Preface

Islam is, in essence, a self-contained system of state. The exalted responsibility of giving this system of state practical form was fulfilled by Islam’s own Great Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him). During the long twenty-three years of his prophethood, all the laws and regulations revealed concerning the collective life of humanity were implemented by him within a fully fledged state structure. Governance and administration, legislation, maintenance of social order, dispensation of justice, provision of state defense, and every other important task were carried out by him in accordance with those same laws and regulations. Thus, within the twenty-three years of his prophethood, he established a lasting foundation for the Islamic system of state.

After the passing of the Great Prophet (peace be upon him), the ideal state of Islam—the Khilafat-e-Rashida—was built upon that lasting foundation. Hazrat Abu Bakr, Hazrat Umar, Hazrat Uthman, and Hazrat Ali (may Allah be pleased with them), these four close companions of the Great Prophet (peace be upon him), carefully and lovingly organized and developed this state system of the prophetic tradition. Not only that, they extended its boundaries beyond the limits of the Arabian Peninsula, across the vast regions of the whole of Iran and the Roman Empire. In fact, it has been irrefutably demonstrated that in the history of humankind, this is the only system of state capable of writing a golden chapter. However astonishing the systems and devices modern political scientists may have devised, no other method has achieved such immense success in promoting the welfare of humanity as this caliphate of the prophetic tradition. This is an historical truth.

Unfortunately, this caliphate of the prophetic tradition endured in the world for only thirty years. Thereafter, the curse of monarchy and despotism descended upon the entire Muslim nation. The dark curtain of jahiliyyah covered their golden future. Its aftermath continues today in country after country throughout the Muslim world. Moreover, in recent times, a new jahiliyyah called democracy, invented by the Jews and Christians of the West, has been added to it. Its poisonous consequences have now cast the entire Muslim world into the whirlpool of political crisis. Far from solving any of their problems, the systems and devices of the modern age are instead giving birth to ever-new problems and rendering the entire Muslim society diseased.

In this situation, the need for extensive discussion in Muslim society today concerning Islam’s ideal system of state—the Khilafat-e-Rashida—has become exceedingly urgent. It has become absolutely necessary to make clear to Muslim society today the truth that the only cure for all the political ailments of Muslims is the caliphate of the prophetic tradition, not any other system or device. It was precisely in response to this need that the great Islamic thinker and philosopher, Hazrat Maulana Muhammad Abdur Rahim (may Allah have mercy on him), wrote this present book entitled Khilafat-e-Rashida. In this book, rather than devoting excessive attention, in the conventional manner, to the life histories of Islam’s four caliphs, he has sought to present, as extensively as possible, the character, features, and exemplary aspects of their rule and administration. In this respect, it is an original work in Bengali on the Khilafat-e-Rashida.

After two editions of the book had been published between 1975 and 1980, the author himself extensively revised various parts of it. In the present edition, in addition to correcting printing errors, much relevant information has been added. This has further enhanced the book’s excellence. We firmly believe that the present edition will be more warmly received by Bengali-speaking readers and will make a substantial contribution toward guiding the misguided people of this country to the right path.

This is our humble prayer: may Almighty Allah accept the author’s religious service and, in return, grant him a place in Jannatul Firdaus.

Muhammad Habibur Rahman

Chairman

Maulana Abdur Rahim Foundation

Dhaka, July 1995

Opening Remarks

Through extensive study, thought, research, reflection, and the writing of books on Islam’s complete way of life, the inspiration naturally arose in my mind to devote myself to giving it practical form. In particular, the idealistic code presented by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), as Allah’s last Prophet and Messenger, was not merely a matter of idealism; rather, it was a fully practical way of life and a successful program for building society. Whatever he received from Allah the Exalted, he implemented in its entirety. This was his natural course of action. When he departed from this world forever, he left behind, on the one hand, the Word of Allah—the Glorious Qur’an—compiled with the utmost care by his own hand, and, as the fruit of his lifelong struggle and striving, a state and society. The Qur’an and Sunnah stand eternally radiant before us in written form, and they will remain so forever. A true picture of the state and society he established also remains on the pages of history. In practical reality, however, it can almost be said that they no longer exist today. Nevertheless, for sound-minded and thoughtful people throughout the world in general, and especially for those who have faith in Islam and the Messenger, the state and society established by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) remain even today one of the principal sources of inspiration. They have still become an ideal goal for such people, and will remain so forever—this is beyond doubt.

The state established by the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) was given a new name after his death, in accordance with his own declaration: “Khilafat-e-Rashida.” In reality, the Khilafat-e-Rashida is precisely that which is set forth in principle by the Qur’an and Sunnah—the continuation, the second chapter, of the state and society that the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) himself built and governed through the tireless striving and struggle of his twenty-three-year prophetic life. If the Qur’an and Sunnah are the seed, then the “Khilafat-e-Rashida” is the complete tree adorned with its branches, foliage, flowers, and fruits. The era of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), moreover, is the trunk of this tree. At this stage, I decided to undertake extensive study, thought, and research and to illuminate its true picture in the Bengali language—that was twenty years ago. Thereafter, whenever certain matters and aspects became clear to me, I wrote and published them in essay form. Even after arrangements had been made to publish them as a book, I had to continue writing on several aspects in order to complete it. Consequently, Khilafat-e-Rashida did not become a book written continuously at one time; rather, it is a compilation of writings composed and published or unpublished at different times and stages. Even so, I offer hundreds of thousands of thanks to Allah the Exalted that it has ultimately become possible to present it to readers in book form.

This book was first published in January 1975. After it sold out within a short time, its second edition was published in July 1980. This is due to Allah’s boundless mercy.

I hope that, like my other books, this one too will be appreciated by the learned community and will initiate a new inspiration in the field of idealism.

—Muhammad Abdur Rahim

(a)

The Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) said:

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Those among you who remain alive after me will witness many disagreements. In such a situation, your duty will be to follow my example and the example of the rightly guided Caliphs. Hold fast to it firmly—never let it go. (Musnad Ahmad, Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah)

(b)

After the identity and praise of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) are mentioned in a lengthy Hadith Qudsi, these words of Allah the Exalted are quoted as an identification of his Companions:

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After the disappearance of Hazrat Muhammad, his community will call people toward the Great Truth and will administer justice and fairness with the true religion. I will honor those who help them. I will assist those who pray for them. Those who oppose them, rebel against them, or intend to snatch anything from their hands—I will surround them with utter misfortune. I will make the foremost of these people heirs to their prophets and make them callers toward Allah. They will enjoin truth and justice and forbid wrongdoing and falsehood. They will establish prayer, pay zakat, and fulfill their promises. Through them I will bring to completion the good whose beginning I initiated through the people of the first stage. This is exclusively a matter of My favor. I grant this favor to whomever I will. In truth, I am the Possessor of great favor. (Ibn Abi Hatim—from Wahb ibn Munabbih, in Ibn Kathir’s tafsir.)

Establishing the Foundation of the Islamic State

The Universal Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him), was sent into the world as Allah the Exalted’s final Prophet and Messenger. The responsibility entrusted to him in this world may, in Islamic terminology, be expressed in one phrase: “Iqamat-e-Din.” Establishing Allah’s religion in its complete form was the fundamental responsibility of the final Prophet. It becomes immediately clear from this statement that he did not compose the “Din” himself; he received it from Allah. This “Din” was revealed to him by Allah through revelation. In this capacity, he was Allah’s Messenger. Alongside the fundamental propagation of the “revelation” received from Allah, properly explaining it and illuminating it through practical adherence in his own life were also among his responsibilities as a Prophet and Messenger. But for “Iqamat-e-Din,” this alone was not sufficient; implementing the laws and ordinances revealed by Allah fully in individual life and throughout the collective life of society was also his duty as a Prophet and Messenger. For this reason, the religious missionary effort he undertook took practical form and manifested itself as a complete state. In this respect, he was the first founder of the Islamic state and its people’s sole leader and head of state.

What modern political science understands by a state is fully reflected in the outcome of the Noble Prophet’s (peace be upon him) striving and struggle. A “state” is a political organization. This organization is established to fulfill the needs of human life, and its existence is preserved and made permanent in order to make life prosperous and better. A “state” is a superior product of human power. Wherever a large body of humanity generally occupies a specific geographical region, and the will of a particular class among a large number of people can, through their united strength, be made effective for the purpose of suppressing those who oppose it, there the state exists. In brief, the national entity formed as the political organization of a particular territory is called a state.

The following four things have been established from the definitions provided by political science as the essential components of a state: (1) people (population), (2) a defined territory, (3) sovereignty, and (4) an administrative apparatus or government.

The fruit of the Noble Messenger’s (peace be upon him) efforts to fulfill his responsibility, up to his arrival in Medina, contained all four of these essential components in full, even under the most minute analysis from the perspective of political science—although in its viewpoint and fundamental outlook, its nature was entirely different from every other state known to political science.

The State’s First Foundation

After the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) was chosen as Allah’s Messenger and Prophet, the revolutionary ideal of the religion of Islam that he first began proclaiming secretly and later publicly initiated a powerful reaction in the religious beliefs, moral character, economic system, and social and political life of the Quraysh of that time. The truth is that, as a result, all their interests, hopes, and aspirations were confronted with a grave challenge. For this reason, the Quraysh subjected the lives of the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) and the Muslims who believed in him to unbearable persecution and oppression. At last, following Allah the Exalted’s command, he decided to leave Makkah and proceed to Medina. At this time, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) twice obtained an oath of allegiance, or “bay‘ah,” from the Muslims of Medina who had come for the Hajj¹ {The practical and technical meaning of the word is “an oath of allegiance.”} These two bay‘ahs are known in history as the “First Aqabah Bay‘ah” and the “Second Aqabah Bay‘ah”²{The full account of the ‘Aqabah Bay‘ah is as follows: The people of Medina gathered at the place called ‘Aqabah during the third watch of the night and eagerly awaited the arrival of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him). Shortly afterward, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) arrived there accompanied by his uncle Abbas (who had not yet accepted Islam). Abbas spoke first: “O people of the Khazraj tribe! You know very well that Muhammad (peace be upon him) is a highly honored and respected person among us. We alone protect him from his enemies. But now he himself has decided to leave this city (Makkah) and join you, because you are inviting him to your city. If you are strong enough to protect him fully and have the courage to save him from the hands of his enemies, then do so. Otherwise, you should say ‘no’ to him now. Muhammad is currently under our protection. Do not take him away and then hand him over to his enemies.” They replied, “We have heard you. Now that he is the Messenger, let him speak. If you wish to take any pledge from us regarding Allah’s command or regarding yourself, then accept it.” Thereafter, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) first recited part of the Glorious Qur’an. He presented the condition that they accept worshiping Allah and associate no partner with Him. Then he said, “I take a pledge from you that you will assist, support, and stand by me just as you do by your women and children.” Immediately, taking the hand of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), they exclaimed, “Yes, by the oath of that Great Being who sent you with the true and correct religion, we shall assist and protect you in precisely this way, just as we do our families.” Then all of them said together, “We pledge that we will listen to you and acknowledge your allegiance under all circumstances—whether there is hardship and danger, ease and prosperity, or want and deprivation; and wherever we may be, we will always and under all circumstances speak the truth, fear no one, and care nothing for any oppression.”

