

When the Banu Zubayd tribe heard the preaching about Islam, they went to their chief, Amr ibn Ma‘dikarib, and said, “We hear that a prophet named Muhammad (peace be upon him) has appeared in the Hijaz. Go and investigate. See whether the report is true or false. If, in your opinion, he truly is a prophet, we will all believe in him.” Amr ibn Ma‘dikarib went and accepted Islam. However, after the Messenger’s death, he became an apostate.

37. The Envoy of the Himyar Royal Dynasty

Himyar was a royal family. An envoy from them arrived carrying a letter. The letter reported that Harith ibn Abd Kilal, Nu‘aym ibn Abn Kilal, Nu‘man Dhu Ru‘ayn, Mayafir, and Hamdan had accepted Islam. The Messenger (peace be upon him) wrote a detailed reply and sent it to the Himyar royal family. In it, he set out the fundamental teachings and laws of Islam. He recorded the instruction to collect zakat from Muslims and jizyah from non-Muslims. Supporting the people’s religious freedom, he also wrote that those who wished to remain Jews or Christians must not be forced to change their religion. He further wrote in the letter, “Our representatives Mu‘adh ibn Jabal, Abdullah ibn Zayd, Malik ibn Ubadah, Uqbah ibn Namir, Malik ibn Murrah, and some others are being sent to Dhu Ru‘ayn Dhu Yazan. The leader of this group is Mu‘adh ibn Jabal. This group will convey my instructions and collect and bring back zakat and jizyah.”

38. The Delegation of the Nakh‘a Tribe

Nakh‘a was also a tribe of Yemen. According to most accounts, it was the last delegation to come to Madinah, arriving in Muharram of the eleventh year after the Hijrah. This group numbered two hundred. In fact, they had all accepted Islam at the hands of Mu‘adh ibn Jabal. After accepting Islam, they came to Madinah out of an irresistible desire to meet the Messenger (peace be upon him). Once there, they reported their acceptance of Islam to the Messenger (peace be upon him). One member of the group asked about the interpretation of a dream he had seen, and after a brief stay they returned.

The delegations mentioned above continued to arrive so continuously and in such great numbers that the true meaning of the verse from Surah al-Nasr—“You see people entering Allah’s religion in multitudes”—became clear. The real fact is that every human being naturally and spontaneously feels an inclination toward Islam. Moreover, the Messenger (peace be upon him) presented Islam through the Qur’an’s incomparable and irrefutable arguments and its captivating style of expression. Alongside this, through his pure life and actual character, he presented such a complete picture of Islam’s truth that people could not help becoming instructed and influenced by it. Only one obstacle remained in the way of ordinary people accepting Islam: the former leadership of the Age of Ignorance. After this obstacle was removed, and it became certain that the Islamic power of Madinah was invincible and that it posed no danger of bringing harm to humanity, but instead was constantly producing pure benefit, their hearts opened to truth and justice. From within themselves, they felt an intense thirst to immerse themselves in this light of truth. Driven restless by that thirst, they rushed toward Madinah, where they quenched it.

Thus a flood of light spread in every direction, and the darkness disappeared.

The Beginning of the International Call

The group formed by the Messenger (peace be upon him), which was blessed with the opportunity to lead the Islamic movement, was not limited in its field of activity to the domestic or national level. Rather, it was such a “best community,” brought forth “for the welfare of humankind” throughout the world and for all time. In other words, it was sent to guide all humanity toward implementing the principles of truth, honesty, justice, fairness, and brotherhood. His ultimate and final objective was not merely to reform the Arabs and organize them into a state; rather, his aim was to establish an Islamic state and, using every available means, invite all nations and countries of the world to implement Islamic law. In that monarchical age, hundreds of millions of Allah’s servants were being crushed under the yoke of enslavement to petty classes and families. They had neither judicial freedom, nor economic prosperity, nor any political rights. How could any reform movement close its eyes to their persecuted and oppressed condition? In the letter written to the Persian emperor, the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself clearly set out the international scope of his call, saying, “I am the messenger sent by Allah to all the people of the world.”

Indeed, Allah inaugurated the international age for humanity, divided into countless regional national identities under monarchies and religious priests, through the hands of the Messenger (peace be upon him) himself. A single word of truth and justice rapidly spread across all three continents of the closely connected contemporary world, disregarding geographical, ancestral, linguistic, and political divisions. The Final Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was appointed to this international call at precisely the time when the emergence of gunpowder, the printing press, and steam power was not far away. The entire world was about to become a single city through new means and resources. Five or seven hundred years is not very significant in the vast arena of world history. The Messenger (peace be upon him) appeared at a time only a few centuries before the world’s borders were to meet one another materially. Before the arrival of this era, the international call to establish Islam’s true law was initiated. Its purpose was that as humanity gradually grew closer materially, it would also become increasingly united by a common bond mentally, ideologically, and morally. The intervening period would not have been sufficient to expand the call and prepare the nations of the world for the new age. It is true that, at that time, the course of the international age passed beyond the control of Muslim revolutionary power and fell into the grasp of materialist forces. Although Islamic power had preserved an influential image in history, it had been unable to maintain the vigor and enthusiasm of its revolutionary call. Nevertheless, the new age received from the Islamic movement respect for humanity, human equality, democratic consciousness, proper appreciation of intellectual and empirical knowledge, the desire to conquer nature, respect for international treaties and rights, freedom of expression and speech, awareness of minority rights, the fundamental principles of justice, and other higher values. These things suffered distortion and obscurity under materialist thinking. But whatever good and welfare exists in modern civilization is an act of mercy from the Messenger (peace be upon him) toward humanity. Some sincere Orientalist writers have also acknowledged this.

Therefore, by its very nature, the Islamic movement demands that its call not remain confined within the four boundaries of Arabia but spread throughout the world. At the same time, it was a practical necessity for Islam to expand beyond Arabia. Otherwise, it would not have been possible for a government based on Islamic ideals to survive in Arabia. An Islamic state would have had to remain surrounded on all sides by non-Islamic states. In particular, the Roman and Persian empires always looked greedily toward the Arabian territories. They controlled some Arab lands and also bought and used certain Arab tribes. Moreover, conflict with the Roman government had already begun in Madinah.

The speed with which the Messenger (peace be upon him) advanced the Islamic movement is astonishing to us. In only thirteen years, he completed the initial preaching and the preparation of a cadre to lead the movement. He then completed the establishment of the Islamic state in practical terms within eight years. In the remaining two years of his life, he conveyed the call to the neighboring states and empires.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, concluded in the sixth year after the Hijrah, gave him respite from internal conflicts and clashes and provided an opportunity to expand the work of preaching beyond Arabia. Immediately after completing the Umrat al-Qada in Muharram of the seventh year after the Hijrah, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent envoys to convey Islam’s message to the rulers of neighboring states. In our age, it seems particularly noteworthy to ask why the Messenger (peace be upon him) called the rulers to Islam instead of the peoples of other countries. The reason is clear. In that era, subjects had no rights whatsoever before kings. They had no fundamental freedom that they could use to make decisions for themselves. Moreover, those kings were in no way prepared to allow people from another country to meet with their subjects and divert them from their existing religion. Their political power was founded on their religious beliefs. They ruled their countries with the cooperation of religious leaders. Furthermore, where not merely a change of religion but a total transformation of people was desired—where people’s tastes, standards, and values were all expected to change, and where those accepting Islam were to develop a rebellious attitude toward the existing system and a revolutionary desire to establish a new one—how could kings allow Islam to spread quietly among their subjects? The monarchical rulers of that age had installed themselves as masters possessing absolute authority over the world, and not even a leaf on a tree could move without their permission. For this reason, the Messenger (peace be upon him) presented Islam’s call directly to the rulers. In his letters of invitation, he described them as representatives of their peoples and placed responsibility for their peoples’ welfare and harm upon them. He addressed the various kings and great kings as the “leader” of the relevant nation. He told the Persian emperor and Muqawqis in clear terms, “If you do not accept Islam, you will have to bear the consequence of the sins of your entire nation.”

When writing to kings, on the one hand he followed established customs: he had a ring made for sealing letters, with the words “Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah” engraved on it. On the other hand, he introduced his own distinctive practice and method. He began every letter with “In the name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful.” He wrote his own name as the sender and the name of the person to whom the letter was addressed. He then presented the message in the briefest, most measured, and most careful language. The diplomatic language he adopted for his letters in the context of that age displays the intellectual superiority of the Messenger (peace be upon him) before us so vividly that we are astonished. For example, in these letters he used the very concise sentence, “Accept Islam and you will have peace.” It also means, “Obey and you will have peace.” The significance of “you will have peace” is that this is the only path or means to peace. It also contains an implicit threat: if you do not accept Islam or obey, danger awaits you. Only two words, yet they convey a vast meaning. Similarly, “If you do not accept Islam, you will have to bear the consequence of the sins of your entire nation” is also open to two meanings. One is religious: you alone will be held responsible before Allah. The other is political: you will suffer its political consequences in this world itself. The Messenger (peace be upon him) did not use such twofold expressions so that the message would remain unclear and allow room for contradictory interpretations (Allah forbid). Rather, both meanings were intended simultaneously in the same sentence. Conveying such vast meaning in so few words is a sign of the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) “balaghah,” or rhetorical eloquence. Moreover, when writing to each ruler, he used language suited to that ruler’s religion and particular environment and circumstances. He did not use formulaic language in every case. He also sent each ruler an envoy who knew the language of that country. [Some of the Companions had learned various languages through traveling abroad for trade. He also specifically instructed some others to learn foreign languages.]

The principal purpose of sending these letters was to convey Islam’s message. In addition, through these letters he made the neighboring statesmen understand that Arabia was no longer the unprotected open ground it had once been. Rather, it was a country governed by a well-organized government, one capable of issuing and accepting every kind of challenge. This government was not frightened by anyone’s threats or intimidation. A powerful, astute, and ever-vigilant government was active there.

I shall now briefly describe how letters inviting foreign rulers to Islam were sent and what results followed.

1. Through Amr ibn Umayyah al-Damri, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a written letter inviting the Negus, the king of Abyssinia, Asham ibn Abjar. The letter specifically mentioned the Abyssinian emigrants, particularly Ja‘far al-Tayyar. Instructions were given that the emigrants be kept safe. The king himself, and through him the courtiers, were then invited to Islam.

The Negus had already been influenced by Islam. He publicly accepted Islam at the hands of Ja‘far and sent the Messenger (peace be upon him) a letter containing a detailed account of it. He sent his own son Arhah as an envoy. He also stated that if the Messenger (peace be upon him) ordered him to appear personally, he was prepared to do so. [This was probably not the same Negus before whom the emigrants had appeared, who had become Muslim, and whose absentee funeral prayer the Messenger (peace be upon him) performed in Madinah. Asham ascended the throne after him. In any case, there is disagreement about this person’s identity.]

2. Through Ala ibn al-Hadrami, the Messenger (peace be upon him) sent a letter inviting Mundhir ibn Sawa, the tax-paying subordinate of the Persian emperor and ruler of Bahrain. Mundhir accepted Islam, and a large portion of his subjects accepted Islam at the same time. In his reply, he stated that he himself had accepted Islam and that part of his subjects were ready to accept it. He also reported that some subjects did not wish to accept Islam but wanted to remain Jews or Christians. Another letter was sent from Madinah stating that those who wished to remain Jews or Christians would be allowed to retain their religion, but they would have to pay the jizyah tax.

3. Jaffar and Abd were the sons of Jifar, the king of Oman. An invitation letter was sent through Amr ibn al-As. Amr ibn al-As first met the younger brother, Abd. Abd held a lengthy discussion on the subject. From him, he learned that the Negus had become Muslim, yet his people had not overthrown him from the throne, nor had the bishops and priests been able to obstruct him. Even the Roman emperor had taken no action after learning of the event. Rather, after accepting Islam, the Negus had stopped paying tribute to Heraclius. He also learned the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) principal teachings from Amr ibn al-As. After this discussion, Abd was inspired to accept Islam. But he lamented, saying, “It would have been better if my elder brother too agreed to accept Islam, so that the two of us could go to Madinah together and accept Islam.” Then the royal court convened. In the presence of both brothers, the envoy from Madinah opened the sealed letter. Both brothers read the letter, after which several questions were asked. In reply, Amr said that the Quraysh had accepted the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) obedience under compulsion, whereas the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) group consisted of people who had gathered around him after careful thought and understanding. Even after this, King Jifar remained hesitant. But both his sons accepted Islam, as did a large number of the kingdom’s subjects.

4. Mundhir ibn Harith ibn Abu Shamir was the Christian ruler of Damascus. Salit ibn Amr took a letter inviting him to Islam from Madinah. He too regarded the Messenger’s (peace be upon him) movement as worldly politics and stipulated that half of the Islamic government should belong to him. Thereafter, his remaining lifespan quickly diminished. When the Messenger (peace be upon him) received a report about him, he said, “Even if he asked for a piece of land the size of an inch or a date, I would not be prepared to give it to him. Every inch of the land on which the Islamic state is established is a sacred trust.”

5—Jarih ibn Matta Muqawqis was the Christian king of all Egypt, including Alexandria. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sent Hatib ibn Abi Balta’a as an envoy to his court. He delivered the letter and also spoke. His oral statement was so fearless and bold that it shows what kind of strong-minded personalities the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) had molded in the Islamic framework. To warn Muqawqis, Hatib said, “A man was born in this land before who arrogantly proclaimed, ‘I am your supreme lord.’ In the end, he was destroyed by Allah’s wrath. As the later ruler of this land, you should learn from the fate of those before you. You should not allow a situation in which others learn from your fate.” Then, having established Islam’s superiority through arguments and proofs, he said, “We are calling you to accept the true and original religion of Jesus, peace be upon him. This is not a new religion.” Although Muqawqis was not prepared to accept Islam, he showed great respect for the Prophet’s letter and preserved it in the treasury in an ivory box. He then sent the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) several gifts, including the famous mule named Duldul. In reply to the letter, he wrote, “I know that the coming of the final Prophet is still awaited. However, I think he will be born in Syria.”