Then they said, “A question has arisen in our minds. It will not happen, will it, that when Allah the Exalted grants you victory, you will abandon us and rejoin your own people?” Hearing this, the Prophet (peace be upon him) smiled gently and said:

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No, you may rest assured about this. Whoever you fight, I too will fight them. Whoever you make peace with, I too will make peace with them. Your responsibility is my responsibility. Your honor and dignity will be regarded as my honor and dignity. And my life and death will be with you.

In fact, through this conversation at Aqabah, a social and collective contract had effectively been concluded. Through it, the people of Medina accepted the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) simultaneously as their religious and political leader and head of state, and at their invitation he proceeded to Medina. The Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) became their sole leader.} is written in letters of gold. At this time, approximately seventy-five Muslims from the two major rival tribes of Medina, Aws and Khazraj, including two women, united and pledged allegiance to the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him). In this bay‘ah, they pledged not only to accept and follow the religion of Islam completely, but also to acknowledge the comprehensive leadership of the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him), arrange complete security for him, and be prepared to fight to the death under his leadership against the opposing side. Moreover, they invited the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) to go to Medina with his companions and reiterated their promise to provide them with a place to live there. The people of Medina had invited the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) not as a “settler-asylum seeker,” but as Allah’s Messenger and representative, and as their overall leader and administrator. Accepting this invitation, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) then announced his decision to migrate to Medina with his companions. In fact, the first condition for the emergence of a state is the existence of a social and collective contract (Social Contract); this ‘Aqabah bay‘ah accepted by the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) from the representative inhabitants of Medina was the practical form of that contract. In reality, the first foundation of the Islamic state was laid through this bay‘ah. Although this bay‘ah took place in a secluded mountain pass near Makkah, the territory specified for it was Medina. From this time, Medina began to be called Madinat al-Rasul—the Messenger’s Medina—or Madinat al-Islam—the central land of Islam. All the essential conditions mentioned in the latest Western political-science definition of a state were fully present here. From the bay‘ah made by the Muslims of Medina and the conversation between the two sides on this occasion, it is clearly evident that by inviting the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) to Medina, they had taken upon themselves the risk of a grave danger. They were fully prepared to endure it without hesitation. In other words, a small suburb seemed to be pushing itself into the face of the entire country’s extreme hostility and economic and social boycott. Of course, that was precisely what happened.

On the other hand, this bay‘ah was especially significant and dangerous for the people of Makkah. Although the Muslims had gathered at another place outside Makkah, through it they had become a force, a state, and a grave challenge to the unbelief, polytheism, anarchy, and lawlessness of the people of Makkah. In other words, for the people of Makkah it was not merely a religious danger; it appeared as a clear “political danger.” Since Medina was an important location on the trade route from Yemen to Syria, the Muslims’ establishment there as a state raised the fear that this route might be closed to them forever, or at least become fraught with danger. Yet this route was the principal link in the economic life of the Quraysh and other major tribes. The Quraysh had understood its consequences to the core. For this reason, they had already united and decided to extinguish the life-lamp of the Universal Prophet forever.

In a word, this bay‘ah was, on the one hand, the foundation stone of the first Islamic state organization, and on the other, it also established through it the foundation of an idealistic social organization. In known history, this alone constitutes a completely ideal-based state.

The Islamic State in Medina

With the Noble Messenger’s (peace be upon him) Hijrah in accordance with the Aqabah bay‘ah, Islam moved to Medina. What had initially been a seed now became a tree. What had been theory now became practical. What had initially been confined to mere verbal allegiance now became embodied through observance in daily activities and social and collective affairs. What had begun in Makkah advanced in Medina, passing through stages of progress step by step toward completion.

Upon reaching Medina, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) accomplished two important tasks at the very first stage. The first was to lay the foundation of a mosque. This mosque was not merely a place for performing the five daily prayers; it became a meeting center for the Muslim community. Centering his efforts on this place, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) began nurturing and developing an ideal-based social and collective force composed of people devoted to Islam. Around this mosque, he devoted himself fully to building citizens and a cadre of worker-leaders capable of administering a complete state on the basis of Islam’s great ideal. This mosque was the head-of-state building, the headquarters of the Supreme Commander, and the central office of the highest administrator.

The second task was to establish a bond of brotherhood between the Muhajirun and the Ansar. This was the practical implementation of the Qur’an’s clear instruction. The instruction is:

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The believers are brothers to one another; therefore, establish reconciliation and well-being among these brothers. And fear Allah collectively; it may be hoped that mercy will be shown to you.

Islam is a dynamic and timely great system that has brought the message of universal brotherhood for all humanity. By establishing the brotherhood described above, the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) laid the foundation of that vast universal humanism and initiated its practical course. Through this, he completely eliminated the limits of place, time, and geography, differences of language, and distinctions of lineage, blood, and tribe. Because of this fraternal relationship, the distinction between local and nonlocal people was also utterly shattered. By eliminating all material and worldly differences and distinctions, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) began building a Society of Universal Brotherhood.

The outlook of this fraternal society was that here no one is low and no one is high. No one is base and no one honored. No one is Ashraf and no one Atrāf. No one is noble-born and no one ignoble-born. Every person in this society is simply a brother possessing equal dignity and rights under Islam’s great ideal. “Muslim” is their only identity. Apart from this, they have no other identity.

In the second stage, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) transformed this spirit of brotherhood into an effective instrument for rebuilding and rehabilitating society. Every brother in the society he formed was fully prepared to make every necessary sacrifice for his other brother. Whoever possessed something would give all of it to one who possessed nothing. But this would not be ‘charity’—nor would it be a ‘favor.’ The recipient, on accepting it, would not become indebted to the giver, nor would he become an object of pity, humiliation, or disgrace. It was his duty. One would give something to his brother because giving was his duty. The brother would accept it with the attitude of helping his brother fulfill his duty. As a result, the difficult and complex problem of rehabilitating the large number of people who had arrived from Mecca destitute and deprived of everything was effortlessly solved in an unimaginably short time. Not only that, the newly established Islamic society and state as a whole became prosperous and affluent, and gained new strength. Every citizen received the incentive and opportunity to earn his own livelihood. Consequently, no one remained a ‘burden’ on or dependent upon anyone else.

In the third stage, the difficult responsibility of building unity, cohesion, and discipline out of the bosom of disintegration and disorder confronted the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him). In reality, this was a tremendous, mountain-like problem. The prophets and messengers of the past had also been unable to solve this problem. But the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) had to undertake it, and he accomplished it with extraordinary success and competence. His endeavor was to tear through the breast of weakness, incapacity, and powerlessness and raise a mighty tree of strength and ability. His aim was to eliminate mutual conflict and discrimination and create unbroken unity and solidarity. It was his duty to remove the icy coldness of death, restore the warmth, vitality, and activity of life, and build a new world. Allah Almighty has indicated this by saying:

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And We lifted from you your burdensome burden, which had weighed down your back.

In the fourth stage, his duty was to ‘manage the outside.’ Everything he had done up to that point could be called the work of managing the household. But merely managing the household does not complete one’s responsibility. After securing the internal unity and safety of Islamic society, two tasks confronted him in order to preserve it permanently. One was to protect Islamic society from the daily—and indeed perpetual—hostile attacks of the non-Muslim Jewish community living in the surrounding area. The second was to make proper and reliable arrangements for the complete restoration of this newly constructed palace of the Islamic state against the total assault of external enemies, and at the same time to open the highway for the extensive propagation of Islam throughout the world.

A state of disorder and anarchy prevailed in the city of Medina at that time. The two large and principal tribes there, Aws and Khazraj, were divided into nearly four factions. On the other hand, the ten Jewish tribes were independent of them. Centuries of enmity had made them mortal enemies of one another. Generally, several Arab tribes would secure the support of the Jews in order to fight their enemies. Other Arab tribes would obtain the assistance of several opposing tribes. Then the bloody wars that began would continue for generations and centuries. As a result, profound sorrow and suffering descended upon the lives of the ordinary people of Arabia. They were making every effort to escape this agonizing condition. For this reason, shortly before the Noble Prophet’s (peace be upon him) arrival in Medina, a large section of the people of Medina had decided to appoint Abdullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul as their king and ruler. The Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) was aware of the condition of the people of Medina. To change this situation, immediately after receiving the Pledge of Aqabah he appointed twelve members from the various tribes of Medina as naqibs, and in this way he strove to create reconciliation and unity among the mutually conflicting and disputing tribes. Yet every tribe in this tribal society was completely independent, possessed the right of self-administration, and was entirely autonomous in its internal affairs. Moreover, there was no administrative system or effective institution capable of keeping these tribes mutually connected and united. Nevertheless, through the efforts of the Islamic missionaries sent by the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him), large numbers of the people of Medina accepted Islam and joined Muslim society, although Islam had not yet attained the status of a political power in Medina.

After arriving in Medina, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) prepared a proclamation with the aim of ending this anarchic situation.¹ Historically, this proclamation is recorded as the ‘Constitution of Medina.’ Through this proclamation, Medina attained the status of a ‘city-state.’ On its basis, the utmost effort was made to create unity and solidarity, in particular, among all the scattered and fragmented tribes.

It is universally known that these people had never previously bowed their heads before any state power (coercive power). They had never been bound by the rules, discipline, and authority of a central power. Through this proclamation, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) organized and united them all under one law—that is, one God, one leadership, and one qiblah. In terms of individual rights, the Medina Declaration was a revolutionary step. Rights that had previously been enjoyed by an individual, a family, or a tribe became, after this proclamation took effect, the rights of the general public. Thus, on the one hand, tribal anarchy came to an end, and on the other, the foundation of the Islamic state in the true sense was established.

According to the provisions of the Medina Pact, all administrative, legal, and criminal or judicial authority was entrusted to Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him). Yet there was a vast difference between the Prophet of the world and the other rulers of the world in this regard. He did not assume this broad and absolute authority as an arbitrary and insolent ruler. No notion whatsoever of personal interest, personal sovereignty, or personal domination could be entertained concerning him; rather, his state policy was founded upon elevated moral and humanitarian ideals. He never for a moment thought of himself as a sovereign, nor did he present himself publicly in that manner. The law he applied to others, he regarded as applicable to himself just as it was to others. Indeed, no parallel to this can be found in the political history of the world.

The Medina Pact was divided into two parts. The first part consisted of 23 clauses and related entirely to the Muhajirun and the Ansar. The second part concerned the rights and duties of the Jews of Medina.

According to this pact, the decision and judgment of the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) were final in all matters of society and the state. The highest judicial authority also belonged to him. Upon accepting Islam, the Muhajirun and Ansar had acknowledged the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) not merely as their religious leader, but also as the supreme authority over society and the state. Therefore, there could be no question of their objecting to such an agreement. But the Jewish community claimed cultural superiority over all Arabia. Despite this, their agreeing to a pact containing such clauses was a great miracle of the Prophet’s statecraft.

Notable Clauses of the Medina Pact

It is not possible to quote the clauses of the Medina Pact in detail here. A few of its important clauses, together with a general review related to them, are presented briefly here.

The state that took shape from the first part of the proclamation was formed through the combination of the Muhajirun, the Ansar, and the other tribes and people bound by the pact. All these people expressly pledged to follow the leadership of the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) and to unite with him in fighting the enemies. Despite being divided and mutually discordant, they formed an independent unit distinct from the community of the entire world. The entire Muslim population received completely equal status in rights and duties. War and peace were regarded as matters of the state and the community. Military responsibility became obligatory for all. Every individual was granted the right to give a pledge of protection. Everyone had the right to enter into a pact, and a pact made by one became binding upon all. As a result, a golden age of complete brotherhood, equality, and individual liberty began in the state institution.

Under this pact, no one retained the right to take the side of the Quraysh of Mecca, or to provide them with any kind of assistance or shelter. Moreover, no one could create any obstruction or opposition to the Muslims’ advance against the Quraysh.

Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him) himself was given the status of the highest and final court in all matters.

Thereafter, the judicial system was no longer the concern of one individual or one tribe; rather, it acquired a collective and social status. The entire judicial authority attained a central status. This too was a revolutionary decision. As a result of this decision, complete impartiality and unalloyed justice prevailed everywhere. Not the slightest avenue remained open for bias, favoritism, or nepotism. All Muslims collectively became responsible for ensuring that no one could oppress anyone else and no one could deprive anyone else of his rights.

The second part of the Medina Pact related entirely to the Jews. The entire Jewish community, as a collective body, was joined to the federal ‘city-state of Medina.’ Its first clause stated that if the Jews and Muslims jointly fought a war, each would bear its own expenses. Both would enjoy full freedom to practice their respective religions. Thus, in social and cultural matters, the Jews gained equal rights with the Muslims. They became mutual helpers in the duty of defending the country. That is, the Jews would be obliged to fight against those whom the Muslims fought, and the Jews would be obliged to make peace with those with whom the Muslims made peace. At that time, it would also be the duty of both sides to provide effective mutual assistance in defending the country—that is, in defending the city-state of Medina. As a result of this kind of pact, defense too came to be regarded as a central matter. Thereafter, the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) became the head and supreme commander of the united army formed of Muslims and Jews. This was another great political success of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him).

The Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) did not interfere in the Jews’ purely internal affairs in the slightest. As a result, the dark clouds of hatred and apprehension that had gathered in their minds easily dissipated. They themselves enthusiastically accepted the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) as the supreme judge in all their affairs. Any influence based on kinship was completely prohibited. In this way, all traces of the false principles of the Age of Ignorance were erased. Matters reached the point that the Jews not only accepted the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) as their administrator, but also made the whole of Medina a haram—a protected and safeguarded area. This too was a great manifestation of the Noble Messenger’s (peace be upon him) political wisdom and intellectual power. (Later, however, because of their openly engaging in conspiracies against the state, the Jews were ultimately compelled to be exiled from Medina.)

For the defense and preservation of the city-state of Medina, it was essential, alongside strengthening its internal solidity, to establish alliances with the tribes living on the outskirts of the city. For this purpose, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) traveled through and inspected the western regions and frontier districts and signed several agreements with the tribes there. As a result, these tribes became allied powers with the Muslims in matters of defense. Thereafter, instead of hostility toward the Muslims, the tribes surrounding Medina became especially helpful.

The Final Step

After Medina had achieved complete security and peace both internally and in its surroundings, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) signed a ten-year truce with the Quraysh of Mecca. Since this agreement was concluded at a place called Hudaybiyyah, it is known in history as the ‘Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.’ In reality, this truce was called in the Qur’an, the Word of Allah, ‘Fathum Mubin’—‘a clear and manifest victory’—for the Muslims. After this truce was signed, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) gained an unrestricted and unhindered opportunity to propagate Islam extensively and comprehensively throughout Arabia. At the same time, it opened the way to uproot the Jews forever and completely from their stronghold at Khaybar. After conquering Khaybar’s impregnable fortress walls, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) succeeded in conquering Mecca Sharif in a completely peaceful and bloodless manner. After the conquest of Mecca in the eighth year of the Hijrah, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) succeeded in uniting the entire Arabian Peninsula under the single and absolute rule of Islam. Thus, during his own lifetime, he established the Islamic state upon a firm foundation.

Needless to say, the state established by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) was not merely a state. It was the complete realization of an ideal that had previously had no existence in reality. The seed secretly sown twenty-one years earlier in a secluded place in the Arabian land later grew into a mighty tree, bringing all Arabia beneath its cool shade and establishing an everlasting lighthouse for humanity. Until eternity, rays of light will continue to stream from this lighthouse into the lives of people throughout the world, and humanity, battered by oppression and persecution and lost without direction, will continue to find through it the sure path to liberation and welfare.

Characteristics of the State Established by the Prophet

It is necessary here to mention the special qualities and characteristics of the state system established by the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him). These are presented briefly below.

(1) The state established by the Prophet was the world’s first state system built on the basis of a social and collective contract and pledge (Social Contract). No example of the establishment of such a state can be found in human history. In the thirteenth year of prophethood, the people of Medina voluntarily and eagerly gave the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) the bay‘ah and accepted him, alongside being their religious leader, as their political leader and ruler. In the course of time, this developed fully into a comprehensive state system.

(2) The source of sovereignty in this state system was the essence of Almighty Allah—entirely and absolutely. No one else, not even the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him), possessed any share in what is meant by sovereignty. Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him), as Allah’s Messenger, enacted laws and administered the state on the basis of Qur’anic injunctions. This question of sovereignty is the foundation of the vast difference between the Islamic state and the political philosophies of other states in the world. The Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) received revelation from Allah. That revelation was the primary source of law. But he never presented himself as possessing the right of sovereignty. He alone interpreted revelation. Yet he never exempted himself from its implementation. Rather, through revelation, even the ‘errors’ in his own actions were disclosed before the people. He repeatedly presented himself before the people for judgment concerning his own ‘offenses.’ As a result, all concepts and doctrines that placed the ‘king’ or ‘supreme administrator’ in Allah’s position—including the notions that ‘a king can never err’ and that ‘a king can never be accused’—were completely proved false. It was thereby also established that, in a state founded upon Allah’s absolute sovereignty, no individual can become a ‘king’ or a dictator. Nor can any party or group do so. No one can possess the right to turn human beings into slaves.

(3) It was a fully developed ideological state (Ideological State). The Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) was the first in history to begin administering a state on the basis of a written constitution (Written Constitution). It was not a state based on lineage, motherland, race, language, or mere economic unity. It was the first state to carry and convey the Islamic way of life and to invite all humanity, regardless of nation or religion, to Islam. The sole purpose of this state was the full realization and comprehensive triumph of the Islamic ideal, and through it the provision of complete welfare for the people.

It should be noted that the Islamic state, unlike the fascist or so-called democratic states of the West, is not an end in itself—that is, it is not a state existing for the sake of the state. Rather, its purpose is to attain a higher and nobler objective through the realization of an ideal. That objective is complete obedience to Allah and His Messenger and the attainment of Allah’s supreme pleasure. A secular (Secular) democratic or national state is not subject to any higher moral law. The Islamic state, however, is the complete opposite. In it, all religious and scientific matters are carried out on the basis of Allah’s injunctions.

(4) In Islam, religion and the state are merely two indistinguishable aspects of the same thing. The difference is only one of terminology; there is no difference in the essential matter or in the underlying outlook. Here, what is religion is politics, and what is politics contains religion. Islam is by its very nature a complete din. There is no aspect of human life or of the universe concerning which Islamic guidance is absent. The Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), as Allah’s representative, was at the same time the undisputed leader in every aspect and sphere of life. Plurality and duality in life are contrary to Islam. In reality, state secularism is the product of the reaction against the papacy of the nineteenth century. From a historical perspective, it is now entirely a thing of the past. The existence of any state based upon it is impossible in the present age, for apart from skepticism, mental instability, and utilitarianism (Utilitarianism), it has been able to contribute nothing else to humanity.

(5) In the true sense, the Islamic state was an effective state possessing popular rights and based on public opinion. Since all state affairs were properly conducted on the basis of the people’s support and approval, the implementation of the fundamental principles of the state could not be effective without consultation with the responsible officials. This principle was followed fully by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him).

Individual liberty, equality, and justice are the special foundations of a state possessing popular rights. Without their proper implementation, popular aspirations cannot become reality. It was in the first Islamic state established by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) that true human freedom was first put into practice. The revolutionary spirit of individual liberty is beautifully embodied in Islam’s kalimah: ‘There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.’ It is nothing other than a revolutionary declaration of readiness to submit even the slightest degree to no one and nothing except Allah alone.