6—Heraclius was the emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. His capital was Constantinople. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sent Dihyah ibn Khalifah al-Kalbi to him with a letter inviting him to Islam. Dihyah met him in Bayt al-Maqdis. Heraclius held a grand ceremony in honor of the envoy from Madinah and asked him many detailed questions about the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). He also ordered that any person from Makkah staying in the region be brought before him. By coincidence, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the opposition to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), was there on a commercial journey. He was brought to the court with all his trading companions. Heraclius said to them, “I will ask Abu Sufyan several questions. If he gives a wrong answer, tell me.” Abu Sufyan said, “If I had not feared that my companions would expose my lies, I would have invented some statements on this occasion.” But Allah created circumstances in which the truth emerged even from the mouth of the Messenger’s most bitter enemy. Heraclius asked about the Messenger’s birth, family, character, the condition of his close companions, the speed of his progress, the Muslims’ condition in war, the teachings of Islam, and several other matters. After learning Abu Sufyan’s answers to all the questions, Heraclius said, ‘Abu Sufyan, if what you have said is true, this man will one day rule even the place where I am sitting. Ah! If only I could present myself before that Prophet and wash his feet!’ Then the Messenger’s letter was read. The courtiers expressed great displeasure, for they had already become alarmed by Heraclius’s state of mind. They hastily sent the representatives from Makkah away.

As a result of his conversation with Heraclius, Abu Sufyan himself became impressed by Islam’s superiority.

7—Khosrow Parviz was the emperor of Iran and a fire worshipper. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sent Abdullah ibn Rawahah, may Allah be pleased with him, as an envoy to him with a letter inviting him to Islam. In the height of his arrogance, Khosrow Parviz tore the Messenger’s letter into pieces, saying, “How dare one of our subjects behave like this?” The wretched Khosrow did not know that the Arab world stood on the threshold of a great revolution and that a powerful ideological force was developing there. Khosrow Parviz ordered his governor in Yemen, Badhan, “Arrest the writer of the letter immediately and bring him to me.” Badhan sent a military force to arrest the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him). When the force reached Ta’if, its leading men were delighted. They thought that the enemy of their beloved age of ignorance and social order—Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him)—would now be uprooted. The force reached Madinah, and its commander informed Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) that they had come, on the Persian emperor’s orders, to arrest him. The Messenger told them, “Come and meet me again tomorrow morning.” When they came the next morning, the Messenger told them, “Last night Allah caused your emperor to be killed by his own son. Go and find out whether the news is true.” After learning that the news was true and recognizing the greatness of the Messenger’s teachings and character, Badhan entered the brotherhood of Islam. Following his example, many others at the court and in the region embraced faith.

When the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) heard that the Persian emperor had torn up his letter, he said, ‘He has actually torn his own empire to pieces.’ It seems that Allah’s decree was spoken through the Messenger’s lips. For within only ten to fifteen years, an ancient, firmly established, vast, and highly luxurious empire, four or five thousand years old, was defeated by Islam. In reality, internal discord was what destroyed that empire.

Among the rulers of other small kingdoms to whom the invitation of Islam was conveyed was Farwah ibn Umar, a governor of the Roman Empire, who lost both his position and his life as a result of accepting Islam. The second was Thumamah, the ruler of Najd, who accepted Islam in the sixth year after the Hijrah. The third was Jabalah al-Ghassani, who accepted Islam in the seventh year after the Hijrah. The fourth was Ukaidar, the ruler of Dumat al-Jandal, who accepted Islam. The fifth, Dhu al-Kila al-Himyari, was king of the Himyar tribe. He claimed to be a god and ordered his subjects to prostrate before him. Eventually, he too accepted Islam. During the rule of Umar al-Faruq, he came to Madinah to abandon kingship and live the life of a dervish. In the joy of accepting Islam, he freed eighteen thousand male and female slaves.

The events mentioned above show that this written struggle to convey the Islamic message produced very important results and greatly assisted the spread and development of Islam. First, through it, the invitation to Islam became a subject of discussion and consideration in the neighboring states. Second, a significant number of ruling authorities accepted Islam through these letters, at a time when the Muslims were culturally very backward. This proved that Islam is a true and natural religion. Along with these rulers who accepted Islam, their subjects also inclined toward Islam. Even those who did not accept Islam after receiving the Messenger’s letters were greatly affected inwardly. Moreover, the international era initiated through the sending of letters also helped create a favorable atmosphere within the country. The greatest benefit of this campaign was that a broad field of action appeared before the Muslims from the very beginning, and a vast, far-reaching objective was set for them at the national and international levels. Consequently, even after an Islamic state had been established throughout Arabia, the Muslim mujahids did not stop, become absorbed in luxury, or imagine that they had done everything required. Rather, their hopes and aspirations grew further. By appointing his companions to diplomatic missions, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) gave them excellent training for carrying future responsibilities. They appeared in unfamiliar environments, in splendid social and cultural settings, and in solemn royal courts, gaining experience in discussion and speech before public assemblies. They received a golden opportunity to understand the psychology of contemporary rulers and administrators. Then the loyalty, firmness, strength, appreciation of the superiority of the ideal, simplicity, boldness, and courage with which they presented the truth further sharpened their abilities and talents and made their character fresher and more radiant.

The Messenger’s successors and the group he trained had the honor of completing, on the international level, this unfinished campaign of دعوت to Islam initiated by him.

The Final Rebellious Reaction

When any revolution passes through all the stages of conflict and struggle, crushes the arrogance of the old leadership, and reaches the golden age of ultimate success, some mean-spirited people, envious of that success, begin to seethe inwardly. Then, whenever they find an opportunity, they display their final insolence and make a futile attempt to build a sand barrier before the flood of the revolution. The Islamic Revolution also faced such an unwelcome situation. When the power of the Quraysh, the Jews, and the local leadership disappeared and the people began advancing toward Islam, a final rebellious reaction appeared in an entirely new form. Some people thought, “How can it be that one man appeared claiming prophethood, a handful of people supported him, they engaged in conflict, and then this very man became the ruler of all Arabia? What harm is there in our trying this method too?” In particular, when these people saw the vast wealth of zakat flowing toward Madinah, their hearts became greedy. They knew those among the Muslims who had not become Muslim sincerely but had been compelled by circumstances, and whose opposition was smoldering within them. They decided to unite them and play the final game. They knew very well that no movement could now be based on the ideas of the age of ignorance and idolatry, because belief in Allah’s oneness, revelation, prophethood, and the Hereafter had completely enveloped the entire environment. So they too tried to deceive people by opening a shop adorned with these labels on their counterfeit goods. But these fools did not know that, to introduce a new currency into circulation, merely printing a counterfeit design is not enough; genuine metal is also needed. The metal used in the currency of Islam—that is, the human force fashioned by Islam—was itself entirely pure and genuine (the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said: ‘Those of you who were good in the age of ignorance are also good in Islam’). Moreover, it had been purified of rust by being repeatedly fired in the furnace for ten or twenty years. But selfish people are generally not perceptive. They see only the interests they favor and pay no attention to the sacrifice and devotion behind any achievement. In short, this eternal truth of history appeared once again in the Islamic movement: the lowest class of people in society is always active in trying to make every popular, welfare-oriented movement and every great personality fail. A brief discussion is needed about such scheming conspirators who rose against the Islamic movement led by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him).

1—We have previously discussed that a certain Musaylimah ibn Habib, known as Musaylimah al-Kadhdhab, meaning Musaylimah the Liar, came to Madinah with a delegation. Seeing the splendor of the capital of the Islamic state awakened in him an intense fascination with power. He wrote to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), demanding a share in the authority of the Islamic government, and also issued a threat. The Messenger firmly rejected his demand. In agitation, he then claimed prophethood. He was a literary man. Imitating the style of Qur’anic verses, he composed sentences with rhyming words and recited them to the uneducated desert dwellers. Since some people still maintained ties with the age of ignorance and had not yet attained maturity in Islamic education, and since regional and tribal hostility and pride still remained to some extent, he inevitably gained some followers. Moreover, his fabricated revelation exempted people from prayer and declared adultery and gambling lawful, so sinful people gathered around him. The force he created against the Islamic movement was completely destroyed during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him.

2—A woman living near Musaylimah also claimed prophethood. Musaylimah met this woman, named Sajah, and secret discussions led to an alliance between them. At one stage, she became absorbed into Musaylimah’s own existence. Musaylimah’s obscene literature swept Sajah away in a tide of sexuality. Later, when Musaylimah was killed fighting the Muslims, Sajah repented and remained steadfast in Islam for the rest of her life.

3—After the Farewell Pilgrimage, Aswad al-Ansi rebelled by claiming prophethood in the fertile and politically important region of Yemen. His real name was Dhu al-Khimar Abhalah ibn Ka‘b. He gained some followers from the Madhhij tribe. His influence spread in the Najran area. The main reason for the growth of his influence was his magic and spells. He had some civilian officials and workers engaged in دعوت to Islam killed and expelled some people from their own region. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sent instructions to the neighboring officials to gather their strength and suppress the rebellion. He had a Muslim of Iranian descent killed and forcibly seized his beautiful wife. This woman was a mature believer. With her help, the Islamic government was able to defeat Aswad. This schemer was eliminated only two or three days before the Messenger’s death, and his associates were also destroyed. However, the influence of the confusion he spread extended from Hadramawt to Ta’if, and its complete eradication became possible only during the early part of Abu Bakr’s caliphate.

5—Lakit ibn Malik al-Azdi, who succeeded Hawdhah ibn Ali as the ruler of Oman, also began to harbor various worms of misguidance in his mind.

All these evil forces were able to raise their heads in various regions simply because they received encouragement from the old worshippers of ignorance around them, hypocrites, crime-prone people, longtime devotees of adultery, wine, gambling, and usury, those wishing to return to the old tribalism instead of Islam’s centralized strength, those unwilling to pay zakat, those inwardly resentful at seeing zakat wealth go to Madinah, and people intoxicated by the allure of small-scale leadership. These evil forces organized these selfish old sinners, and the dying power of the age of ignorance made a final attempt to restore its dominance.

But the leadership created by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) suppressed all these evil forces with a firm hand even in extremely dangerous circumstances and bound all the people of Arabia in an unbreakable bond of discipline.

The Greatest Assembly of the Islamic Movement

Hajj is a lofty act of worship in Islam. The Ka‘bah and its sacred courtyard were the center of Ibrahim’s دعوت; every atom of the Sacred Sanctuary bears precious memories from Islamic history; the prayers of Ibrahim and Ismail, peace be upon them, echo through its air; and memories of the life and work of the Messenger himself are scattered throughout its environment. Through Hajj, that Ka‘bah became forever the worldwide center of the Islamic دعوت and movement. Every capable Muslim is obligated at least once in a lifetime to appear at this center on the appointed days of Hajj, complete the prescribed rites, revive the Sunnah of Ibrahim’s sacrifice, discuss the histories of the earlier prophets and learn from them, establish contact with Islamic brothers and sisters who come from around the world, and turn away from everything else to surrender himself to Allah with complete humility. The command making Hajj obligatory was issued in the ninth year after the Hijrah.

That same year, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) appointed Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, as Amir al-Hajj, that is, leader of the Hajj delegation, and sent him to Makkah with three hundred Companions so that he could lead them in performing Hajj. In this connection, I will mention several important matters concerning this Hajj, because this event is extremely important in the history of the Islamic movement, both religiously and politically.

Alongside appointing Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, as amir, Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, was assigned another responsibility. He was to recite the first forty verses of Surah al-Tawbah at the Hajj assembly and convey to the people the necessary proclamations revealed by Allah. The first proclamation was that those who had remained upon the former system of ignorance and idolatry and protected their interests by making treaties with the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) or the Islamic state were being granted another four months. After these four months, all such treaties would be annulled by Allah’s command.

Within these four months, they had to decide their course of action: whether they would renounce citizenship of the Islamic state, wage war, or live in the Islamic state as Muslims. In other words, an open declaration was also necessary to annul treaties under which people could no longer maintain an independent status within the Islamic state while fulfilling their own demands and claims. Moreover, the four-month period given to the opposing side was sufficient. They were also given the opportunity that if any polytheist wished during this time to understand Islam in Madinah, he could come and go safely. Among the polytheists, those who had honestly honored their treaties were given the additional benefit that their treaties would not be annulled after four months but would remain in force until their appointed terms. The real pressure was directed at those polytheists who had shown extreme hostility and waged war against Islam, violated all moral principles during conflict, repeatedly broken their promises, and violated every standard of humanity, civility, and propriety. These were the polytheists who obstructed people from following the path of truth, tried to find fault with Allah’s religion, sought to expel the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) from his home, and always initiated attacks and provoked war.

The second proclamation was that no polytheist would henceforth be appointed guardian of the Ka‘bah. The third was that no polytheist would henceforth be permitted to enter the boundaries of the Sacred Sanctuary. In this regard, Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, also announced on behalf of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) that from then on no one could circumambulate the Ka‘bah naked. The fourth proclamation was that the four sacred months established by Allah would remain in force, and no one was given the right to alter them even slightly. It was also announced that, no matter how much the polytheists disliked it, Allah had sent His Messenger into the world to establish and grant victory to this religion of His completely.

Some people make various fanciful and absurd claims concerning Ali’s receiving this additional responsibility. The matter, however, was simply that the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) appointed Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, as amir and thereby made him his successor, while he sent Ali as his personal representative, personal secretary, or envoy to deliver an important religious and political proclamation. Those with a proper understanding of government administration know that in certain circumstances there is no alternative to such an arrangement. Even when a government has a governor, a separate envoy must sometimes be sent for a special purpose.

We shall now describe that vast Hajj assembly in which the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) participated in person, and where a sea of human strength from the Islamic movement kept looking toward him and listening to his speech. When, in the tenth year after the Hijrah, the Messenger resolved to perform Hajj, the news was spread throughout all the regions. Caravans of the heroic soldiers of the Islamic Revolution began gathering in Madinah from every direction. All the Mothers of the Believers accompanied the Messenger on this journey. He entered ihram at Dhu al-Hulayfah, and from there he raised the historic chant that rises from the soul of every pilgrim appearing before Allah’s court. The chant was: “Labbayka Allahumma labbayk…”—that is, “Here we are, O Allah, here we are. All praise is Yours, all blessings are Yours, all sovereignty is Yours; You have no partner.”

Whenever they had to ascend or descend a mountain along the way, everyone recited in unison, “Labbayk, labbayk.”