Within the limits prescribed by Allah, people are completely free and independent in the Islamic state. Everyone’s rights are clearly defined here. Under no circumstances does anyone have the right to deprive another of his rights. In the golden age of Islam, no person was ever deprived of his fundamental rights under any circumstances. No restriction or compulsion was ever imposed, without a Shariah-based reason, on anyone’s expression and propagation of personal opinions, choice of profession, holding of meetings and conferences, or freedom of movement. For, in Islam, doing so is nothing but manifest oppression. For this reason, every individual also possessed the right to express a different opinion by disagreeing with the head of state, the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him).

The equality and integrity of this state were founded on two principles. The first was that all people are fundamentally equal because they are children of Adam. The second principle was brotherhood. All Muslims are brothers to one another and equal in every respect.

Justice is the chief characteristic of this state. Equal treatment and impartiality are its abiding principles. The Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) himself always made decisions on the basis of justice. In the state he established, the law was applied without distinction. Thus, during a judicial proceeding, by declaring, ‘If Fatimah were to steal, her hand too would be cut off as punishment,’ he eradicated all corruption and nepotism from the administration of justice and the application of law.

(6) In the true sense, the Islamic state was a state serving the people and promoting public welfare (Welfare State). In the state established by the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), efforts were made not merely to provide the people with financial support, but also positively to secure popular rights and eradicate poverty among the people. Unlike a capitalist state, this state could never leave those ‘defeated in the competition to earn money’ completely helpless. Even after opening the doors of economic opportunities and facilities equally before all people, it was a distinctive feature of this state alone that it assumed full responsibility for the financial security of those who remained behind. Its concern was not limited to economic security; sustained and serious efforts were also made to improve the people’s moral standards, awaken the fear of Allah in their hearts, and educate them properly about the din and Shariah.

(7) The most important characteristic of this state was the intense consciousness of accountability before Allah. Whatever one did—whether personal acts or the performance of national and state responsibilities, whatever the nature of the work, whether done secretly at home or openly—this consciousness remained powerful at the root of everything. For this reason, no act of disobedience to Allah, deprivation of popular rights, oppression, or persecution could occur in any sphere of this state. Such great importance was attached to this aspect that, from the head of state down to the lowest assistant employee, the most Allah-fearing individuals were given preference in appointments. ******(Arabic) ‘The most Allah-fearing among you are the most honored among you before Allah’—this principle formed the basis of the practice. For if the leaders of the state or government officials are not Allah-fearing, the entire nation will become thoroughly disobedient. If they are not principled, it is natural that the entire nation will become corrupt. If state leaders, other leaders, and government employees are not corrupt, ordinary people can never become corrupt; indeed, it is inconceivable. Just as this statement is true, its opposite is also true. These characteristics of the ideal state established by the Prophet of the world are historical. No other state possessing such characteristics can be found anywhere in history.

A comparative discussion based on these characteristics of the state established by the Prophet of the World will prove that it has no comparison with any other state in the world—whether political or so-called secular democratic, capitalist, socialist, or communist. No modern state can equal the state established by the Prophet of the World in terms of comprehensive human welfare. The unscientific, irrational, inhuman, and hollow nature of the principles on which these states are founded, and of their grand claims regarding human welfare, was proven long ago. Their failure is universally acknowledged. But the principles of the Islamic state established by the Prophet of the World are as natural as they are eternal and everlasting. The true welfare of the individual and of humanity as a whole can be achieved only through this kind of state system. It cannot be achieved through any other kind of state.

Until the final day of his life, the Prophet of the World, Hazrat Muhammad, administered this ideal state. The Rashidun Caliphate is the later name of this very state and its true successor.

The Rashidun Caliphate

The four principal Companions who assumed responsibility for administering the Islamic state after the death of the Prophet of the World, Hazrat Muhammad, are known in history as the Rashidun Caliphs, and the state system they administered is called the Rashidun Caliphate. Although the rule of the Rashidun Caliphs did not last long, it achieved the highest honor in the history of the world. Not only Muslim historians, but even non-Muslim—and indeed anti-Muslim—historians have been compelled to honor the period of the Rashidun Caliphs as the “golden age” of human history. At this stage, we shall discuss the scientific significance and characteristics of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Caliphate

The lexical meaning of the word “caliphate” is “representation.” Its practical meaning is “to take someone’s place after that person has departed.” The word itself proves that it is not the original but merely a symbol of the original; not the body but its shadow, a reflection in a mirror. In other words, taking the place of the original office is called caliphate. The word “imam” is also used in this sense, and the two words “caliph” and “imam” express two distinct aspects of the same person. In terms of being the representative and successor of the previous officeholder, he is a caliph; because he is to be followed and is the most respected person among the people of his age, he is an imam and leader. In reality, succeeding the Prophet and leading the entire ummah after his disappearance is called caliphate and imamate. The Noble Prophet said: “Before you, the prophets and messengers of the Children of Israel provided leadership and administered the state. When one prophet disappeared, another prophet came and succeeded him. But now, after me, the chain of prophethood has come to an end; no one will become a prophet or messenger. Thereafter, the caliphs among you will be the leaders.”

This hadith makes it clear that representing the prophets is called caliphate, and that in Islam it is the most honored, respected, and sacred office of responsibility after prophethood. Therefore, the rules and directives issued by the caliphs of Islam for governing the state and resolving human problems on the basis of the principles of the Qur’an and Sunnah must be universally accepted. The Noble Messenger declared beforehand: “After me, follow my rightly guided caliphs.” For this reason, when selecting a caliph, attention should be paid not only to the person’s political judgment and administrative knowledge and ability, but even more to how much he was able to purify himself through the company of the Prophet—or, in the Prophet’s absence, through following his example—and to the extent of his spiritual knowledge and moral qualities. The profound significance and validity of this principle became fully evident when Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Hazrat Umar al-Faruq, Hazrat Uthman al-Ghani, and Hazrat Ali al-Murtada were successively selected as caliphs.

In reality, the responsibilities and duties of the caliphate in Islam are extremely comprehensive and all-embracing. All material, religious, and civilizational aims are achieved through it. The duties of the caliphate can be broadly explained in this brief statement: keeping the works initiated by the Prophet active and established, protecting them from every kind of mixture, and advancing them. If this is to be expressed in one compound phrase, it may be called “establishing the religion.” This phrase is also so broad in meaning that every kind of religious and worldly work is included within it. Establishing and implementing prayer and fasting, pilgrimage and zakat, law and order, governance and discipline, and the judicial system—in short, carrying out all civilizational and spiritual tasks—is included among the responsibilities of the caliphate. The sacred life of the Noble Prophet was spent fulfilling all these great responsibilities. After him, those who became his representatives and successors devoted their entire lives to realizing this purpose. Even during the lifetime of the Noble Prophet, various people were appointed as responsible for these tasks. People were separately appointed to lead prayers and collect charity and zakat. The prevention of wrongdoing, the promotion of righteousness, and the impartial adjudication and resolution of disputes among the people were entrusted to qualified persons. The duties of confronting the enemy and commanding the army, as well as teaching the Qur’an, were assigned to separate individuals. But since all these tasks formed part of the caliphate’s essential responsibilities, it was absolutely necessary that a single caliph possess all the qualifications and qualities needed to perform each of them independently. Not only that, but in terms of spiritual qualities, the caliph had to possess firm, prophetic instruction and wisdom; and during his lifetime the Prophet indicated, by signs and hints, that those in whom he saw such spiritual ability were the ones he would appoint as his successors. It must, of course, be acknowledged that undesirable disorder, bloodshed, and changes in circumstances caused the basic objective of the caliphate to fail after only forty years, and authority was placed in the hands of people who were in no respect qualified for this important office. But there is no doubt that, had later caliphs and rulers been selected according to the guidance of the Prophet of the World, human society would have taken an entirely different form.

When the qualifications and qualities of a caliph known from the Qur’an and Hadith are examined, it is proved beyond doubt that the Rashidun Caliphs were the most suitable people to become caliphs of the Muslim world. The qualities described in the Qur’an and Hadith were fully present in them, and therefore the people had complete confidence that they would administer the caliphate according to sound principles. From the Qur’anic perspective, the following qualities have been regarded as essential for fulfilling the responsibilities of the Rashidun Caliphate. Therefore, after the Noble Prophet, whoever displays these qualities shall be regarded as the best.

(1) The caliph must be among the earliest Muhajirs and must have been present at the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and the battles of Badr and Tabuk, as well as at the time of the revelation of Surah al-Nur;

(2) He must be counted among those given the good news of entering Paradise;

(3) He must be counted among the highest-ranking people of Islamic society, such as the Siddiqs and martyrs.

(4) There must be evidence in some conduct, action, or statement of the Noble Prophet that, had he appointed anyone as caliph himself, he would have appointed that person.

(5) It must be possible for the promises Allah Almighty made to the Messenger to be fulfilled through him.

(6) His words must be established in Islamic Shariah.

These qualities existed separately among numerous Companions, but their complete combination was found in only four Companions. They were among the earliest Muhajirs and were present when the Hudaybiyyah treaty was signed; they were foremost in Badr, Uhud, Tabuk, and other important jihad campaigns. Thus, they lacked none of the qualities essential for eligibility for the caliphate. Moreover, reliable sources relate clear and honorable prophecies of the Noble Messenger concerning each of them. Regarding Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the Noble Prophet said: “You will be the first of my ummah to enter Paradise. You will be my companion at the Pool of Kawthar, for you were my companion in the mountain cave.” Regarding Hazrat Umar, this statement of the Noble Prophet has been reported: “Numerous verses were revealed in accordance with Umar’s wishes.” Regarding Hazrat Uthman, the Messenger said: “Should I not honor one whom even the angels honor and respect?” He also said: “Every prophet has a friend; Uthman will be my friend in Paradise.” Regarding Hazrat Ali, the Noble Prophet said: “Do you not wish that your relationship with me be like that of Aaron with Moses? Tomorrow I shall place the banner in the hands of the one who is beloved of Allah and His Messenger.” In addition to these, the Noble Prophet said many other valuable things concerning their qualities and characteristics. These statements prove beyond doubt that, in the Prophet’s view, after his disappearance they were the most qualified and entitled to be selected for the office of caliph.

The Fundamental Ideal of the Caliphate

To understand the discussion of the caliphate deeply and comprehensively, it is extremely important to examine its form as a state. In this regard, the promise was first declared specifically for people of righteous character. Therefore, every Muslim citizen of the state possesses the status of a caliph and is entitled to equal opportunities and facilities to fulfill the responsibilities of the caliphate. In this matter, distinctions among people may be made only on the basis of personal character, human qualities, and taqwa—piety and God-consciousness.

Thirdly, whenever a caliphate based on Allah’s sovereignty has been established in human history, only the most righteous and pious people of elevated, exemplary character from within society have received the opportunity to become caliphs and administer the state. The general populace has been able to enjoy the fundamental rights granted by Allah with complete justice and impartiality. No one’s rights have been deprived or restricted even slightly, nor has the slightest obstruction been placed in anyone’s natural course of work; rather, everyone has been given the opportunity to develop and advance their natural abilities and talents through means lawful under Allah’s law.

According to Islamic law, every person is obliged to answer to Allah. In this matter, no one may be placed in the position of a superhuman and made a partner with Allah. Every Muslim citizen has an equal right to be elected to the office of head of the Islamic state, caliph, or Amir al-Mu’minin. In this regard, no one has the right to campaign for candidacy or strive to obtain the office; likewise, if elected by the citizens’ free consent, everyone is obliged to fulfill the responsibility. After a person is elected caliph, the only difference in his status is that the people have merely entrusted to his hands the status and rights of their own caliphate. From the standpoint of Islamic idealism, it is not true in the least that only he is the caliph and no one else is. The power of the caliphate is entirely devoted to preserving the citizens’ social and collective order and discipline and to issuing essential laws and regulations. To consolidate this power and keep it under proper control, it is necessary for it to be concentrated in the person of the most qualified individual elected by the people.

When selecting a caliph or head of the Islamic state, it is not enough to consider only a person’s knowledge, education, mentality, judgment, and organizational ability; special importance must also be given to how pure, trustworthy, and reliable his character is.

The Islamic way of life has not declared the caliph ma’sum, or sinless. There is no basis for considering the caliph sinless and infallible. Every Muslim may criticize him not only regarding the performance of his official duties and functions, but also regarding his family and personal life. In the eyes of the law, his status shall be equal to that of an ordinary citizen. A case may be filed against him in court, and he must appear before the judge just like an ordinary citizen. He shall be granted no special privilege there.

No revelation from Allah descends upon the caliph; therefore, he cannot claim any special status regarding the interpretation and implementation of the Qur’an and Sunnah.

The caliph may not act solely according to his personal opinion; he must perform all his duties only after consulting the Majlis al-Shura, or Parliament, formed from publicly supported, capable, and competent persons. It is true that decisions must be made according to the majority opinion of the Majlis al-Shura; nevertheless, numerical majority is not a permanent standard for determining good and evil or what should and should not be done in a caliphal system of government. Thus, on the basis of the Qur’an and Sunnah, the caliph may disagree even with the majority’s decision, and he may act according to what he becomes convinced is true on the basis of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Throughout this entire process, however, the Muslim public will watch closely: does the caliph act generally according to the Qur’an and Sunnah, or does he exercise state power according to his own whims? A caliph in the latter condition has no right to receive even the slightest obedience from the Islamic public; rather, it becomes their duty to arrange for his removal from office. In this respect as well, the difference between Western political philosophy and constitutions and Islamic political philosophy and the Islamic doctrine of popular rights under the caliphate is as clear as the difference between heaven and earth.

The Rashidun Caliphs

The period of history extending from the caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq to Hazrat Ali is known as the era of the Rashidun Caliphate. Those who were the state leaders of the Muslim world from 632 CE, or 11 AH, to 661 CE, or 40 AH, are called the Rashidun Caliphs. Their total number was four, and the total duration of their caliphate was only thirty years. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz is also counted among the Rashidun Caliphs, since he was selected and was capable of fulfilling his responsibilities according to the principles of the Islamic caliphate.

As long as the Noble Prophet was alive, prophethood, legislation, leadership in every sphere, the judiciary, command of the army, and all the important offices of the civil government were concentrated in his single person; he alone exercised authority and leadership over all these matters. After his death, the question of who would succeed him arose before the Islamic community with great urgency. Since prophethood had come to an end and no one would thereafter become a prophet, whoever succeeded the Messenger would nevertheless have to carry out all the other responsibilities as before, apart from prophethood. For this reason as well, the question deeply concerned and perplexed the leading figures. No one could inherit the prophethood and natural leadership of the Noble Prophet. On the other hand, none of his sons was alive. Even if one had been alive, that would not have solved the problem of selecting a caliph. Thus, two questions arose in a complicated and pressing form:

1—From which family or tribe should the caliph be chosen?

2—What should be the method of appointing the caliph?

Nowhere in the Qur’an has the caliphate been specifically assigned to any lineage or tribe. Where the Hadith mentions that “the leader or caliph must be appointed from among the Quraysh,” it also gives the following clear instruction:

“Even if an Abyssinian slave is appointed as your ruler, you must obey him.” It is therefore necessary to seek a way of reconciling these two statements. A little deep and subtle reflection makes it clear that, in essence, both hadiths are declarations based on truth and reality. It is an eternal truth that Islam has not specifically assigned the caliphate to any lineage, tribe, family, individual, or class. There can be no doubt that the Islamic state system must always and under all circumstances operate according to this principle. Yet it is also an undeniable historical fact that, immediately after the state established by the Noble Prophet, no people from any other lineage were even slightly as qualified or capable as members of the Quraysh to assume its responsibilities. The history of the Rashidun Caliphate and the period that followed proves this truth beyond doubt. Therefore, it was entirely reasonable that all four caliphs of the Rashidun Caliphate were selected from among the Quraysh. Otherwise, no one else in the Arab society of that time could have fulfilled the responsibilities of the caliphate with such ability and competence. But this is not an eternal or everlasting rule; even after the Rashidun Caliphate, no condition that the caliph must be of Quraysh descent is recognized in the Islamic state system.¹It goes without saying that Islamic political scientists have also mentioned no such condition.

No practical and explicit method for selecting the caliph is mentioned in the Qur’an and Hadith. It seems that the eternal law of Islam does not aim to permanently adopt one particular method and impose its observance everywhere, regardless of time, age, or place, upon the entire ummah. For this reason, instead of prescribing a specific method of election, a permanent principle has been presented. It is said: “Those who follow the Islamic ideal complete their important affairs through mutual consultation.” No one can disagree that the election of the head of state or caliph is the most important national and collective matter in Muslim society, and that it should be completed on the basis of the free opinion and consultation of the Muslim public. Therefore, the sole fundamental principle of Islamic election is that the caliph must be chosen on the basis of public opinion. How the Muslim ummah applied this principle at different times and under different circumstances and resolved the problem of election is what we shall now examine.

The Election of the Rashidun Caliphs

The fundamental principle of caliph selection mentioned above was applied to the election of the Rashidun Caliphs in the following ways:

(1) After the death of the Noble Prophet, responsible citizens of the Muslim ummah gathered at a place called the Saqifah of Banu Sa’idah, equivalent in status to a town hall or council building. After lengthy and detailed public discussion, they unanimously elected Hazrat Abu Bakr as caliph. The people present immediately and wholeheartedly pledged allegiance to him, and upon being elected caliph, he formally delivered an address setting out the duties, responsibilities, and policies of the head of state.

(2) A distinct method was followed in the election of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq. Through the important events of his entire Islamic life and caliphal career, and through practical experience, the first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, came to understand that throughout the whole nation there was no one more qualified to become caliph after him than Hazrat Umar. Hazrat Umar had been closely involved in all the events and important governmental and private affairs during his caliphate; even the collection and compilation of the Qur’an had been completed through his earnest interest, efforts, and advice. On the basis of his own experience and consultation with the leading Companions, Hazrat Abu Bakr recommended Hazrat Umar al-Faruq to the Muslim public for selection as the next caliph. On the basis of the first caliph’s recommendation and their own impartial and wholehearted judgment, the Muslim public elected Hazrat Umar as caliph and pledged allegiance to him. Immediately after being elected, Umar addressed the Muslim public and delivered a policy-setting speech, as his predecessor had done.

(3) When the second caliph, Hazrat Umar, realized that his life was nearing its end and that he would not live much longer, he felt the need to select his successor and the next caliph. For this purpose, he adopted an entirely distinct method. He appointed an “electoral board”—in modern terminology, an “election commission”—consisting of six eminent and leading Companions. Among others, Hazrat Uthman and Hazrat Ali were also included on this board. In his view, all six were qualified for the caliphate. He ordered that, within three days of his death, the board should select the most qualified person from among themselves as caliph. The board tried to fulfill its responsibility properly and collected the opinions of Muslim citizens near and far. They visited every household in Medina and asked the women as well as the men for their opinions. They also took care to ask the opinions of visiting merchants and travelers. Thus, after gathering the greatest possible number of opinions from Islamic citizens and holding consultations, Hazrat Uthman was elected as the third caliph.

(4) After the martyrdom of the third caliph, Hazrat Uthman, the atmosphere in Medina became darkened by the intensifying turmoil and disorder. Rebels from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra caused severe upheaval in Medina. At that time, most of the leading Companions were outside the capital carrying out military and organizational duties. In these circumstances, the office of caliph remained vacant for three consecutive days after Hazrat Uthman’s martyrdom. Finally, after lengthy discussions, Hazrat Ali was elected caliph.

This analysis proves that although the same external method of election was not followed in the appointment and election of the Rashidun Caliphs, public opinion was accepted as the basis of election in every method, and it was not ignored in any case. In reality, this is the fundamental spirit of the true caliphate, and it is absolutely essential that it be effective in every age and circumstance for preserving the people’s rights and establishing state order. Moreover, any external method of electing the head of state may be adopted, provided that this fundamental spirit is preserved with appropriate honor and importance. For Islam does not attach special importance to external form and appearance; rather, in national and civilizational affairs, its fundamental spirit is the only thing to be kept in view.

Characteristics of the Rashidun Caliphate

When the thirty-year rule of the Rashidun Caliphate is reviewed from the perspective of the philosophy of history, its following characteristics attract and astonish all humanity:

(1) During the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the Prophet’s sacred ideal had become a radiant, inextinguishable lamp, illuminating the entire sphere with its pure rays. Its profound influence was evident in every action and thought of the Caliphs. All four Caliphs were beloved companions, friends, and distinguished associates of the Prophet. Compared with the other Companions, they had enjoyed the Prophet’s company the most. They were the Prophet’s trusted and tested followers, whose lives were devoted to his mission. Except for Hazrat Ali (RA), the other three Caliphs administered the Caliphate from Madinah, the Prophet’s second center of activity and final resting place, which they retained as the capital.