Near Makkah, he stopped for a short rest at Dhu Tuwa. Then he entered Makkah with this vast sea of Muslims. He first performed tawaf. Then he went to Safa and Marwah. From there, turning toward the Ka‘bah, he proclaimed Allah’s oneness. On the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah, he arrived at Wadi Namirah. After midday, he reached the plain of Arafat. There, ascending the hill, he delivered a sermon while seated on the back of a she-camel named Qaswa. The makabbirs stood all around and repeated every sentence. Thus every word uttered by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) reached the ears of each person in the assembly.

An unprecedented feeling prevailed in the Messenger’s heart that day. Before him stood the fruit of his lifelong labor: one hundred and forty-four thousand Muslims—or, according to another account, one hundred and twenty-four thousand.

The International Manifesto of the Islamic Movement

On this occasion, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) delivered two sermons. The first was from the mountain of Arafat on the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah, and the second was at Mina on the tenth. In some narrations, the contents of these two sermons have become intermingled.

These two sermons are extraordinarily important for several reasons. First, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) addressed the largest Islamic assembly at a time when the sapling of the word of truth he had planted had grown into a vast tree and begun to bear fruit. Achieving such great success after passing through an era of intense opposition is itself a tremendous test of life and character. Had he been a worldly person instead, or merely a conqueror who had achieved political success and victory, he would have become immersed in every luxury and, out of pride and arrogance, placed himself on God’s throne. Any selfish person other than the Messenger who reached this stage would cast away all the robes of piety and appear in another form. But the Messenger was seen displaying even more humility than before and even greater gratitude toward Allah. Second, because the Messenger had realized through his wisdom and insight that this was his final opportunity to address such a great Muslim assembly, he presented a farewell testament containing instructions, every word of which was valuable. Third, after reaching this stage of completion in state affairs, this was the appropriate time for the Islamic movement to deliver a message or manifesto to all humanity. He therefore fulfilled this responsibility most effectively. Fourth, these two sermons bear the stamp of the Messenger’s finest eloquence and are among his most richly ornamented speeches. Through them, it becomes easy to appreciate the superiority and greatness of this noble and holy personality.

It should be noted that one part of these two sermons concerned specific internal conditions and problems, while another part contained an international manifesto. The main text itself makes this division clear.

The Sermon at Arafat

—All praise belongs to Allah. We praise Him alone. We seek help from Him alone. From Him alone we seek forgiveness for our sins. To Him alone we offer repentance. We seek refuge in Him from the harmful activities of our desires and from our own wrongful deeds. Whoever Allah guides to the right path cannot be led astray by anyone. And whoever Allah does not grant the opportunity for guidance cannot be led along the straight and correct path by anyone.

—I declare that there is no deity except Allah. He is One and Unique. He has no partner. Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, is His servant and Messenger.

—O servants of Allah, I advise and encourage you to worship and obey Allah alone.

—I begin my speech with words of goodness.

—O people, listen attentively to my words. I am explaining them to you, for after this year I do not think I shall meet you again in this place.

—O people, the life and property of one of you are forbidden to the others. Observe this ruling until you meet your Lord. Your lives, property, and honor are as sacred as this month, this city, and this day of yours.

—Know that I have conveyed the message to you. O Allah, bear witness.

-Let whoever holds anything entrusted to him deliver it to its owner.

-All interest from the Age of Ignorance has been abolished. The first interest I abolish is the interest owed to my uncle Abbas.

-All claims for vengeance for killings from the Age of Ignorance have been annulled. The first such claim I annul is the claim for the killing of Amir ibn Rabi‘ah. All offices, titles, and honors of the Age of Ignorance have been abolished. Only the office of custodianship of the Ka‘bah and the office of providing water to pilgrims will remain.

-The punishment for intentional murder is execution. The compensation for unintentional murder is one hundred camels. To demand more than one hundred camels in this case is a practice of the Age of Ignorance.

-O people, after Islam has been established, Satan no longer hopes that he will be obeyed in this land. But if you obey Satan in sins that you regard as minor, he will still be pleased.

-O people, altering the sacred months is a greater act of disbelief. By treating one year as sacred and another as lawful, shifting them back and forth to complete the count by any means, the unbelievers plunge deeper into misguidance.

-Indeed, through the cycle of time, eternity has today returned to the point from which it began, when it was as it had been on the day Allah created the heavens and the earth. That is, the number of months with Allah is certainly twelve. From the time Allah created the heavens and the earth, the number of months has been written in His Preserved Record in this way. Four of them are sacred. Three are consecutive—Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram. The other is solitary, namely Rajab, which lies between Jumada al-Thaniyah and Sha‘ban.

-Know that I have conveyed the message. O Allah, bear witness.

-O people, your women have certain rights over you.

You also have certain rights due from them. It is their duty not to allow anyone besides you into your husbands’ bedrooms. It is improper for your wives to allow into the house, without your permission, anyone whom you dislike. A wife should not commit any shameless or obscene act. If they do so, Allah has permitted you to temporarily separate yourselves from them in order to reform them. Then, if they become obedient, it is your responsibility to provide them maintenance according to the rules. Surely, women are under your care. They cannot secure their own welfare by themselves. You have taken them as companions under Allah’s trust, and you enjoy their bodies according to Allah’s law. Therefore, fear Allah concerning women and educate and train them in the best manner.

-Know that I have conveyed my message. O Allah, You too bear witness.

-O people, Muslims are brothers to one another. It is not lawful for one brother to take another brother’s property without his consent.

-Beware, I have conveyed the message. O Allah, You too bear witness.

-After me, do not abandon this Islamic brotherhood, adopt a life like that of unbelievers, and begin cutting one another’s throats.

-I am leaving you something which, if you hold fast to it, you will not go astray. It is the Book of Allah.

-Beware, I have conveyed the message. O Allah, You too bear witness.

-You will be asked about me. Tell me, what will you say? The people cried out in unison, “We bear witness that you have conveyed the message and done everything that ought to be done for the welfare of the Ummah. You have lifted every veil from the truth and conveyed Allah’s trust to us.”

-O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness.

-Those who are present here should convey these words to those who are absent. Perhaps some of those who are absent will remember and preserve these words better than some of those who are present.

-O people, Allah the Exalted has prescribed a fixed share of inheritance for every heir. It is not permissible to bequeath more than one-third of an estate.

-The child belongs to the one whose bed it is born upon, and the adulterer is to be stoned.”

-Whoever acknowledges anyone other than his own father as his father, or a slave acknowledges anyone other than his master as his master, upon him be the curse of Allah, the angels, and all people! On the Day of Resurrection, no compensation will be accepted from him.

-May Allah’s mercy and peace descend upon you.

The Sermon at Mina

-O people, no new prophet will come after me, nor will any new ummah arise after you. So listen attentively and worship your Lord. Perform the five daily prayers. Fast in Ramadan. Pay the zakat on your wealth willingly. Perform the Hajj and obey your leaders and those entrusted with responsibility, so that you may enter the Paradise of Allah.’

What the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, described in these two sermons as an international manifesto is beyond human thought and imagination. Indeed, no other manifesto has actually been able to produce people of such lofty caliber. It declared the revolutionary creed of the oneness of Allah. It presented servitude to Allah and worship as the fundamental driving force of the Islamic way of life. It declared the lives and property of Muslims inviolable to one another and made execution obligatory as the punishment for murder. It announced the decision to eradicate the ignorant practice of usury. It annulled the unending chain of revenge and counter-revenge from the pre-Islamic era. It abolished the ranks and titles of the Age of Ignorance. It defined the rights of husbands and wives. It strengthened the foundation of the family system. It called women a trust from Allah and instructed that they be treated well. It declared the bond of brotherhood among the followers of Islam essential. It described the Book of Allah as the foundation of the Islamic way of life. It offered the concept of human unity on the basis of the oneness of Allah and the unity of the father of humanity. It identified geographical and genealogical distinctions as meaningless, and honesty and God-consciousness as the standards of honor and nobility.

Whenever and wherever the Islamic movement operates and the Islamic system is established in the world, its foundation will be built upon these firm and unshakable principles. This manifesto is Islam’s fundamental manifesto, and humanity may be called toward it. Any structure of life built in opposition to this manifesto will be un-Islamic, and no genuine Muslim can accept it. We can make this manifesto the touchstone by which to examine the activities of any of our leaders and evaluate every action of each of our governments. In the mirror of this manifesto, we can see our own faces as well as other un-Islamic social systems.

This is the final sermon of our beloved Prophet. He delivered this sermon specifically for us. It is the Messenger’s testament. After presenting each of its important points, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said in a voice full of compassion, “I have conveyed Allah’s message.” Reading this should make us cautious and alert. We should repent of our conduct so far, cast off the chains of servitude to an un-Islamic system, and follow the Messenger’s way of life. We too should come forward to fulfill the mission for which the Messenger endured so much hardship and persecution, and displayed boundless patience and forbearance unparalleled in history.

The Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, performed the Hajj calmly and properly. He met with all the Muslims performing the Hajj. People asked many questions. Then he concluded this sacred journey with the farewell tawaf.

This was the scene of Islam attaining completion. The enthusiastic and spontaneous gathering of one hundred and fifty thousand people testified that the Islamic movement had achieved true victory in the battle for public opinion and in the struggle to transform the human heart. And this inner transformation brought revolution to the entire outer world.

After the Passing of the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him

Thus far we have presented the results of the movement led by the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him. Before much time had passed, he died. But the Muslims he had trained and nurtured continued this work, and within ten or fifteen years the Islamic movement spread across a vast area.

The manner in which the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, participated in the Farewell Hajj, addressed his companions, and offered his testament and appeal showed that he was bidding farewell to everyone collectively. On the return journey, during a stop beside a pool called Ghadir Khumm, he delivered another sermon to his distinguished companions. In this sermon, his farewell sentiment became even clearer. His words were such that hearing them brought tears. First, as was customary, he praised Allah. Then he said:

“O people, I am a human being. Perhaps Allah’s caller will soon come to me, and I will answer his call. I am leaving two weighty responsibilities with you. One of them is the Book of Allah. It contains guidance to the right path, light, and wisdom. He then said several encouraging and cautionary words concerning the Qur’an. Then he said, “The second responsibility is the people of my family. Concerning the people of my family, I urge you to remember Allah.”

To remove the various forms of misguidance opened by those who described the prophets as superhuman or nonhuman, he described himself as a human being. The prophets who spent their entire lives struggling to uproot polytheism and establish the oneness of Allah—by a cruel irony of fate, exaggerators called those very prophets the children of Allah and regarded them as part of Allah and as eternal beings. Before his departure drew near, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, warned his companions by saying, “I am a human being.” Therefore, Allah’s law will apply to me just as it applies to other human beings. He then instructed them firmly to follow the Qur’an and called it a weighty responsibility. For the close relatives of the Messenger had witnessed his life directly and were entrusted with his valuable teachings. In this respect, they were a source of Islamic instruction for the Ummah. On the other hand, he left them no wealth and entrusted their future to Allah. Thus it is clear that after the Messenger, Muslims would bear a great responsibility regarding them. But because of his intense sense of dignity, he did not state this explicitly and confined himself to an indication.

In this sermon, or in another sermon afterward, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, told the ordinary Muslims and the noble Companions something else in view of an extraordinary need. The matter was that some of the Companions who had been sent to Yemen with Ali had developed a degree of disagreement with him over an issue. In fact, during major undertakings, difficult circumstances sometimes arise in which differences of temperament lead to differences of opinion. At times, bitter or heated exchanges cause resentment or displeasure to form in the heart, even if only temporarily. It is impossible for an organization created by human beings—whether organized solely for pure Islamic work or led by people as faultless as the prophets—to be free of all the weaknesses natural to human beings. Differences of opinion and clashes of emotion may arise even in a thoroughly honest, sincere, pure, and flawless society. Therefore, accomplishing great works requires magnanimous, tolerant, patient, and generous people who can adjust to one another despite disagreements. Disputes sometimes arose even within the organization of the noble Companions. Yet because of their extraordinary tolerance, cooperation continued despite these disputes. Even when bitterness and agitation arose, they were temporary. A similar situation had arisen in this case. In particular, the effect of the disagreement had become so intense in the heart of Buraydah that he complained to the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, against Ali. But the emergence of a complaint concerning a first-rate personality like Ali, its persistence, its becoming a personal grievance, and then its being presented to the Messenger as a complaint was somewhat complicated. Hearing the complaint, the Messenger was pained, and the color of his face changed. In this context, following his customary practice and without mentioning anyone’s name, he said, “I am the friend of whoever has me as a friend, and Ali is also his friend. O Allah, befriend whoever befriends Ali, and be hostile to whoever is hostile to Ali.”

Everyone knows that Ali had devoted everything he possessed to the movement to which the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, had given his all. He was the caller to the same invitation, the bearer of the banner of the same mission, a follower of the same way of thinking, and a traveler on the same path; moreover, he was such a close relative that it was impossible for the slightest separation to arise between them. How could anyone love one of two such men while remaining hostile toward the other? This was the nature of the relationship between the Messenger and his closest Companions. The entire organization was deeply bound by the brotherhood of creed, ideals, and goals. Particularly among its foremost members, whom the Messenger had specially trained, there was no opportunity to distinguish between them by loving one and harboring resentment toward another. The Messenger was pained because if the bond of brotherhood within the group he had trained year after year was so weak, if dissatisfaction and resentment were held toward its leading figures, and if personal, long-lasting grudges arose because of differences of opinion, how could the Muslims advance toward such a vast goal?

At that time, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, could see that the time of his departure was drawing near. He was absorbed in the thought that the entire burden of responsibility would now be placed upon the shoulders of this organization. In the future, Muslims would have to follow this line of leadership instead of the Messenger—a line into which he had included and extensively trained his most trusted companions, each of whom he deeply loved. For this reason, he made that statement as a stern warning. It is astonishing that some people have extracted from this statement a doctrine concerning the appointment of the Messenger’s successor. I cannot understand how they derived that from it.

This discussion arose merely as an incidental matter. Otherwise, our actual purpose was to highlight that throughout the journey of the Farewell Hajj, the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, felt that his journey to the Hereafter was very near. In light of this feeling, he continued to give various important instructions and testaments.

From the beginning of Safar in the eleventh year after the Hijrah, the pure soul of the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, began preparing to depart for the Hereafter. One day he went to Uhud and prostrated himself in prayer for the martyrs of Uhud. After returning, he delivered the following sermon once again:

“O people, I will depart before you and testify before Allah concerning you. By Allah, even while sitting here I can see the Hawd al-Kawthar, and I have been given the keys to conquering various empires. (That is, as a result of the invitation, various kingdoms will be conquered.) I do not fear that you will become polytheists after me. What I fear for you is only that you will fall into conflicts and struggles over worldly interests.”

Then, in the middle of the night, he went to the cemetery of Baqi‘, prayed for the forgiveness of those in the graves, and said, “I too will soon join you.” Then one day he gathered his distinguished companions in particular and delivered the following sermon:

“O Muslims! Congratulations to you! May Allah envelop you in His mercy. May He remove the distress from your hearts, provide you with sustenance, help you, grant you progress, and give you peace and security. I instruct you to fear Allah, entrust you to Allah’s care, and urge you to remain mindful of Him. For I am a manifest warner. Beware, do not behave arrogantly or boastfully among His servants in Allah’s lands. Allah the Exalted has said to me and to you: ‘I have reserved that abode of the Hereafter for those who do not seek arrogance or spread disorder in the earth. The success of the Hereafter is only for the God-fearing.’ Peace be upon all of you and upon all those who, having accepted Islam, entered into my pledge.”

After returning from the cemetery of Baqi‘, he began to feel a slight headache. On the twenty-ninth of Safar, the headache worsened because he went to and returned from the funeral prayer of a deceased person. During the initial, mild stage of the illness, he came to the Prophet’s Mosque for eleven days and led the prayer himself. As the illness worsened, he remained bedridden at home for a week. When it intensified further, he obtained permission from all his other wives and moved to the room of Aishah.

Even as illness slowly carried him toward death, he did not forget the responsibility of the Islamic movement. The objectives of the campaigns of Tabuk and Mu’tah had not yet been fully achieved. The slightest laxity might embolden the enemies. Therefore, even in this situation, on the twenty-sixth of Safar he instructed the Muslims to prepare for the campaign against Rome. The next day he appointed Usamah ibn Zayd commander of the expedition. He told him, “Go, in the name of Allah, reach the place where your father attained martyrdom, and attack those who disobey Allah.” With his own hands, he made a banner and gave it to Buraydah ibn Khusayb al-Aslami. Since Usamah was young, and moreover was the son of Zayd, the Messenger’s freed slave and adopted son, some people began whispering about his appointment: why had this young man been appointed commander when senior Ansar and Muhajirun were present? When the matter reached the Messenger, he was deeply grieved. Despite severe pain, he tied a bandage around his head and came to the mosque. Then he delivered a sermon similar to that at Ghadir Khumm, saying:

“I have heard that you have said various things about Usamah. Previously, you also objected when his father was appointed commander. Yet, by Allah, he was worthy of it. And his son is also worthy of this task. Zayd ibn Harithah was dearer to us than anyone else, and his son Usamah is now dearer to us than anyone else.”

Earlier, five days before his death, he had bathed by having seven waterskins of water poured over his head. When this bathing made his body feel somewhat lighter, he was supported and taken to the mosque. There he delivered his final sermon to the gathering of the Companions. He said:

“Those before you used to worship the graves of prophets and righteous people. Do not do this. After my departure, do not turn my grave into a place of worship. Allah’s severe wrath is certain to descend upon those who worship the graves of prophets. I forbid you from doing this. I have conveyed the true message to you. O Allah, You Yourself bear witness.”

Then he led the prayer and said again after the prayer:

“I urge you to be mindful of the Ansar. They were the garment covering my body and the provision for my path. They have fulfilled their responsibility. Now it remains for you to fulfill their rights. Others will prosper, but the Ansar will remain where they were. Honor those among the Ansar who are righteous and worthy, and forgive those who make mistakes. Allah the Exalted gave His servant a choice: if he wished, he could accept the world and its attractions, or he could accept what Allah has for him. But the servant chose what had been appointed for him by Allah.”

Whatever the Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said during his illness generally expressed a feeling of farewell. But the final few sentences of the sermon above contained a very clear indication. Abu Bakr immediately understood it and began to weep uncontrollably.

At one point, he became unable even to attend the congregational prayer. He then instructed Abu Bakr to lead the prayer in his place. As the illness continued to worsen, anxiety among the Muslims increased. When the people, distressed, repeatedly circled around the Prophet’s Mosque, the Messenger came to the mosque leaning on the shoulders of Ali and Fadl ibn Abbas, sat on the lowest step of the pulpit, and delivered his very last sermon as follows:

“O people, I have learned that you are frightened by my death. Has any prophet who came to the world ever lived forever? I too must go to Allah, and so must you. I advise you to treat those who first migrated well, and let the Muhajirun also treat one another well.” Then he recited Surah al-‘Asr and said: “All affairs proceed according to Allah’s will. Do not hasten matters that require delay. Allah does not hasten merely because someone prefers haste. I advise you to treat the Ansar well. Before you, they made Madinah their homeland and regarded faith as their responsibility. Did they not share their crops with you? Did they not enlarge their homes to make room for you? Do not give them preference while disregarding your own needs. I will depart first, and you will come later and join me. I promise to meet you at the Hawd al-Kawthar.”

These sermons have been attributed to different times in different narrations. But one view is that all these statements were part of a single sermon. This view is probably correct.

On Monday [there is considerable disagreement regarding the date of his death. Some reports mention the first, some the second, some the twelfth, and some the thirteenth of Rabi‘ al-Awwal. However, the most famous date is the twelfth of Rabi‘ al-Awwal], the Messenger’s health became somewhat normal for the last time. He used the miswak, lifted the curtain, looked once at the assembled Companions, and smiled faintly. A few moments later, he said three times:

(**********)

At that moment, with his head resting in Aishah’s lap, he departed for the presence of Almighty Allah. “Indeed, we belong to Allah, and indeed to Him we will return.”

Today that great being departed from the earth—the one who had given new life to humanity and endured terrible hardship to free humanity’s caravan from the grasp of bandits and keep it on the straight path, yet sought no reward for it in worldly life.

It is difficult even to imagine how profoundly this tragic event grieved the closest companions and lifelong associates of the Messenger (PBUH). Those who gained new strength and inspiration merely by seeing the Messenger (PBUH) once must surely have felt the sky and earth spinning before their eyes. They may have felt that the entire history of humanity had been turned upside down. Hazrat Uthman (RA) became speechless, and Hazrat Ali fell silent. Hazrat Umar lost his mental balance. And Hazrat Abdullah ibn Unays, overcome with grief, actually died.

This terrible tragedy was, in itself, a mountain of grief. Moreover, it occurred in an extremely dangerous situation. On one side, there was fear of aggression from the Roman Empire, which was why Usama’s army was setting out. On the other side, there was a rush of apostasy and refusal to pay zakat. On a third side, while inviting neighboring states to Islam, the Islamic movement had also issued them a measure of warning. Internally, there was also the danger that the suppressed problem of hypocrisy might raise its head again. Yet the Messenger (PBUH) had trained the Muslims so soundly and perfectly that they immediately controlled their emotions and calmed their agitated minds. Overcoming and dismissing despair and restlessness, they devoted themselves to fulfilling their grave responsibilities. For the followers of a person like the Messenger (PBUH), a far greater responsibility than mourning his death was to ensure the stability and security of the movement and the state system, which could have been torn apart by the slightest laxity in such circumstances. The sudden disappearance of the person who had for many years become the life force of the entire movement and who possessed the complete confidence and deep love of all the Companions could instantly create an extremely dangerous vacuum. If that vacuum were not filled in time, disastrous consequences could result. The Muslim organization built by the Messenger (PBUH) gave an unprecedented demonstration of awareness of responsibility and strength of character: it immediately filled the vacuum and did not allow the bonds of discipline to weaken at all. There was no dispute or conflict over who would succeed the Messenger (PBUH), no clash of swords, and no commotion. The leading figures of the Muslim community sat for consultation in the courtyard of Saqifah Banu Sa‘idah, and after a brief discussion, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was elected the first caliph within Islam’s shura-based, consultative democracy. Later, at the general Muslim assembly held in the Prophet’s Mosque, that decision was unanimously approved.

After the Messenger’s (PBUH) death, the firmness, insight, and competence Hazrat Abu Bakr displayed in expanding the Messenger’s great dawah work and completing the unfinished work he had initiated, and the way Hazrat Umar, Uthman, Ali, and the other leading Companions supported him, have few parallels in human history. This man, shaped by the Messenger (PBUH), proved that he was the finest example of humanity. In selflessness, exceptional ability, and insight, he had no equal. Even in the most difficult circumstances, he never forgot his responsibilities and duties.

History bears witness that within a few years this group formed by the Messenger (PBUH) and its leaders carried the Islamic movement to every corner of the world, and there was no significant difference in the pace of this work during the Messenger’s lifetime and afterward.

O Allah, send blessings and peace upon Muhammad!

If Muslims still exist in the world today, it is the result of this great personality’s tireless labor. If the message of truth and justice is active in our minds, that too is the result of the labor of this holy being. If he left any ideal or program for the welfare and prosperity of humanity, it is the fruit of Muhammad’s (PBUH) striving and struggle. If the desire to revive the Islamic movement takes root in our hearts today, it will do so through the blessed memory of this beloved Prophet’s sacrifice and endurance. It can be known only through the method of the Islamic movement and the practical training of this guide sent by Almighty Allah. If anyone today wishes to teach humanity moral values and the eternal principles of success, they must learn them directly from Muhammad (PBUH). Had a caller to Islam, teacher, trainer, and leader like the Messenger (PBUH) not come into the world, it would not have been possible to free the earth from the dense darkness of ignorance and foolishness. Thus it may be said that the Messenger (PBUH) was the fundamental life force of the entire Islamic revolution.

For the extraordinary and unparalleled achievement by which the Prophet (PBUH) made himself the target of terrible hostility for the welfare of us and all humanity, endured excruciating suffering while fighting falsehood, and gave all that he possessed to this path without accepting any compensation; then created a new era in history, a sacred civilization, and a vast international nation or ummah, and built ever-new worlds of knowledge, science, and thought—for this achievement, all humanity is indebted to this great friend and benefactor. We are incapable of offering even the smallest return for such an immense favor. Therefore, O Almighty Allah, we appeal to You alone: accept our attitude of gratitude and, from the boundless treasury of Your mercy, grant him on our behalf an appropriate recompense for this unparalleled contribution. Send mercy, blessings, and peace upon the soul of the Messenger (PBUH), raise his rank, grant renewed victory and expansion to the Messenger’s (PBUH) dawah and movement, and enable ever-greater numbers of Your servants to benefit and prosper from the blessings and fruits of Islamic law. We also beseech You to grant the author and every Muslim servant the ability to carry the sacred trust of the Messenger’s (PBUH) dawah and the good fortune to convey it to all humanity. Once again make the Islamic movement initiated by the Messenger (PBUH) a living and practical reality. Grant all of us the good fortune to play an appropriate role in the struggle to complete the Messenger’s (PBUH) unfinished work by implementing on earth the system of justice he presented, for this is the best way to express gratitude for his benefaction.

(*******)

The Work Is Still Incomplete

It is Allah’s grace that He gave an insignificant servant like me the opportunity to undertake this great work, enabling me to present a glimpse of the life and achievements of His greatest servant. In this work I am deeply indebted to my worthy predecessors, who wrote extremely valuable books on this subject. In addition, I am deeply indebted to two researchers of our time, Maulana Syed Abul A‘la Maududi and Dr. Hamidullah Siddiqi, M.A., P.H.D. From these two men I gained a movement-oriented perspective that opened many new aspects of the Prophet’s life before me. I hope that readers will find some nourishment for new thoughts while reading this book. I am also grateful to the respected publisher for providing special inspiration and encouragement for this work. May Allah reward all these friends who inspired and encouraged me in the best manner.

The circumstances through which this work has passed so far have been highly regrettable. Many times I took up the work, only for long intervals to obstruct its progress. Often not a single letter was written for months on end. Yet some unseen force repeatedly gave me strength and encouragement. One day it suddenly occurred to me that perhaps it was Allah’s will that, since I wished to present the life story of that great being to the people of the world, I should acquire even one hundredth or one thousandth of his experience. Otherwise, from where would the vital pulse in the writing come? After this thought came to me, my will became so strong that whenever and to whatever extent I could, I moved the work forward. Most of the latter half of the book had to be written while lying in bed. For this reason, I hope that Allah will accept this work and make it a means of my salvation and welfare.

Compared with the extent of the work I wish to complete according to the proposed blueprint, much remains unfinished in the present book. It may eventually extend to two or three volumes. In fact, for now I have presented only one lengthy discussion. In one respect it is reasonably detailed, since it covers much of the Messenger’s (PBUH) life of struggle. In some respects, however, it is brief, because it also merely indicates some important aspects of the Prophet’s life. I therefore fear that some people may misunderstand it. It is necessary to make clear what work remains.

The remaining work is as follows:

– A description of the geographical and cultural environment in which the Messenger (PBUH) was born.

– An analysis of the Messenger’s (PBUH) dawah and objectives: what fundamental changes he wished to bring about in human life, the nature of his dawah, and the scope of its field of activity.

– The Messenger’s (PBUH) wisdom as a leader, insight, and political acumen.

– What kind of people were produced as a result of the Messenger’s (PBUH) dawah?

– How did women’s society assist in the Messenger’s (PBUH) struggle?

– I intend to present, in a separate volume, an account of all the Messenger’s (PBUH) reformative work in a manner from which the modern age can benefit. Through various articles, it will be necessary to present the new principles, methods, and sequencing with which the Messenger (PBUH) shaped different aspects of life: the manifestation of divine strategy; establishing the foundations of an educational system for the young and old of society; forming public character; economic development and reform; the defense system and its stability and strength; reconstructing the political infrastructure; rebuilding society and culture; introducing the Islamic system of justice; leadership training; establishing international relations; and theoretical and practical analyses of other reformative measures.

– A detailed account of the defensive and military activities of the Messenger’s (PBUH) Islamic government.

– It may also be possible to write a separate volume in response to the objections of those who raise objections, offering a researcher’s perspective to resolve disagreements concerning events, individuals, and important dates.

– The sources for writing the Prophet’s biography, together with a critical review of the work done on this subject to date.

– I also intend to prepare several important maps that will make the events easier to understand when placed before the reader. Considerable valuable work has been done in this country in this field, and I wish to carry it further. It may also be that a separate map of the Messenger’s (PBUH) biography and the Islamic movement will be prepared. I intend to bring together the various pieces of information written in the book on a wall map.