(2) Under the Rightly Guided Caliphate, there was no scope for any Caliph’s dynastic, tribal, or family-based right, succession, or privilege. The four Caliphs came from three distinct families. In fact, they were the most trusted of the entire Islamic community. Their successive election did not diminish in the slightest the fundamental spirit of genuine popular representation; rather, it was fully preserved. Even if impartial general elections had been held according to modern methods, there can be no doubt that they alone would have been elected by the largest number of votes.

(3) During the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, the basis of lawmaking was the Qur’an and the Sunnah. When no clear instruction could be found on a matter, its solution was derived through ijtihad, by considering practical precedents from the Prophet’s time and parallels with similar events. In this regard, every citizen learned in the Qur’an and Hadith was recognized as having an equal right to express an opinion. Whenever consensus arose on a matter, a unanimous decision was adopted concerning it. In the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence, this is called ijma. In Islamic Shariah, it is a universally accepted fundamental principle. When disagreement arose on an issue, the Caliph fearlessly expressed his own judgment on the basis of the Qur’an and Sunnah and acted accordingly.

(4) The Rightly Guided Caliphs consulted responsible Companions on most matters. For ordinary affairs, those nominated by them were appointed as members of the Majlis-e-Shura. But the right to give an opinion was not restricted solely to the appointed members.

(5) During the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, there was no place for royal pomp, splendor, or grandeur. The Caliphs’ daily lives were extremely simple, like those of ordinary citizens. They walked alone on public roads; they had not only no bodyguards, but not even guards in name. Everyone could freely approach the Caliph. Their homes and furnishings were of an ordinary standard.

(6) The Rightly Guided Caliphs regarded the Bayt al-Mal, or the state treasury, as national property and a trust. Without state-level authorization, no one could spend even a single coin for himself. Moreover, they did not spend anything from the Bayt al-Mal for their own families or relatives by virtue of their power or office.

(7) They considered themselves servants of the people. In no respect did they regard themselves as superior to ordinary people. They were not only leaders of the people at the state level; they also properly led them in religious matters such as prayer and Hajj.

During the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, leadership of religious affairs and authority over state affairs were neither separate nor divided; rather, both forms of leadership and authority were centered and integrated in the person of a single Caliph. In fact, just as the separation of religion and politics and the dualism of religious and state affairs were features of modern Western democracy, their integration and complete unification in one direction were features of the Rightly Guided Caliphate.

The State Form of the Rightly Guided Caliphate

After Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) was elected Caliph, when a man addressed him as “O Caliph of Allah,” he immediately exclaimed: “I am not the Caliph of Allah; I am the Caliph of the Messenger of Allah.”

Historians have regarded this statement of the Caliph as conclusive evidence of his naturally incomparable humility and his sense of personal insignificance. But when the statement is analyzed from the perspective of political science, the profound significance of the Caliphate becomes clear. Indeed, Abu Bakr’s statement expressed the conception of the Caliphate as a state that had become manifest in the hearts of Muslims during the early period.

Hundreds of years passed in the flow of time before and after the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). During this long period, hundreds and thousands of kings, emperors, and rulers came and departed from the stage of the world. Their contemporaries and subjects claimed that they were Allah’s vicegerents on earth. For this reason, they were believed to possess a reverence, honor, and sanctity that no one else on earth could possess. The arrogance and pride of Egypt’s pharaonic kings have become a matter of history. The Qur’an Majid also mentions the claim of a Pharaoh who said, “I am your chief and supreme lord.” From the distant past to the present, most rulers have displayed this mentality. Examples of it are by no means rare even today. Whatever was lacking in this regard, the flattering clerics and priests of every age did not fail to complete. From age to age and country to country, they made kings and rulers objects of worship and veneration. Egypt, Babylon, Persia, India, and many other countries were in the same condition. Most kings and supreme rulers of these countries regarded themselves on earth as “God’s representative” or “God’s shadow.” Their helpless, impoverished subjects likewise did not fail to accord them similar status.

In medieval Europe too, at the signal and command of kings and emperors, priests felt no hesitation in granting them the highest status, calling them great, honorable, and holy. The priests propagated that they had received this status from Allah. As a result, their authority became undisputed—far above all questions, objections, and criticism, and beyond the people’s reach; they were regarded as “God’s direct representatives.” Every word issuing from their mouths was considered a “revelation descended from God.” Their commands and prohibitions were regarded as directly equivalent to Allah’s own commands and prohibitions and as obligatory to obey. Therefore, disobeying or rejecting them, or showing the slightest disrespect toward them, became a great sin and was practically impossible. This condition prevailed through the fifteenth century—and among some peoples until the seventeenth century. Although Europe up to that time had made considerable progress in knowledge, science, civilization, culture, and the arts, the blindfold of faith placed over its eyes had not yet been removed. Later, the champions of personal and mental freedom and of egalitarianism raised fierce voices of protest against these customs and practices that destroyed human beings and deprived them of human dignity, shaking heaven and earth, and were forced to revolt openly against them. Of course, thousands of people had to sacrifice their precious lives in this campaign.

This idea of the sanctity of kingship and immense honor for kings and emperors continued among the nations of the world for hundreds of years. Present-day Europe has not been free from this idea for very long. Against this background, the humility and selflessness contained in the brief statement quoted above by the first Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), deserve consideration. When a man addressed him as “Khalifatullah”—the Caliph or representative of Allah—he clearly refused to accept it and said: “I am not the Caliph of Allah. You may call me the Caliph of the Messenger.”

The expression “Caliph of the Messenger” likewise conveys no personal power, prestige, grandeur, superiority, eminence, or absolute authority. Its basic significance is simply to succeed or represent the Noble Messenger (PBUH) in leading Muslims and administering the state on the basis of Allah’s law and within the limits determined by Him. But in matters specified exclusively for the Messenger, there could be no question of succeeding him; no such thought or notion had any place in it. The truth of this statement becomes evident from a portion of the first policy-setting address he delivered after being elected the first Caliph. That portion is as follows:

“It is true that I have been entrusted with the responsibility of the Caliphate, but I do not consider myself at all qualified to discharge this great responsibility. By Allah, my earnest wish was that another person among you would assume this responsibility. Now, if any of you thinks that I will also perform all the tasks that the Noble Messenger (PBUH) performed, then remember that this expectation or hope has no basis. There is no doubt that the Noble Messenger (PBUH) was a servant of Allah. But at the same time, Allah Most High had blessed him with the favor of the great prophethood and messengership and declared him free and purified from every kind of sin and error.”

“I too am Allah’s servant. But I am not a better person than any of you. Keep a sharp watch over me. If you find me following the path shown by Allah and His Messenger, then continue to follow me. But if you find me deviating and straying from the Sirat al-Mustaqim, point out my error and guide me onto the right, true, and straight path.”

It need hardly be said that after the death of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) did not assume on his own the responsibility of leading the Muslim community and administering the Islamic state. He undertook this task only after an open election in a free and open environment and after gaining the people’s satisfaction and support. Just as Allah Most High made Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) a Prophet and Messenger through His own choice and appointment, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), nor the three Caliphs who followed him, were appointed by Allah. They were not sent by Allah. Their ideological superiority and distinction over other people were universally known and necessarily acknowledged, but this superiority and distinction were not declared by Allah. Secondly, they were merely the necessary consequence of their taqwa, piety, and virtues. They did not acquire this distinction because of the Caliphate, just as the Messenger became distinguished because of prophethood and messengership. In fact, the office of Caliph is purely worldly, not divine. Its holder had no supernatural or divine right to issue commands and instructions; his directives had to be based on the revelation sent by Allah and consistent with the teachings and explanations presented by the Messenger. Just as they had no right to issue any instruction contrary to Allah’s law or inconsistent with the Messenger’s teachings and explanations, Muslim citizens were not obliged to obey any such instruction. The first Caliph himself made this clear in his first address, saying: [Arabic]

“Continue to obey me so long as I continue to obey Allah and His Messenger. But if I myself disobey Allah and His Messenger, then it is not your duty to obey me.”

Titles of the Later Caliphs

After Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) was appointed Caliph. But he himself did not agree to be called “Khalifat al-Rasul”—“the Caliph of the Messenger.” The people of the community were consulted on this matter. Eventually, he agreed to be addressed as “Amir al-Mu’minin”—“the leader and administrator of the Muslim people.” The next two Caliphs were also honored with this title. They did not agree to be called “Caliph” because accepting it would require them to be addressed as “Khalifat al-Rasul”—“the Caliph of the Messenger.” As a result, in addressing a later Caliph, the word would have been repeated three or more times, making the expression extremely awkward, unpleasant to hear, inelegant, and altogether inappropriate.

There was another reason behind Hazrat Umar’s agreement to be addressed as “Amir al-Mu’minin” instead of being given the title “Khalifat al-Rasul.” When Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) had said, “I am not the Caliph of Allah; I am the Caliph of the Messenger of Allah,” the word had been used in its literal meaning—successor—and it had been clearly explained to the people that his sole distinction was succeeding the Noble Messenger (PBUH) in discharging state responsibilities. If the word had been used at that time in any meaning other than its literal one, there would have been no reason for Hazrat Umar (RA) to agree to use the term “Amir al-Mu’minin” instead.

There was yet another reason behind adopting the term “Amir al-Mu’minin.” The Islamic state system had then created a sweeping revolution throughout the Arabian Peninsula and other vast regions. This revolution was as swift in its movement as it was extensive and comprehensive. People throughout the world were astonished and overwhelmed at the sight of it. But the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Messenger provided at this stage only certain fundamental principles, not detailed and subsidiary regulations. The Qur’an did, of course, declare shura—mutual consultation—to be the basic foundation and practical method of state administration. Allah Most High addressed the Noble Messenger (PBUH), saying: “O Prophet, consult the people in all national and state affairs.” In explaining the conduct of Muslims, it is also stated in one place: “Their national and state affairs are conducted on the basis of mutual consultation.”