– I intend to have this book translated into at least English, Bengali, Arabic, and Hindi. Its usefulness can thereby be expected to increase further. May Allah grant the ability to implement this plan and, through His special mercy, provide the necessary means and create a favorable environment for it.

Naeem Siddiqi

March 1960

Appendix 1

Events in the Prophet’s Life: Chronological Sequence

The subjects discussed in the book have been arranged, broadly, in chronological order. In matters of detail, however, events from different periods have been brought together according to subject rather than chronology. Yet chronological continuity is very important in the sciences of history and biography. To meet this need, the following outline is being included in the book as an appendix, so that all the important events of the Prophet’s life may appear before the eyes at a glance.

The reasons for the differences concerning the days and dates of various important events are as follows:

Events before the Messenger (PBUH) received prophethood are generally dated according to ‘Am al-Fil,’ meaning ‘the year of the Abyssinian army’s attack on the Kaaba,’ or according to the year of the Messenger’s (PBUH) birth, and these years are correlated with the Christian era. Year 1 of the Elephant Army and Year 1 of the Messenger’s birth are broadly the same year, but the first day of the Elephant year was the day of the army’s attack (that is, Thursday, 17 Muharram). By contrast, the year of the Messenger’s birth began 50 or 55 days—approximately two months—after the beginning of the Elephant year. Historians and transmitters have either completely ignored this difference between the two systems or failed to state which year they meant. As a result, one year begins with Rabi al-Awwal, whereas the commonly used lunar year begins with Muharram. The confusion in calculation consequently increases. For example, if the beginning of the birth year is counted from Muharram, the Hijrah occurred in the fourteenth year of his life. But if the beginning of the year is counted from Rabi al-Awwal, the Hijrah occurred in the thirteenth year of his birth era. Historians have recorded both systems.

During his caliphate, Hazrat Umar (RA) formally introduced the Islamic Hijri calendar on Thursday, 20 Jumada al-Thani, 17 AH. Before this, the Hijri calendar had not been formally established, nor was it customary to date events according to it. Therefore, in the books of authentic hadith, one does not find mention of the Hijri year in which an event occurred. After the Hijri calendar was adopted, the chronology of earlier events began to be arranged according to it.

The lunar-year counting that began with the Hijrah can also be calculated in two ways. One is to begin counting the year from Rabi al-Awwal, the month of the Hijrah. The other is to count the Hijrah year from Muharram, the customary first month of the lunar year. This means that the first Hijri year would be counted as ten months, from Rabi al-Awwal through Dhu al-Hijjah. Hadith scholars, writers of the Sirah, and historians have counted the Hijri year in both ways. They have rarely stated clearly, however, how the year was counted.

In addition, the day mentioned alongside a date in various narrations does not correspond with the date. Whichever of the two is found to be more reliable, or on which the narrations agree, is taken as the basis and the other is determined by calculation.

The most complex problem arises in reconciling calendars and different systems of reckoning years. This is because historical works do not identify any specific calendar or system of years. The confusion in calendars is further increased by the fact that, besides various solar years, more than one Christian calendar was sometimes in use at the same time: one solar calendar and another lunar calendar. Moreover, the Christian and other calendar systems continued to undergo changes. Now, when calculations are made centuries later to reconcile days and dates, room for disagreement arises from many directions.

Some events and activities were not even reported in important hadith together with their precise days and dates. In light of the Quran and hadith, it can be established with certainty only that one event occurred before or after another. But regarding certain events—such as permission for tayammum, the prohibition of temporary marriage, the implementation of the rule of hijab, and various treaties, battles, and dispatches of armies—the hadith reports contradict one another even in establishing merely an approximate chronological sequence without determining exact dates.

It may broadly be assumed that it is difficult to present all the important events of the Messenger’s (PBUH) life in detail with definitively established dates. Even among the great writers of the Sirah, exegetes, hadith scholars, and jurists—who are accustomed to seeking well-known and reliable information—there are considerable differences regarding dates, and lengthy arguments exist for and against each perspective.

While writing this present Sirah, after studying and researching these disagreements and calendar calculations to the best of my ability, I settled on one particular view in the ‘Chronological List of Events’ and mentioned the important disagreements briefly. It would neither have been appropriate nor possible here to trouble the reader by detailing every divergent opinion. If that is to be done, it should be done separately. In our ‘Chronological List,’ events before the Hijrah are dated either according to ‘Am al-Fil’ (the year of the Elephant Army’s aggression) or according to the year of the Messenger’s (PBUH) birth; otherwise, in some places, the Messenger’s (PBUH) age has been taken as the standard for determining time according to the years of prophethood.

(1) The Messenger’s (PBUH) date of birth—

(Monday in springtime; there is agreement concerning the day), 9 Rabi al-Awwal, Elephant Year 1, 50 days after the Elephant Army’s attack, corresponding to 22 April 571 CE, 1 Jyeshtha 628 Vikram Samvat, at dawn (after sunrise). According to the most famous view, it was 12 Rabi al-Awwal.)

(Al-Tabari and Ibn Khaldun mention 12 Rabi al-Awwal, while Abu al-Miqdad mentions 10 Rabi al-Awwal. But since there is agreement that it was a Monday, and Monday fell on 9 Rabi al-Awwal, Muhammad Talat Beg (the Arab historian) and Qadi Sulaiman Mansur Puri, after conducting meticulous research into calendar calculations, favored 9 Rabi al-Awwal. The renowned Egyptian astronomer Mahmud Pasha stated, on the basis of scientific evidence, that the Messenger’s (PBUH) birth date was 9 Rabi al-Awwal, corresponding to 20 April 571 CE. Allama Shibli Nomani also supported this view. Under the Gregorian system, however, the date becomes 22 April. Under this system, the new Christian calendar came into use from September 1752. According to the old calendar, that day was determined as 19 April, Julian year 5284. There is also disagreement over whether the Messenger (PBUH) was born 55 or 50 days after the Elephant Army’s attack; apparently, the view that it was 50 days later seems correct.)

The author of Asahhus-Siyar, Maulana Abdur Rauf Danapuri, mentions 8 or 12 Rabi al-Awwal but does not cite the arguments. Some mention 1 Muharram and, in Christian dating, 12 or 15 February. According to Ibn Ishaq, the Messenger (PBUH) was born after the night of 12 Rabi al-Awwal had passed. In my view, the opinion favoring 9 Rabi al-Awwal seems more prominent.)

(2) Beginning of the nursing period—at four months of age (Two or three days after his birth, he drank the milk of Thuwaybah, the slave woman of Abu Lahab, for several days. He spent his regular nursing period at the home of his wet nurse, Halimah. This home was located in the desert.

(3) Death of the Messenger’s (PBUH) mother—at the age of 6

(4) Death of the Messenger’s (PBUH) grandfather—at the age of 8 years, 2 months, and 10 days

(5) First journey to Syria (with his uncle Abu Talib)—at the age of 12 years and 2 months (It was during this journey that he met the Christian monk Bahira.)

(6) First participation in the Fijar War—at the age of 15 or somewhat older

(7) Second participation in the Fijar War—a while after the first; the time is unknown

(8) Joining the reformist organization Hilf al-Fudul—at the age of 16

(9) Second journey to Syria, as a merchant—at the age of 22 or 25

(10) Marriage to Hazrat Khadijah—at the age of 25 years, 2 months, and 10 days

(11) Beginning of the mysterious events—7 years before prophethood

(12) Being chosen as arbitrator—at the age of 35

(13) Receiving prophethood—at the age of 40 years and 11 days. 9 Rabi al-Awwal, birth year 41, corresponding to 12 February 610 CE, Monday.

A dispute arose over the repositioning of the Black Stone during the renovation of the Kaaba. Everyone called him trustworthy and accepted him as arbitrator. He resolved the dispute brilliantly. There is also considerable disagreement about this date. According to one view, he was 40 years, 6 months, and 16 days old by the lunar calendar, and 39 years, 3 months, and 16 days old by the solar calendar. The divine proclamation of prophethood was revealed in the cave of Mount Hira. Some say the date was 25 Ramadan, others 13 Rabi al-Awwal. According to the Christian calendar, 12 February and 6 August 610 CE have also been given. All these disagreements, however, arose from the complexities of calendar calculations. Another reason for the uncertainty is that the hadith reports give two different accounts of the time of the proclamation of prophethood and the revelation of the Quran. Zad al-Ma‘ad records the 8th, but according to calendar calculations Monday fell on the 9th. The proclamation of prophethood occurred as follows: Hazrat Jibril came before him inside the cave and said, “Receive the good news. You are Allah’s Messenger, and I am Jibril.” Seeing Hazrat Jibril openly in this manner, he became somewhat frightened, and Hazrat Khadijah comforted him.

(14) Prayer made obligatory (two rak‘ahs each for Fajr and Asr)—9 Rabi al-Awwal, the day prophethood was received.

(15) Beginning of the revelation of the Quran—18 Ramadan, Year 1 of prophethood, Friday (at night)

Corresponding to 17 August 610 CE.

(16) Beginning of the secret dawah—Years 1 to 3 of prophethood.

During this period, Surah al-Alaq was revealed. Al-Tabari records both the 17th and the 18th. According to calendar calculations, however, 18 Ramadan was a Friday. The house of Akram Makhzumi, located on Mount Safa, became the center of the Islamic movement. About 40 people accepted Islam during this period. They would go outside the city to pray secretly.

(17) Proclamation of prophethood (the first sermon)—Year 3 of prophethood, toward the end

(18) First period of opposition (mockery, ridicule, slander, and minor persecution)—extending from Years 1 to 5 of prophethood.

(The Quraysh delegation continued discussions to exert pressure on Abu Talib. Various strategies were devised for opposition.)

(19) Second period of intense opposition (persecution and oppression everywhere)—Years 5 to 7 of prophethood

(20) Hijrah to Abyssinia—Rajab of birth year 45; Years 5 and 6 of prophethood

(21) Hazrat Hamzah and Hazrat Umar accepting Islam—Year 6 of prophethood

(Hazrat Umar (RA) accepted Islam three days after Hamzah. According to some, Hazrat Hamzah accepted Islam in the second year of prophethood.)

(22) The confinement and blockade of the Messenger’s clan, Banu Hashim, in the mountainous valley called Shi‘b Abi Talib—1 Muharram, Year 7 of Prophethood, 47th year of his life, Tuesday.

(23) The end of the confinement and blockade—the latter part of Year 9 or the early part of Year 10 of Prophethood.

(24) The “Year of Grief”: the deaths of Abu Talib and Hazrat Khadijah—Year 10 of Prophethood.

(25) The journey to Ta’if—Jumada al-Thani, 50th year of his life, Year 10 of Prophethood.

(Hazrat Khadijah passed away in Ramadan, 3 or 5 days after Abu Talib’s death.

According to another view, 26–27 Shawwal, Year 10 of Prophethood.)

(26) The Mi‘raj—27 Rajab, 50th year of his life, Year 10 of Prophethood, Monday (at night).

(27) The five daily prayers made obligatory—27 Rajab, 50th year of his life, Year 10 of Prophethood, Monday (at night).

(28) The beginning of Islam in Medina—Dhu al-Hijjah, 50th year of his life, Year 10 of Prophethood.

(Ayyas ibn Mu‘adh was the first to accept Islam.)

(29) Six residents of Medina accept Islam—Dhu al-Hijjah, 51st year of his life, Year 11 of Prophethood.

(30) The First Pledge of al-‘Aqabah (12 persons)—Dhu al-Hijjah, 52nd year of his life, Year 12 of Prophethood.

(31) The Second Pledge of al-‘Aqabah (75 persons)—Dhu al-Hijjah, 53rd year of his life, Year 13 of Prophethood.

(32) The Hijrah—26 Safar, at night.

(At the time of this event, the Messenger had passed the age of 53 and entered his 54th year, and had completed 13 years of Prophethood and entered the 14th year.)

a. From Mecca to the cave of Mount Thawr—53rd year of his life, Year 13 of Prophethood.

b. Departure from the cave of Mount Thawr—Monday, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal, corresponding to 15 September 621 CE.

c. Arrival at Quba—8 Rabi‘ al-Awwal, 53rd year of his life, Year 13 of Prophethood, corresponding to Monday, 23 September 622 CE.

d. Departure from Quba for Medina and entry into Medina—12 Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 1 AH, Year 14 of Prophethood, Friday.

(He performed the Friday prayer in the area of the Banu Salim tribe. According to some, he remained in Quba for 14 days.)

(33) The foundation of the Prophet’s Mosque laid—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 1 AH.

(34) The number of rak‘ahs in the obligatory prayer increased—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 1 AH.

(The four rak‘ahs of Zuhr, ‘Asr, and ‘Isha prayers were made obligatory.

A brotherhood gathering was held at Hazrat Anas’s house, attended by 90 Ansar and Muhajirun in the presence of the Messenger.)

(35) Formal brotherhood established between the Muhajirun and the Ansar—first three months of Year 1 AH.

(36) Establishment of the Islamic state and conclusion of a constitutional agreement among the people of Medina—middle of Year 1 AH.

(37) Implementation of the defense system begins—at the beginning of the seventh month after the Hijrah.

(For military exercises and patrols, three military detachments were sent one after another: (1) In the seventh month, a detachment of 30 men under Hazrat Hamzah proceeded as far as Saif al-Bahr. (2) In Shawwal, the eighth month, a force of 60 or 80 men under ‘Ubaydah ibn al-Harith went as far as Rabigh. (3) In Dhu al-Qa‘dah, the ninth month, a detachment of 20 men under Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas went as far as Khaybar. After that, the Messenger himself went with a group as far as Waddan. In view of these actual circumstances, I cannot agree with the statement that the famous verse permitting jihad was revealed in the second year AH. In the second year AH, the decision to undertake armed jihad was actually made. Before that, they refrained from engaging in combat. However, some verse or other certainly had to be revealed for implementing the defense system. For this reason, I believe that the verse permitting jihad was revealed before the Hijrah. Its purpose was to shift the Muslim community’s mindset from the era of patience in calling people to Islam toward the coming era of jihad, so that as soon as they reached Medina they would begin organizing and implementing the defense system.)

(38) Hazrat Aishah’s arrival at the sanctuary with the Messenger—Shawwal, Year 1 AH.

(39) Two prominent personalities accept Islam: the former Jewish scholar ‘Abdullah ibn Salam and the Christian monk Abu Qays Sarha—Year 1 AH.

(40) Permission for jihad (permission to undertake active military measures)—12 Safar, Year 2 AH, or 1 year, 2 months, and 1 day after the Hijrah.

(41) The Messenger’s first personal military and political expedition: the Waddan expedition—12th month after the Hijrah.

(42) Treaty-based alliances with external tribes: Banu Damrah, the people of Bu‘at, and Banu Mudlij—from Safar to Jumada al-Thani, Year 2 AH.

(Historical accounts also indicate that Majdi al-Juhaini, the leader of the Juhainah tribe, had maintained an alliance with Medina even before the expedition against Banu Damrah.)

(43) The raid by Kurz ibn Jabir al-Fihri (the enemy’s first aggressive activity)—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 2 AH.

(44) The Nakhla incident (the first border clash involving a Muslim military detachment)—the latter part of Rajab, Year 2 AH.

(A disbeliever named ‘Amr ibn al-Hadrami was killed. Two prisoners, along with camels and goods, were brought to Medina. The Messenger expressed displeasure at this clash.)

(45) Salman al-Farisi accepts Islam—Year 2 AH.

(46) The institution of the adhan—Year 2 AH.

(47) Zakat becomes obligatory—Year 2 AH.

(48) Change of the qiblah—15 Sha‘ban, Year 2 AH, Monday.

(49) Fasting in Ramadan becomes obligatory—1 Ramadan, Year 2 AH, Wednesday.

(Since, according to most accounts, the day of the Battle of Badr—17 Ramadan—was a Friday, by calculation 1 Ramadan should have been a Wednesday.

For this reason, we have excluded the account that says 1 Ramadan was a Sunday.)

(50) The congregational Eid al-Fitr prayer and the ruling requiring payment of fitrah are instituted—1 Shawwal, Year 2 AH.

(51) The Battle of Badr (the first regular battle)—8 Ramadan, Year 2 AH, Wednesday, or 12 Ramadan.

—Journey to Medina

—Battle

(The complicated issue is that although there is broad agreement regarding the day and date of the battle, some say the date of departure from Medina was 12 Ramadan and others say 8 Ramadan. Those who give the eighth date mention that it was a Monday. Yet if the 17th was a Friday, the 8th could not possibly have been a Monday. Therefore, in the account giving 8 Ramadan, we have mentioned Wednesday, and in the account giving 12 Ramadan, Saturday. However, if the account that says 17 Ramadan was a Tuesday is accepted as correct, then 1 and 8 Ramadan would necessarily have been Sundays.)

—Return to Medina in triumph

(52) The marriage of Hazrat ‘Ali and Fatimah—after the Battle of Badr, Year 2 AH.

(53) The siege of Banu Qaynuqa—from the middle of Shawwal until the beginning of Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 2 AH.

(54) The Messenger’s marriage to Hafsah, daughter of Hazrat ‘Umar—Year 3 AH.

(55) The marriage of Hazrat ‘Uthman and Umm Kulthum (the Messenger’s daughter)—Year 3 AH.

(56) The first prohibition of wine—Year 3 AH.

(57) The killing of Ka‘b ibn al-Ashraf—Year 3 AH.

(58) The birth of Imam Hasan—Year 3 AH.

(59) The Battle of Uhud: departure from Medina—5 Shawwal, Year 3 AH, after the Friday prayer; 6 Shawwal, Saturday.

—Battle

—Pursuit of Abu Sufyan’s forces as far as Hamra al-Asad—7 Shawwal, Sunday.

(60) The initial instruction to renounce usury—immediately after the Battle of Uhud.

(See Surah Al ‘Imran, verse 130.)

(61) Instructions concerning the property of orphans—immediately after the Battle of Uhud.

(62) The law of inheritance—Year 3 AH, after the Battle of Uhud.

(63) Laws of marriage, the rights of husbands and wives, and the prohibition against marrying polytheist women—Year 3 AH.

(64) The Messenger’s marriage to Hazrat Zaynab bint Khuzaymah—latter part of Year 3 AH.

(She was widowed in the Battle of Uhud.)

(65) The Raji‘ incident (the martyrdom of a ten-member da‘wah group)—Safar, Year 4 AH.

(66) The Battle of Banu Nadir—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 4 AH.

(67) The death of the Mother of the Believers, Zaynab bint Khuzaymah—the early part of the fourth year AH.

(She passed away only two or three months after the marriage.)

(68) The ruling on hijab takes effect—1 Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 4 AH, Friday.

(69) The final prohibition of wine is enforced—Year 4 AH.

(70) The Second Badr expedition—Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 4 AH.

(Abu Sufyan did not come to fight as he had challenged them to do; no battle took place.)

(71) The Dumah al-Jandal expedition—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 5 AH.

(72) The Banu al-Mustaliq expedition—3 Sha‘ban, Year 5 AH.

(73) The ruling on tayammum—during the journey to Banu al-Mustaliq.

(74) The Messenger’s marriage to Hazrat Juwayriyyah—Sha‘ban, Year 5 AH.

(75) The incident of the slander against Hazrat Aishah—Sha‘ban, Year 5 AH.

(76) Regulations concerning adultery, accusations of adultery, and mutual accusations of adultery between spouses, together with detailed hijab regulations—Year 5 AH (after the incident of the slander against Hazrat Aishah).

(77) The Battle of Ahzab, or the Battle of the Trench—Shawwal or Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 5 AH.

(A large group from 70 or 80 Muslim families had come to Medina.)

(78) The arrival in Medina of a delegation from the Daws tribe—Year 5 AH.

(79) The expulsion of Banu Qurayzah—Dhu al-Hijjah, Year 5 AH.

(80) The Messenger’s marriage to Hazrat Zaynab bint Jahsh—Year 5 AH.

(81) Thumamah ibn Uthal al-Hanafi, chief of Najd, accepts Islam—Year 6 AH.

(82) The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah—Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 6 AH.

(83) Return from Hudaybiyyah to Medina—Dhu al-Hijjah, Year 6 AH.

(84) Khalid ibn al-Walid and ‘Amr ibn al-‘As accept Islam—Dhu al-Hijjah, Year 6 AH.

(85) The beginning of the international call to Islam (letters sent to heads of states and governments)—1 Muharram, Year 7 AH, Wednesday.

(86) The Battle of Khaybar—Muharram, Year 7 AH.

(87) The Messenger’s marriage to Hazrat Safiyyah—Muharram, Year 7 AH.

(88) The return of the Muhajirun from Abyssinia—at the time of the conquest of Khaybar, Year 7 AH.

(89) The establishment of an independent Muslim camp at a place called Saif al-Bahar—beginning of Year 7 AH.

(According to the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Messenger was unable to give refuge in Medina to the persecuted Muslims of Mecca. Therefore, a number of persecuted Muslims, including Abu Jandal and Abu Basir, fled from Mecca and gathered at Saif al-Bahar.)

(90) Guerrilla attacks on Quraysh caravans by the young men of Saif al-Bahar—Safar, Year 7 AH.

(91) ‘Umrat al-Qada—Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 7 AH.

(92) Regulations concerning marriage and divorce instituted—Year 7 AH.

(93) The Messenger’s marriage to Hazrat Maymunah (in Mecca)—Year 7 AH.

(94) Jabalah al-Ghassani accepts Islam—Year 7 AH.

(95) The Battle of Mu’tah—Jumada al-Awwal, Year 7 AH.

(96) The Meccan polytheists violate the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah—Rajab, Year 8 AH.

(97) The expedition to Mecca:

—Departure from Medina—10 Ramadan, Wednesday, Year 8 AH.

—Entry into Mecca in triumph—20 Ramadan.

(Reliable sources also indicate that the Messenger remained in Medina until 18 Ramadan. On this basis, the date of entry into Mecca should have been 29 or 30 Ramadan.)

—A detachment sent under Khalid to destroy the temple of al-‘Uzza at Nakhla—25 Ramadan, Year 8 AH.

—A detachment sent under ‘Amr ibn al-‘As to destroy the temple of Suwa‘—Ramadan, Year 8 AH.

—A detachment sent under Sa‘d al-Ashhali to destroy the temple of Manat—Ramadan, Year 8 AH.

—Stay in Mecca until 9 Shawwal.

(According to another account, until 18 Shawwal.)

—The Battle of Hunayn—Shawwal, Year 8 AH.

—The siege of Ta’if—18 to 20 days, from Shawwal into Dhu al-Qa‘dah.

(According to Maqbul’s account, the siege lasted 40 days.)

—‘Umrah at Ji‘ranah after the distribution of the spoils at Ji‘ranah—Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Year 8 AH.

(98) The law abolishing usury completely—at the time of the conquest of Mecca, Year 8 AH.

(All claims arising from usury cancelled—Al-Baqarah 2:278.)

(99) The arrival in Medina of a delegation from Sadah—Year 8 AH.

(100) The death of the Messenger’s daughter, Hazrat Zaynab—Year 8 AH.

—The death of the Messenger’s son, Hazrat Ibrahim—Year 8 AH.

(101) The zakat system: the first appointment of zakat collectors—Muharram, Year 9 AH.

(102) The Battle of Tabuk—Rajab, Year 9 AH, corresponding to November 635 CE.

—Departure from Medina—Thursday.

(103) The ruling on jizyah—during the Tabuk expedition.

(According to one account, it was instituted before Tabuk, in the eighth year AH.)

(104) The burning of the Mosque of Dirar—after returning from the Battle of Tabuk.

(105) The ruler of Dumah al-Jandal, Ukaidir, accepts Islam—Year 9 AH.

(106) Ka‘b ibn Zuhayr seeks forgiveness and accepts Islam—Year 9 AH.

(Presentation of the poem entitled “Banat Su‘ad.”)

(107) Several delegations that came to Medina this year:

—The delegation from Adhra—Safar, Year 9 AH.

—The delegation from Bali—Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Year 9 AH.

—The delegation from Khawlan—Sha‘ban, Year 9 AH.

—The delegation from Thaqif—Year 9 AH.

(108) Hajj becomes obligatory—9 Dhu al-Hijjah, Year 9 AH.

The first Hajj, led by Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq.

(Various hadiths state that Hajj became obligatory in the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or 10th year AH. However, in my view, the account concerning the ninth year is the strongest. Some say that this Hajj took place in Dhu al-Qa‘dah because of the use of the disbelievers’ calendar, but this opinion is weak.)

(109) Through Hazrat ‘Ali, the severance of relations with the polytheists and the declaration cancelling all open-ended treaties—10 Rabi‘ al-Thani; Dhu al-Hijjah, Year 10 AH. (There is also disagreement about whether the declaration of severance occurred on the Day of ‘Arafah or the Day of Sacrifice (9 or 10 Dhu al-Hijjah). In my view, in light of the Qur’an and hadith, the view that it occurred on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah is stronger.)

(110) The delegation from Muharib—Year 10 AH.

(Most of the other delegations also came to Medina in the ninth and tenth years AH. However, it is difficult to determine the exact time of their arrival.)

The delegation from Muhammed—Sha‘ban, Year 10 AH.

The delegation from Khawlan—Sha‘ban, Year 10 AH.

The delegation from Naysan—Ramadan, Year 10 AH.

The delegation from Banu al-Harith ibn Ka‘b—Shawwal, Year 10 AH.

The delegation from Salam—Shawwal, Year 10 AH.

(111) During the final Ramadan, the Messenger observed a twenty-day i‘tikaf—Ramadan, Year 10 AH.

(112) Correspondence between the Messenger and Musaylimah al-Kadhdhab—Year 10 AH.

(113) The Farewell Hajj:

—Departure from Medina—26 Dhu al-Qa‘dah, AH 10, Saturday, between the Zuhr and ‘Asr prayers.

(There is also disagreement about the date in this matter. However, the date I have adopted is more reliable.)

—Stay at Dhu al-Hulayfah—the night between Saturday and Sunday.

—Entering ihram—Sunday (at the time of Zuhr).

—Stay at Dhu Tuwa—Sunday night, 4 Dhu al-Hijjah, AH 10.

—Departure from Dhu Tuwa for Mecca—5 Dhu al-Hijjah, after the Fajr prayer.

(The Messenger entered Mecca from the direction of Thaniyyat al-‘Ulya.)

—Entry into al-Masjid al-Haram—5 Dhu al-Hijjah, noon.

(The Messenger entered through the Banu ‘Abd Manaf gate.)

-Stayed outside Mecca until 8 Dhu al-Hijjah

(All the Companions stayed with the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and spent the night at Mina.)

-Journey to Mina—Thursday noon, 8 Dhu al-Hijjah.

-Journey from Mina to Arafat—after sunrise on Friday, 9 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(Entered through the Namirah road at the eastern end of Arafat.)

-Delivery of the Hajj sermon—after noon prayer on Friday, 9 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(Delivered the sermon from atop his she-camel named Qaswa.)

-Stay at Arafat—after the noon and afternoon prayers on Friday, 9 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(There, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) supplicated to Allah with tears until sunset.)

-Journey from Arafat toward Muzdalifah—after sunset on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(Returned by the Mazbain road.)

-From Muzdalifah

journey to al-Mash’ar al-Haram—after the dawn prayer on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(There, the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) engaged in remembrance and supplication with tears.)

-Journey from al-Mash’ar al-Haram toward Mina—before sunrise on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah.

-Stoning the pillars—from after sunrise until noon on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(The sun had become intensely hot at that time.)

-Sermon at Mina (the Day of Sacrifice)—before noon on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah.

-Sacrifice—after the sermon.

(Of the one hundred sacrificial camels, he slaughtered sixty-one with his own hands. He entrusted the rest to Ali. Then he had his head shaved.)

-Journey from Mina to Mecca—after having his head shaved on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(Upon reaching Mecca, he performed Tawaf of the Kaaba before the noon prayer.)

-Return from Mecca to Mina—the final day.

(He spent the night at Mina.)

-Second sermon at Mina—11 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(The subject of this sermon is mentioned in Abu Dawud.)

-Journey from Mina to Muhassab or Abtah—Tuesday, 13 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(At night, he went to Mecca and performed the Farewell Tawaf.)

-Departure from Mecca—the night between 13 and 14 Dhu al-Hijjah.