In this light, every Caliph of the Rightly Guided Caliphate had to conduct all important national and state affairs through mutual consultation, in the light and on the basis of the Qur’an and Sunnah. For this reason, their status was no different from that of a military commander. A commander receives basic guidance and instructions regarding all matters of war from the supreme authority. But the commander himself must handle the operation of troops during wartime, the activities on the battlefield, and everything else, under his own sole responsibility. Likewise, under the Rightly Guided Caliphate, the Caliph himself had to conduct all affairs relating to the state and country according to contemporary circumstances, within the limits of Shariah, keeping the model of the Noble Messenger (PBUH) before him, and in consultation with idealistic popular leaders. If the first Caliph had adopted a particular policy on a matter in light of the circumstances then prevailing, there was certainly no obligation for the second, third, or fourth Caliph to adopt that exact policy, no matter how greatly conditions and circumstances changed. For this reason, the second Caliph considered it appropriate to adopt the entirely new title “Amir al-Mu’minin,” fully suited to his responsibility and office, instead of titles such as “Khalifat al-Rasul.”

A careful observer of the revolution Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) brought about throughout Arabia in the very short period of his Caliphate clearly sees that the spheres requiring gentleness, tenderness, and forbearance differ from those requiring firmness and inflexibility; and unless firmness is employed where firmness is needed, and gentleness and flexibility where gentleness and flexibility are needed, no state or national task can be properly and successfully completed. This profound truth lay behind not only Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) success, but also the success and exceptional strength of the three Caliphs who followed him: they were fully capable of taking correct and flawless measures in accordance with circumstances.

The Political System of Contemporary Arabia

During the time of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), Arabia had become a field in which countless religious beliefs played themselves out. Its northern and southern parts were completely separated from one another. The inhabitants of one part had no connection with the people of the other, and the general conditions of the two regions were in no way alike. Yemen was under Iranian rule. Christianity and idol worship existed side by side there. Its Himyarite language was entirely different from the language of the Quraysh. Moreover, Yemen had been a cradle of civilization and culture for several centuries. In contrast, the people of the Hijaz were symbols of barbarism and nomadism. In this region, only three places—Makkah, Yathrib (Madinah), and Ta’if—were worthy of being called “cities.” Apart from their location within the vast Hijaz, these three cities had no mutual connection or similarity. The people of the three cities were, of course, related by kinship. But the administrative systems of these cities were completely tribal in basis and separate from one another. Alongside the strength and prevalence of idol worship in Makkah, Christianity also enjoyed some support. Although the Jewish tribes in Madinah were outwardly powerful, idol worshippers were in the majority. When the message of tawhid resounded throughout this vast Arabian Peninsula and Allah Most High desired to spread the religion of Islam in every direction of Arabia, He also completed the necessary arrangements for it. Yemen gained release from Persian subjugation and, with it, became completely free of all foreign influence and power. After the conquest of Makkah, Islam began spreading rapidly throughout Arabia. After the Hijaz, Islam spread like a flood through the other Arab regions as well. Thus, in a very short time, the entire Arabian Peninsula was blessed with shelter beneath Islam’s cooling shade. All the people of this vast region were initiated into the same ideal. Although all Arabia became united and uniform in believing in the Noble Messenger (PBUH) and accepting the religion of Islam preached by him as a complete way of life, every tribe remained fully independent and sovereign in its own locality. However, regarding the important pillar of Islam, zakat, people in all regions were equally obliged to send it to the capital, Madinah.

The unity and oneness of faith and religion served to create a revolution in the political system of the Arabs. The tribes living around Madinah had concluded treaties of alliance with the Noble Messenger (PBUH). When he set out on the campaign to conquer Makkah, these tribes joined the caravan in accordance with the treaties. After the conquest of Makkah, the tribes there willingly accepted Islam. Thereafter, they too expressed the desire to join Islam’s campaigns of victory. They duly participated in the battles of Hunayn and Ta’if. As Islam spread in every direction, the Noble Messenger (PBUH) appointed people and sent them throughout the land to teach the Arab tribes the Qur’an Majid and religious matters. Along with teaching the Qur’an and the religion of Islam, the responsibility of collecting zakat was also entrusted to these officials. It was entirely natural that this religious revolution, created in a very short time, would produce a political revolution throughout the region. Once all Arabia became one and united religiously, it was a natural consequence that it would also become one unified entity and institution politically and administratively. But the Arab Bedouins had no familiarity whatsoever with this kind of political revolution. It was beyond their conception that, after the disappearance of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), they would likewise have to pledge allegiance to his successor. They thought that the teachings, religion, and ideal presented by the Noble Messenger (PBUH) had already become firmly rooted in their minds and lives. They would certainly continue to follow Islam’s complete law. Nevertheless, politically they would remain entirely independent. Every tribe, as before, would remain completely free and unbound by every kind of influence from external states and governments.

Indeed, the intense spirit of autonomy and independence lay at the root of the flags of rebellion raised in every direction of the Arabian Peninsula after the disappearance of the Noble Messenger (PBUH). This was the condition of most Arab tribes. But the first Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), wanted the Arab tribes not to be allowed the slightest change from the condition in which they had come under the Islamic state during the lifetime of the Noble Messenger (PBUH). The Arab tribes, however, sincerely hoped to regain their lost political independence. Strengthened by his true faith, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) remained firm in his resolve. His earnest desire was that every Muslim should fulfill his respective responsibility and that all should fully adhere to the ideal of unity and solidarity presented by Islam. He made it clear that the wealth sent to Madinah during the Messenger’s lifetime as zakat, ushr, and kharaj had to continue to be paid. But the Arab tribes were unable to prepare themselves for this. They began saying openly that the case of the Noble Messenger (PBUH) was entirely different: he was Allah’s Messenger, revelation descended upon him, and complete obedience to him was the duty of every Muslim. But circumstances had now changed, and the state system must therefore also be changed. This idea and mentality, however, were in no way conducive to the formation of an Islamic state. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) eradicated this anarchic mentality by forceful action. As a result of the deeply judicious and sensible course he adopted at this stage, the whole of Arabia became organized and consolidated under one unified state institution. He united all the tribes in matters of governing the country, administering the state, and war and peace. He put into effect the principle of consulting people at every level on important matters. Consequently, all the tribes began to regard themselves as equal partners in the administration of the Islamic state. Every individual and tribe, receiving equal importance, honor, and rights in every sphere, surrendered itself to the state institution with immense enthusiasm and zeal. The Caliph was the central personal focus of this allegiance. There was no longer any disagreement among them that obeying every one of his commands and prohibitions was their obligatory duty.

The State Form of the Caliphate

What is the ideological identity of the Islamic state system? What type of state system is it? Is it a pure theocracy, in which a God-fearing individual or a priestly community conducts the affairs of government? Or, in modern terminology, is it a democratic or autocratic government? Or is it a form of monarchy? This question has confused even many thinkers of the present age. But those who possess even basic knowledge of history and political science cannot be disturbed in the least by such questions. For understanding that the Caliphate is in no way a papal or theocratic form of government requires no special scholarship. No relation, however remote, or even the slightest resemblance can be found between the government of the Caliphate and the systems administered by the Pharaohs of ancient times or by the kings and emperors of the world, including modern Europe. Nor can it be called a modern democratic state system—although universal values and the rights of the people and opportunities for individual freedom were fully operative in it, unlike the irreligious democracy of the West, where they cannot be found.

No caliph ever claimed to have been appointed by Allah, to possess a special relationship with Allah, or to receive direct commands or revelation from Allah. They considered making such a claim wholly forbidden, for in reality it was entirely baseless. With the death of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), the process of revelation coming down came to an end forever. Thereafter, only two foundations remained for the people of the world in conducting their lives, society, and state: one was the Book of Allah, and the second was the Sunnah of the Messenger. Allah Most High revealed the Noble Qur’an through the Last Prophet as a comprehensive and complete code for all humanity. And the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) implemented that divine law through his daily conduct. According to the Qur’an, the actions of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) are the practical interpretation of the Qur’an itself. This interpretation is eternal and eternally to be followed, just like the Qur’an. A caliph or ruler is bound to follow these two laws. No one has the right to transgress their prescribed limits even by an iota. Ordinary people are obliged to obey a ruler only because this obedience is not owed to the ruler’s personal qualities or rights. No one is obliged to obey anyone because of that person’s personal merit, status, or rights. If he governs the state and enacts and enforces laws according to Allah’s law and the Sunnah of the Messenger, then everyone is obliged to obey him for that reason alone. For this obedience is, in essence, obedience to Allah—through the observance of Allah’s law. It should be remembered in this connection that no one has an exclusive right to interpret Allah’s law and the Sunnah of the Messenger—not even the caliph. Anyone well versed in the Qur’an and Sunnah has the right to interpret them. Nor can one accept an interpretation by the caliph that has never yet been acknowledged by any other expert. Thus, it is in no way possible for the ruler of an Islamic state to introduce rules of his own invention in the name of the Qur’an and Sunnah, for no one can conceal their baselessness and lack of foundation. No one is obliged to obey any command of the caliph that is contrary to the Qur’an and Sunnah. This very point was proclaimed in a ringing voice in the speeches of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him) quoted above. The later caliphs too repeatedly echoed it in their own words.

This system of conduct and method of state governance prescribed by Islam is not papacy; nor is it democracy, monarchy, or dictatorship. For under papacy, priests and clergymen rule according to their own inventions in the name of Allah, and no one else has the right to comment on the matter. Under monarchy and dictatorship, the people are compelled to remain completely deprived of all human and fundamental rights. And in so-called democracy, sheer arbitrariness prevails through the force of the majority—whether exercised by party leaders, influential party figures, or a small clique that has seized power. In the Islamic caliphate, ruler and ruled, caliph and people, are all equally bound to follow Allah’s law and the Sunnah of the Messenger; rather, the person who is foremost among them in this obedience becomes the caliph of the state. Once appointed to the office of caliphate, no one may enforce even the provisions of the Qur’an and Sunnah according to his own will. For this reason, he is obliged to consult experts in the Qur’an and Sunnah. But under papacy, the religious authorities possess absolute power. They are not obliged to consult anyone on any matter. No one may question any of their decisions; indeed, the consequence of criticizing their actions adversely is nothing less than a violent death. Ordinary people there are compelled to live the life of the lowliest slaves. In contrast, every person in the Islamic caliphate is free. There, people were not merely granted the right to criticize; it was also declared to be the religious duty of every citizen.

It should be remembered that the Qur’an and Sunnah are indeed the foundations of the Islamic caliphate, but they present only fundamental principles. Detailed and minute matters were deliberately left unmentioned. Even where something of that kind was mentioned, it was because it was indispensable. Had it not been mentioned there, implementing the Qur’an and Sunnah would not have been possible. All the affairs of the Islamic caliphate are carried out on the basis of those principles. It is the responsibility of the general public to determine detailed and subsidiary matters on the basis of those principles, and no one has an exclusive right in this regard. Indeed, it is precisely for this reason that Islam’s way of life and state ideal have attained eternal and everlasting value.