(114) Arrival of the delegation from Nakha—mid-Muharram, 11 AH.

(The last delegation to arrive during the lifetime of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him).)

(115) Orders for Usama’s army to set out—26 Safar, 11 AH.

(The last military expedition ordered by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him).)

(116) Onset of the Messenger’s final illness—the latter part of Safar, 11 AH (possibly 29 Safar).

(According to the reliable view, the illness lasted thirteen days.)

(117) The illness became severe (he stayed in Aisha’s room for seven days until his death).

(118) The last congregational prayer and final sermon in the Prophet’s Mosque—Thursday’s noon prayer, five days before his death.

(Several sermons are mentioned in different hadiths. However, it is likely that he said all those things in this same sermon.)

(119) Death—before noon on Monday, 12 Rabi al-Awwal, AH.

(Everyone agrees that it was Monday. However, there is disagreement about the date. Some say the 1st, some the 2nd, and others even the 13th.)

(120) Burial (a grave was prepared in Aisha’s room)—the night between 13 and 14 Rabi al-Awwal.

(The real issue is that it is conclusively established that 9 Dhu al-Hijjah was a Friday. Calculated on that basis, it is highly unlikely for 12 Rabi al-Awwal to have fallen on any day other than Monday. That would only be possible if three consecutive lunar months had thirty days each. Some, however, say that although rare, it is possible. Moreover, because of weather conditions, a one-day difference in sighting the moon in Mecca and Medina is also possible.)

Appendix 2

Events that occurred first and before all others

-Beginning of prophethood: 9 Rabi al-Awwal, birth year or age 41.

-Beginning of the revelation of the Quran: Surah al-Alaq, 18 Ramadan, first year of prophethood.

-The first person to accept Islam and join the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) as a companion.

1. Among both women and men together, and among women alone, Khadijah was the first.

2. Among mature-minded, conscious free men, Abu Bakr was the first.

3. Among young men, Ali was the first.

4. Among the enslaved, Zayd ibn Harithah was the first (the Messenger’s slave, later freed).

-The first woman after Khadijah to accept Islam: Lubaba bint al-Harith. She was the wife of Abbas.

-The first to accept Islam during the preaching centered at Arqam’s house: Aqil ibn Bukayr.

-The first center of the Islamic movement: Dar al-Arqam (Arqam’s house), located on Mount Safa.

-The first public sermon: on Mount Safa, in the third year of prophethood.

The first verse that enraged the disbelievers—

(*******)

-The first Companion after the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) to publicly declare his Islam was Khabbab ibn al-Aratt al-Tamimi.

-The first complete Islamic family: the family of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq.

-The first woman to grow up from childhood in the care of Muslim parents: Aisha.

-The first unintentional killing motivated by Islamic zeal: a disbeliever was killed by Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas. The incident was as follows: the Muslims had gone outside Mecca to pray. When the disbelievers harassed them, Sa’d threw a bone at them. It struck one disbeliever, who died instantly.

-According to the words of the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him), the first Muslim couple to migrate in the path of Allah after Abraham and Lot were Ruqayyah, the Messenger’s daughter, and her husband Uthman, who migrated to Abyssinia.

-The first flag raised in the history of the Islamic movement: the flag raised by Buraydah al-Aslami. At that time, he was migrating.

-The first Companion to accept Islam by loudly proclaiming the Kalimah publicly in front of the Kaaba and suffer a mass beating by the disbelievers was Abu Dharr al-Ghifari.

-The first person to strongly proclaim his acceptance of Islam was Umar. -The person through whose acceptance of Islam prayer first began at the Kaaba was Umar.

-The person whose acceptance of Islam first made the disbelievers realize that the Islamic movement had become powerful was Hamzah.

-The first Muslim leader from Medina to be beaten by the disbelievers of Mecca: Sa’d ibn Muadh.

-The first Muslim to attain martyrdom in the Sacred Sanctuary: al-Harith ibn Abi Halah.

-The first Muslim woman to attain martyrdom under extreme persecution: Sumayyah, wife of Yasir and mother of Ammar.

-The first person to attempt to annul the disbelievers’ boycott pact against Banu Hashim: Hisham ibn Amr ibn Rabiah.

-The first Muslim whose eye was sacrificed in the path of Islam: Uthman ibn Madhun. When he objected to one of Labid’s anti-Islamic poems at the Quraysh assembly, his eye was pierced.

-The first Muslim to migrate to Medina: Abu Salamah.

-The first apostate, or person to abandon Islam: Ubayd ibn Jahsh, who had migrated to Abyssinia. There, he became a Christian.

-The first to shoot an arrow in defense of Islam: Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas. In the army led by Abd al-Harith, he shot an arrow at the enemy. However, no one was killed or wounded.

-The first to wield a sword in defense of Islam: al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam.

-The first emigrant in the second migration to Abyssinia: Jafar ibn Abu Talib.

-The first young man of Medina influenced by the Messenger’s preaching: Suwayd ibn Samit.

-The first Ansari Companion to die in Medina after the Hijrah: Kulthum ibn al-Hidam, in whose house at Quba the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) stayed for several days after the Hijrah.

-The first personal killing of a woman carried out on the basis of Islamic honor: Asma bint Marwan al-Khatamiyyah. This woman constantly incited members of her tribe against the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and spread slander. At one point, her Muslim brother, Umayr ibn Adi al-Khatami, became enraged and killed her. (Ramadan, 2 AH)

-The first personal killing of a man carried out on the basis of Islamic honor: the Jew Abu Gafla. He was engaged in extreme false propaganda against the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) and the Muslims. Alim ibn Umayr al-Ansari became enraged and killed him.

-The first Islamic teacher appointed in Medina: the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) sent Musab ibn Umayr, accompanied by Ibn Umm Maktum, to Medina with the delegation of the Ansar. (14th year of prophethood)

The first Ansari Companion to pledge allegiance at the Second Pledge of Aqabah: Bara ibn Marur.

-The first collective Quran-learning gathering in Medina: held at the Mosque of Banu Riqah. (Probably this was not a complete mosque, but merely a place for prayer.)

-The first complete mosque built: the Quba Mosque, constructed from 8 to 11 Rabi al-Awwal in the first year AH.

-The first Friday prayer led by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): held in the area of the Banu Salim tribe on 12 Rabi al-Awwal of the first year AH. There were one hundred worshippers.

-The first instance in Medina of an entire tribe accepting Islam together: Banu Abd al-Ashhal. Only one person from this tribe accepted Islam somewhat later.

-The first military unit to go out on patrol on behalf of the Islamic state: the unit formed under Hamzah’s leadership patrolled as far as Saif al-Bahr in the seventh month after the Hijrah.

-The first standard-bearer within the Islamic defense system: Abu Mursad al-Ghanawi.

-The Messenger’s first direct military and political action: the expedition of Waddan, or Abwa. It took place in the twelfth month after the Hijrah.

-The first acting governor appointed by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) in Medina: Sa’d ibn Ubadah (during the Waddan expedition).

-The honor of being the first to fly a flag on the Messenger’s mount: Hamzah, during the Waddan expedition.

-The first aggressive action against the Islamic state on behalf of Quraysh: the raid by Karz ibn Jabir al-Fihri (Rabi al-Awwal, 2 AH).

-The first border clash in which an enemy was killed: a disbeliever was killed by an arrow shot by Waqid ibn Abdullah al-Tamimi, a member of the patrol in the Nakhla region. (Rajab, 2 AH)

-The first instance of bringing all the spoils and prisoners to Medina: the aforementioned incident in the Nakhla region.

-Beginning of the Adhan: in the second year AH.

-The first Adhan at the Kaaba: given by Bilal at the conquest of Mecca.

-The first claimant to false prophethood: Musaylimah the Liar.

-The first written letter of safe-conduct issued by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): for Suraqah ibn Jusham, during the journey of the Hijrah.

-The world’s first formal written federal constitution: written and promulgated by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) in Medina in the first year AH.

-The first alliance treaty of the Islamic state outside Medina: with Amr ibn Fahshi al-Damari, leader of Banu Damrah, or with the Banu Damrah tribe.

-The first to be crucified and attain martyrdom for accepting Islam: Khubayb ibn Adi and Zayd ibn Dathinah, at Tan’im near Mecca.

-The first rebellious and treacherous activity by the Jews in Medina: a Jewish-Muslim clash after Banu Qaynuqa publicly stripped a Muslim woman naked in the marketplace.

-The first free Islamic camp: the camp established by Abu Basir and Abu Jandal at Saif al-Bahr.

-The first person to accept Islam at the conquest of Mecca: Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith ibn Abd al-Muttalib.

-The first formal battle: the Battle of Badr (Ramadan, 2 AH).

-The first battle in which the Ansar and Muhajirun participated together: the Battle of Badr.

-The first three Muslim Mujahideen to fight on the field of Badr: Ali, Hamzah, and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith ibn Abd al-Muttalib.

-The first enemy killed in the Battle of Badr: Aswad ibn Abd al-Asad.

-The first martyr in the Battle of Badr: Mihjah, the freed slave of Umar ibn al-Khattab.

-The first messenger to Medina bearing the good news of victory at Badr: Zayd ibn Harithah.

-The first Eid al-Fitr prayer: 1 Shawwal, 2 AH.

-The first envoy of the Islamic state to be killed en route: al-Harith ibn Umayr al-Azdi. Shurahbil ibn Amr al-Ghassani, the ruler of Syria, killed him.

-The first title of valor bestowed by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): the title “Sword of Allah,” given to Khalid ibn al-Walid (Battle of Mutah, 8 AH).

-The first use of a seal on official letters and documents: 1 Muharram, 7 AH.

-The first political arbitration under Islamic law: held between the Islamic state and Banu Qurayzah in the fifth year AH.

-The first Companion appointed as an arbitrator in the Islamic era: Sa’d ibn Muadh.

-The first royal gift sent to the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): a gift sent by the Negus.

-The first gift from an Arab polytheist accepted by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): Abu Sufyan (during the period of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah).

-The first former slave appointed as a military commander: Zayd ibn Harithah (Battle of Mutah).

-The first battle in which one-fifth was set aside for the Bayt al-Mal: the battle of Banu Qaynuqa or Banu Qurayzah.

-The first incident of killing a disbeliever who had pronounced the Kalimah Tayyibah: Nahik ibn Mardus was killed by Usamah ibn Zayd during the expedition against Juhaynah. (Ramadan, 7 AH)

-The first time a large majority of the Muslims were temporarily overcome by indecision: during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

-The first person killed by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): al-Harith ibn al-Zimmah (Battle of Uhud).

-The first martyr destined for Paradise who never had the opportunity to pray or fast even once: Usayrim. This man of the Banu Abd al-Ashhal tribe accepted Islam on the day of the Battle of Uhud, immediately took part in jihad, and attained martyrdom.

-The first martyr to establish the practice of praying before death: Khubayb.

-The first martyr in the incident of Bi’r Ma’unah: Haram ibn Milhan (the maternal uncle of Anas).

-The first Salat al-Khawf (Prayer of Fear) was performed: in the battle of Usfan or Dhat al-Riqa.

-The first worshipper who did not abandon prayer despite having three arrows lodged in his body: Abbad ibn Bishr (during the Battle of Dhat al-Riqa).

-The first apostate in Medina: al-Harith ibn Suwayd ibn Samit. Although he had participated as a Muslim in the Battle of Uhud, he later became an apostate. He killed Mujazzar ibn Ziyad al-Balawi and fled to Mecca. Later, when he came to Medina, he was arrested and killed.

-The first Muslim accidentally killed by another Muslim on the battlefield: Hisham ibn Isabah (at the hands of Ubadah ibn Samit).

-The first enemy spy to be captured and killed: during the Battle of Banu al-Mustaliq.

-The first young Muslim to ask the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) for permission to kill his hypocrite father: Talhah ibn Abdullah ibn Ubayy.

-The first person to report information about the incident involving the slander against Aisha: the mother of Mistah ibn Uthathah.

-The first witnesses in support of Aisha’s chastity: among the men, Usamah ibn Zayd; among the women, Barirah; and among the Messenger’s wives, Zaynab bint Jahsh.

-The first application of the Sharia-prescribed punishment for accusing someone of adultery: against Hassan ibn Thabit, Mistah ibn Uthathah, and Hamnah bint Jahsh.

-The first battle in which the Muslims missed multiple prayers consecutively: the Battle of the Trench.

-The first successful diplomatic effort to weaken the enemy: undertaken through Nuaim ibn Masud during the Battle of the Trench.

-The first Muslim archer to defeat a group of bandits single-handedly: Salamah ibn al-Akwa.

-The first incident of spontaneous poetry recited by the Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him): when the Muslim army scattered during the Battle of Hunayn, the Messenger was left alone. He then rode his white mule and continued reciting aloud:

(*************)

That is, “I am undoubtedly a prophet. I am a descendant of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib.”

– First appointment of officials for the zakat department: Muḥarram, 9 AH.

– The first Muslim army to use cannons to demolish a fortress: during the expedition to Ṭāʾif.

– The first exchange of prisoners of war, between the Islamic government of Madinah and the people of Makkah: Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ and ʿUtbah ibn Ghazwān were freed in exchange for the two joint prisoners captured during the Nakhlah expedition, ʿAttāb ibn ʿAbdullāh and al-Ḥakam ibn Qaysār.

– The first battle in which the Muhājirūn were allotted shares of horses: the Battle of Banū Qurayẓah.

– The first command to collect jizyah: revealed shortly before the Battle of Tabūk.

– The first agreement concerning jizyah: with the ruler of Dūmat al-Jandal (during the Tabūk expedition).

– The first treaty for the payment of a substantial amount of jizyah: the Christians of Najrān pledged to provide the Islamic government annually with two thousand garments and to lend military equipment when needed.

– The first and only person who experienced no hesitation or inner conflict whatsoever at the time of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyah: Ḥadrat Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq.

– The first person to console the Messenger during the Muslims’ hesitation regarding sacrifice and shaving their heads after the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyah: the Mother of the Believers, Ḥadrat Umm Salamah.

– The first poet to receive a gift from the Messenger: after the conquest of Makkah, Kaʿb ibn Zuhayr appeared and recited the poem entitled “Bānat Suʿād” to seek forgiveness, whereupon the Messenger gave him his own cloak as a gift.

– The first recitation of Qunūt al-Nāzilah by the Messenger: after the heartbreaking incidents of al-Rajīʿ and Biʾr Maʿūnah. In these two incidents, the enemies killed the skilled members of delegations sent for preaching and education. (4 AH)

– The first appearance of Muslim women on the battlefield: at the Battle of Uḥud (3 AH).

– The first ruler to accept Islam: Aṣḥam ibn Abjar, the king of Abyssinia.

– The first person whom the Messenger praised by saying that he was even nobler than the excellent reputation he had heard about him: Zayd al-Khayr, chief of the Ṭayy tribe, formerly named Zayd al-Khayl.

– The first non-Arab new Muslim to be crucified and killed for accepting Islam: Farwah al-Judhāmī, the Roman governor of northern Arabia stationed at a place called Muʿān.

– The first polytheist to challenge someone to single combat at the Battle of Uḥud: Ṭalḥah.

– The first Muslim to accept the challenge to single combat at the Battle of Uḥud: Ḥadrat ʿAlī.

– The first enemy killed at the Battle of Uḥud: Ṭalḥah.

– The first display of pride that the Messenger liked: Abū Dujānah’s proud, swaggering walk after receiving the Messenger’s sword at the Battle of Uḥud.

– The first Hajj in Islam: under the leadership of Ḥadrat Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq in the ninth year after Hijrah.

– The first battle outside Arabia: the Battle of Muʾtah (Jumādā al-Thāniyah, 8 AH).

– The first person from the Thaqīf tribe of Ṭāʾif to come to Madinah to learn the teachings of Islam: ʿUrwah ibn Masʿūd al-Thaqafī.

Appendix 3

The Gradual Growth of Manpower in the Islamic Movement

– The first associates in the Messenger’s Islamic organization: (1) Ḥadrat Khadījah, (2) Ḥadrat Abū Bakr, (3) Ḥadrat ʿAlī, (4) Ḥadrat Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, may Allah be pleased with them.

– The five people who accepted Islam at the first stage as a result of Ḥadrat Abū Bakr’s preaching efforts: (1) Ḥadrat al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām, (2) Ḥadrat ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, (3) Ḥadrat ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf, (4) Ḥadrat Ṭalḥah ibn ʿUbaydullāh, (5) Ḥadrat Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ.

– The first 46 people to accept Islam during the first three years of the call: (1) Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt al-Tamīmī, (2) Saʿīd ibn Zayd (he accepted Islam even before the movement centered at Dār al-Arqam), (3) Fāṭimah bint al-Khaṭṭāb, (4) Lubābah bint al-Ḥārith (the first woman to accept Islam after Ḥadrat Khadījah), wife of Ḥadrat al-ʿAbbās, (5) ʿAbdullāh ibn Masʿūd (according to some, he was the sixth person to accept Islam), (6) ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn (the fourteenth person to accept Islam), (7) al-Arqam ibn Abī al-Arqam al-Makhzūmī (the eleventh or twelfth person to accept Islam; according to another view, the seventh; according to Ibn Ḥajar, he accepted Islam at Dār al-Arqam together with ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn, ʿUbaydah ibn al-Ḥārith, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf, and Abū Salamah), (8) Abū Salamah ibn ʿAbd al-Asad al-Makhzūmī, (9) Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ (he accepted Islam before Ḥadrat ʿUmar), (10) Qudāmah ibn Maẓʿūn, (11) ʿUbaydah ibn al-Ḥārith ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, (12) Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib, (13) Asmāʾ bint ʿUmays, (14) ʿAbdullāh ibn Jaḥsh, (15) Abū Aḥmad ibn Jaḥsh, (16) Sāʾib ibn ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn, (17) al-Muṭṭalib ibn Azhar, (18) Ramlah bint Abī ʿAwf, wife of al-Muṭṭalib ibn Azhar, (19) ʿUmayr ibn Abī Waqqāṣ (brother of Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ), (20) Asmāʾ bint Abī Bakr, (21) ʿĀʾishah bint Abī Bakr, (22) Ḥadrat ʿAyyāsh ibn Abī Rabīʿah (brother of Abū Jahl), (23) Asmāʾ (wife of ʿAyyāsh), (24) Sulayṭ ibn ʿAmr (according to Ḥadrat Abū Bakr’s account, he was a Muslim even before the Dār al-Arqam period), (25) Masʿūd ibn Rabīʿah (one who accepted Islam before the Dār al-Arqam period), (26) Khunays ibn Ḥudhāfah, (27) ʿĀmir ibn Rabīʿah, (28) Ḥāṭib ibn al-Ḥārith al-Jumaḥī, (29) Fāṭimah bint Muḥallal, wife of Ḥāṭib, (30) al-Khaṭṭāb ibn al-Ḥārith, (31) Fukayhah, wife of al-Khaṭṭāb, (32) Muʿammar ibn al-Ḥārith (he accepted Islam before Ḥadrat ʿUmar and was the one who taught his sister the Qur’an; according to al-Wāqidī, his rank was after the ten; according to Ibn Khuzaimah, after the thirty-eight), (33) Nuʿaym ibn ʿAbdullāh, a member of Banū ʿAdī (the fourth or fifth person to accept Islam, but he concealed his faith out of fear of his father), (34) Khālid ibn Saʿīd ibn al-ʿĀṣ (according to Imām al-Zuhrī, his rank was forty-fourth), (35) Āminah, or Ḥamīnah, bint Khalaf, wife of Khālid ibn Saʿīd, (36) Ḥāṭib ibn ʿAmr, (37) Wāqid ibn ʿAbdullāh, an ally of Banū ʿAdī, (39) Khālid ibn Ḥizām (Ḥadrat Khadījah’s nephew), (40) ʿĀmir ibn Mālik (the first to pledge allegiance at Dār al-Arqam), (41) ʿĀqil ibn Bukayr (ranked thirty-fifth or thirty-sixth), (42) Khālid ibn Bukayr, (43) ʿĀmir ibn Bukayr, (44) ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir (he accepted Islam together with his father Yāsir), (45) Sumayyah (ʿAmmār’s mother), (46) Suhayb ibn Sinān al-Rūmī, the freed slave of Ibn Jadʿān.

– Number of the first emigrants to Abyssinia: 12 men and 4 women, 16 in total.

– Total number during the second migration to Abyssinia: 83. The number of those who remained in Makkah at that time must have been at least equal to the number who went to Abyssinia. Thus, the total number would have exceeded 150.

– The number of the early standard-bearers of the Islamic call in Madinah was 8 in total. They were the first to pledge allegiance to the Messenger: (1) al-Barāʾ ibn Maʿrūr, (2) Kaʿb ibn Mālik, (3) ʿAbd al-Haytham Mālik ibn al-Tayyihān, (4) Asʿad ibn Zurārah, (5) Rāfiʿ ibn Mālik, (6) Quṭbah ibn ʿĀmir, (7) ʿUqbah ibn ʿĀmir, (8) Jābir ibn ʿAbdullāh. According to the well-known account, six people took the first pledge at al-ʿAqabah. According to al-Wāqidī, Asʿad ibn Zurārah and Dhakwān ibn ʿAbd al-Qays accepted Islam before the first pledge at al-ʿAqabah.

– Participants in the Second Pledge of al-ʿAqabah: 12 people took part in total. The Anṣār mentioned above returned, except Jābir ibn ʿAbdullāh, and brought five more people with them. The newcomers were: (1) Muʿādh ibn al-Ḥārith, (2) ʿAwf ibn al-Ḥārith, (3) Dhakwān ibn ʿAbd al-Qays, (4) Yazīd ibn Thaʿlabah, (5) ʿUwaymir ibn Mālik.

– Participants in the Second Pledge of al-ʿAqabah: this time, a total of 73 men and women accepted Islam.

– Total number of Muslims in Makkah toward the end of the Makkan period (at the time of the Third Pledge of al-ʿAqabah): besides the 83 Muhājirūn in Abyssinia and the 73 Anṣār who took the pledge at al-ʿAqabah, there were some Muslims in Makkah. Similarly, there may have been some Muslims in Madinah who might not have attended the Hajj in the thirteenth year of the Prophethood. Thus, the approximate total could have been 250. If the new Muslims of Najrān, Ghifār (nearly half of the Ghifār tribe accepted Islam within a short time), and Yemen are also included, the total number of Muslims in Arabia would not have been less than 300.

– Approximate number of Muslims in Madinah immediately after the Hijrah: it is well known that one hundred Muslims participated in the first Friday prayer held in the area of the Banū Sālim tribe. If the women and sick people who could not participate are included, the Muslim population of Madinah must have been at least 300. It is also well known that 90 people participated in the very first gathering convened by the Messenger to establish brotherhood between the Anṣār and the Muhājirūn. Half of them were from each group. Of the Anṣār, this gathering probably included only the well-off, who could accommodate at least one Muhājir within their respective financial means. Women did not participate. Thus, this gathering also gives reason to believe that the above estimate is correct.

– Approximate number of Muslims in Madinah at the time of the Battle of Badr: it is commonly known that Islam spread extremely rapidly among the Anṣār of Madinah, and there was no obstacle to this among the Aws and Khazraj tribes. It is also well known that, during the period between the Hijrah and the Battle of Badr, Muhājirūn continued to arrive in groups of one or two, and their total number was by no means small. Two hundred Muhājirūn were with the Messenger on the expedition to Buwāṭ. Similarly, on the expedition to Dhū al-ʿUshayrah, their number was approximately 150 to 200. In all these early expeditions, the Messenger employed only the Muhājirūn.

For according to the pledge at al-ʿAqabah, the Anṣār were obliged to participate only in defensive activities within Madinah. Needless to say, if the number of Muhājirūn who joined the battle was 200, the total number would have been somewhat higher. It may be taken as at least 250. [Generally, in any population, the proportion of men fit for military service would be between one-fourth and one-fifth. But the condition of the Muhājirūn in Madinah differed for two reasons. First, in Arab tribal society, normally every man was a fighter, with very few exceptions. Moreover, because of the Muhājirūn’s faith-based and revolutionary motivation, they lived constantly amid the struggle between life and death. It can virtually be said that there were no exceptions. Furthermore, the Muhājirūn did not all come with their families. Few women were present, and most elderly men had remained in Makkah. We have made this estimate for these two reasons.] The number of Anṣār should have been twice this. In other words, the total number may have been 700 or 800. [Various historical accounts indicate that the Messenger conducted three censuses in Madinah. The population was 500 the first time, 700–800 the second time, and slightly more than 1,000 the third time. We believe that the first census may have been conducted during the resettlement of the Muhājirūn or at the beginning of defensive preparations. Thereafter, manpower may have been reassessed when undertaking a serious measure, such as intercepting the Quraysh commercial caravan returning from Syria. The third census was probably conducted one year later, when Abu Sufyan’s threat of retaliation was faced.]

Many people may be confused by the number of Muslim fighters at the Battle of Badr. However, according to our research, when the Messenger set out from Madinah with 314 companions, he did not anticipate any formal military confrontation. His actual objective was to intercept the commercial caravan. Moreover, because preparations had to be made in haste, the number of mounts and weapons was very small. Yet the Muslim inhabitants of Madinah could have arranged several times more mounts and weapons than this. It would also have been possible to gather more fighters than the number assembled. Proof of this is that a total of 86 Muhājirūn participated in the Battle of Badr, whereas in some earlier patrol expeditions the total number of Muhājirūn had reached 200. Thus, our estimate is that around the time of the Battle of Badr, the total Muslim population of Madinah was approximately 700–800. Of these, 400–500 able fighters could have been gathered. But the entire military strength could not participate in the Battle of Badr, because no order had been given for the entire military force to join. Only a force went with the Messenger immediately to achieve a limited objective.

The expedition against Banū Qaynuqāʿ also confirms the validity of our estimate. Immediately after the Battle of Badr, this obstinate and barbaric Jewish tribe was besieged, and, after being defeated, agreed to leave Madinah. It is reported that the tribe’s fighting force consisted of 600 young men. It may be estimated that the Muslim army needed at least 400–500 fighters to keep them under siege for 15 days and defeat them.

– Overall Muslim population throughout the world at the time of the Battle of Badr: approximate. If, in addition to the 700–800 people in Madinah, we add the Muhājirūn residing in Abyssinia and the scattered Muslims present in Najrān, Yemen, the Ghifār tribe, Bahrain, and other regions and tribes, the total manpower would probably have been 1,000 or somewhat more.

– Muslim manpower in various battles and expeditions: [The manpower of the Islamic movement in later periods can be determined by examining the numbers who participated in its battles and expeditions.]

– Battle of Uḥud — 650, or according to another view, 700 [after the departure of the 300 hypocritical companions of ʿAbdullāh ibn Ubayy…..].

– Second Badr expedition — no battle took place — 1,510.

– Expedition to Dūmat al-Jandal — no battle took place — 1,000.

– Battle of the Trench — 3,000.

– Journey to Ḥudaybiyah — 1,400.

– Battle of Khaybar — 1,420, including 20 women.

– Battle of Muʾtah — 3,000.

– Expedition to Makkah — 10,000.

– Battle of Ḥunayn and siege of Ṭāʾif — 12,000.

– Expedition to Tabūk — 30,000.

– Companions accompanying the Farewell Hajj — 124,000, or according to another view, 144,000. [Some narrations give a higher number.]

– When reviewing the growing manpower of the Islamic movement, it must also be remembered that women were included from the very beginning in the Messenger’s revolutionary struggle. They too fulfilled their respective duties in turning the course of history. They were included in the ordeal of Makkah. Many of them also accompanied the migration. They even assisted in the anticipated jihād. Indeed, it is a matter of great honor for women that the first person to believe in the Messenger, console him, and provide him with complete support was also a woman—namely, Ḥadrat Khadījah. In fact, the comprehensive fundamental change that the Messenger undertook could not have been implemented without women’s support. If the family sphere remains detached from a struggle, the progress of the work becomes extremely slow. The Islamic movement led by the Messenger received inspiration, money, labor, and sacrifice from women to the same full extent as from men. In reality, a separate article is needed on this subject. For now, however, I am postponing it. Here I merely wish to show briefly what proportion women represented in the Islamic movement. Of the first 56 people to accept Islam during the first three years, 12 were women. In the first and second migrations to Abyssinia, their numbers were respectively 5 and 17; two women from the Anṣār also participated in the assembly of the Third Pledge at al-ʿAqabah. Among those who migrated to Madinah before the Messenger, there were also at least ten women.

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