The principles given by the Qur’an and Sunnah are timeless. In every age, under all circumstances, and in every country, building an ideal human society on their basis is not merely possible but obligatory. Without those principles, the dream of building an ideal society can never be realized. History itself is irrefutable proof that as long as Muslims built individuals and society on the basis of those principles and followed them in practice, they advanced gradually, step by step, toward progress. But whenever those principles were abandoned at the personal and national levels and people began following policies and ideals opposed to them, their decline began at once. The actual condition of Muslims in the present world is a living testimony to this.

Had the exclusive right to interpret the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Messenger been granted to a particular class, the Islamic system of government would also have become ‘theocratic’ or priestly; but it is universally known that Islam has no priesthood and recognizes no exclusive authority of any particular class. Here, every person, according to his or her ability, has the right to study the Qur’an and Sunnah, reflect and investigate, exercise judgment, and reach conclusions and decisions. In this matter, everyone without exception has equal rights. Not only that, the general public has also been clearly instructed to exercise this right. Therefore, it goes without saying that it has not even the remotest connection or resemblance to papacy (Papacy).

In the Islamic caliphate, every citizen was granted the right to criticize the governing authorities openly. It was declared the duty of every citizen to keep a keen and vigilant watch over their conduct and, whenever any error or deviation became apparent in the light of the Qur’an and Sunnah, to protest against it immediately and adopt practical measures to remedy it. Under this system of government, the rulers could not create special laws for themselves and thereby enjoy special privileges. Because the laws of the Qur’an and Sunnah were strictly observed during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, Islamic society remained completely free and pure from all such undesirable and disgraceful practices. At that time, national and state leadership and authority, as well as all financial resources, were a great trust. The conviction that even the slightest breach of this trust would bring severe punishment on the Day of Resurrection had become firmly rooted in everyone’s heart like steel.

All four caliphs of the Rightly Guided Caliphate carefully safeguarded the trusts entrusted by the nation and the state, ensured their proper expenditure, distribution, and investment, and presented living examples of flawless devotion, sincerity, selflessness, and a high degree of taqwa and piety. Although this may seem bizarre, unnatural, and unimaginable to people today, that was the reality of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. In fact, the caliphate and leadership could not cause the slightest corruption in their hearts and character; rather, they increased the standard and degree of their taqwa beyond what it had been before. The thought of gaining unjust benefit from the people’s wealth, abusing power, or providing special opportunities and privileges to their own families and relatives could not find the slightest place in their minds for even a moment. From the very moment the arduous responsibility of the caliphate was entrusted to them, they completely forgot their own individual selves and families and devoted all their strength to upholding the honor of Allah’s religion and properly carrying out national and state affairs. Establishing justice and perfect equity in every sphere and every matter was the supreme goal of their ceaseless activity. Nothing was dearer to them than helping the weak and needy.

In a state system of this nature, not even the name or trace of despotism, oppression, or tyranny can remain. A state whose leaders and responsible officials do not consider themselves superior to ordinary people but regard themselves as servants of the entire public can be called neither a papacy nor a dictatorship. Nor can any resemblance be found between it and the character of the so-called democratic states of modern times. It is true that, unlike today, the four caliphs were not elected in those days on the basis of universal adult suffrage (Adult suffrage). Given the unstable and tumultuous circumstances in which each individual was elevated to the office of caliph, such an election could not even be imagined. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that they were the most trusted persons in that society and that, had such an election been held, they would have been elected. Generally, it was the people of the Muhajir and Ansar tribes who took part in electing the caliph. In the circumstances of Arabia at that time, it was not considered necessary to consult members of the other tribes on this matter; yet this election was not the result of tribal collusion either. The Ansar and Muhajir were in practice representatives of the Muslim populations of almost all the tribes of Arabia at that time. Their view was, in general, the verdict of the entire Arab Muslim population. After the sudden disappearance of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him), or of each succeeding caliph, the resulting vacuum had to be filled without delay through the election of a caliph. In the urgent circumstances of the time, this had become the indispensable and most pressing task before the Muslim nation.

Nevertheless, each caliph governed the state only after consulting the generally trusted people of society. In important national and state matters, none took any step on the basis of his own solitary and irrational opinion. Kinship or lineage never became a factor (Factor) in the election of the caliphs. None of them stood as a candidate for this office. None devoted himself to conducting a campaign to win public opinion in his favor in order to obtain the office; rather, each tried to have someone more qualified than himself elected instead. The conversations during the election of the first caliph deserve to remain forever radiant in the pages of history. Although some disagreement arose initially in the election of certain caliphs, no such disagreement or opposition remained afterward; rather, everyone accepted the election wholeheartedly and cooperated sincerely with the elected caliph. This feature of the Islamic electoral principle is unparalleled. In this society, there was nothing like a permanent government side or a permanent opposition (Opposition). Everyone collectively supported and cooperated in truth and justice, while everyone opposed and protested against injustice and wrong policies. How greatly the caliphs recognized the importance of mutual consultation for the rights of the people and the welfare of the state becomes clear from the following words quoted from the first caliph’s inaugural speech:

I have been appointed your ruler, but I am not better than you. If I follow the path of justice, then obey and follow me. But if I slip from the path of justice and begin to follow injustice, then set me right and guide me onto the correct path. As long as I continue to obey Allah and His Messenger, you too should continue to obey me; but if I disobey Allah and His Messenger, then it is not your duty to obey me.

Can any example of such a generous and lofty recognition of the people’s profound relationship with the ruler, and of their right to guide and criticize the ruler, be found anywhere among the so-called states of the present democratic age? The entire period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate was, in modern terms, an age of nothing but emergency—an Emergency Period (Emergency Period). Yet throughout this long period, the fundamental rights of the people were never taken away. The system of shura and consultation remained properly operative at all times. The basis of the caliphate—the Qur’an and Sunnah—never gave anyone the right, under any circumstances, to dissolve the shura parliament and assume special power (Special power) into his own hands.

In the view of the caliphs, all Muslims possessed equal rights and equal status; no one could gain precedence or priority over others on account of worldly rank or status. Regarding those who had previously apostatized, the first caliph initially issued the order that they were not to be allowed to join military campaigns, since complete trust and reassurance concerning them had not yet been established. But as soon as doubt and suspicion regarding them disappeared, they were permitted to join the Muslim mujahid forces. Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) was instructed to employ them in the campaign against Iran. This is nothing but a shining example of the open, principled, and hostility-free outlook of the Rightly Guided Caliphate.

The Political Unity of Arabia

The first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him), strengthened the foundations of the Islamic state with the help of his other qualities of wisdom and foresight. As a result, it became very easy for the succeeding caliphs to build a vast state edifice upon that foundation and transform the entire Arabian Peninsula into a single political unit (Unit). Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (may Allah be pleased with him) policy of forgiveness, tolerance, sacrifice, and endurance paved the way for uniting the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the temporary disorder of the early period had subsided, the rebellious and offending people received his pardon and sincerely acknowledged allegiance to the caliphate. The shura system further strengthened and consolidated the country’s political unity and cohesion. As a result, the conquest of Iraq and Syria became easier.

The thinking, awareness, and intellectual outlook of the Arab people of that time were suited to a state system based on shura and popular rights. Islam had arisen and appeared in Arabia. Islamic Sharia—the Qur’an and Sunnah—was set down in the Arabic language. The final Messenger had been sent in Arabia. Whether the Arab tribes were Bedouins or city dwellers, they were passionately eager for freedom and self-government. Nothing was dearer or more attractive to them than this. The spirit of equality and parity had been fully absorbed among the desert dwellers. Islamic education and training gave this spirit greater clarity and maturity, for Islam presented the complete ideal of true equality and parity. The Noble Qur’an proclaimed this message of equality and parity in a resounding voice. According to the Qur’anic proclamation, honor and dignity are measured not by nobility of lineage or abundance and plenty of wealth, but by fear of Allah (taqwa) and observance of Allah’s religion. In the present age, democracy is being acclaimed everywhere. But genuine human values and ideals shone most brilliantly during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. Humanity, fraternity, love, affection, freedom, and equality are loudly proclaimed by modern democracy. Yet their true implementation can be seen in every sphere only in the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. Islam’s sacred teachings made every believer the sincere ‘brother’ and true well-wisher of every other believer. The declaration of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him)—that no person can be a believer until he likes for his brother what he likes for himself—was not an ordinary and meaningless utterance. It was a historic declaration in support of human rights. Unless this profound and rational declaration is put into practice, no state can acquire a truly welfare-oriented character; and until the general public is shaped into mutual well-wishers and compassionate people by taking this declaration as a torch of light, no welfare state can achieve the slightest success. Indeed, this very principle lies at the root of the utter, almost laughable failure of present democratic states and the complete success of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. Needless to say, it was on the basis of such priceless sayings of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) that Hazrat Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) was able to build the great edifice of the Islamic state. And by governing according to these sayings in full and administering the great system of the Rightly Guided Caliphate—completely contrary to the contemporary philosophy of the world-state—the three succeeding caliphs were able to astonish and captivate the entire world.

The Inner Strength of Islamic State Policy

The state system of the Rightly Guided Caliphate did not remain confined to the territory known as the Arabian Peninsula. Within a very short time, it crossed the boundaries of that land and spread and expanded in every direction into distant regions, like a flood breaking through its embankments. But was the expansion of an Arab state into vast non-Arab territories merely the result of a few military campaigns? This is a complex question in history. An analysis of the answer to this question is absolutely essential.

In reality, Islam appeared upon the stage of the world bearing a universal revolutionary message. The widespread propagation and expansion of that message, and the silent public opinion that arose in its favor, created the astonishing history of Islam’s triumph and of country after country seeking shelter beneath Islam’s banner. These victories may be compared to plucking a ripe fruit attached to a tree’s stem with a single touch, or to cutting the umbilical cord of a newborn child. Islamic idealism first prepared the field and cleared the way; ultimately, every obstacle and impediment to creating an Islamic revolution was removed. In this way, Muslims were able to establish the Islamic state on a firm foundation across vast regions of the world.

To anyone acquainted with the early period of Islamic history, it cannot remain unknown that the success of Islam’s mujahids was neither temporary nor accidental. This victory was an inseparable part of a long, continuous sequence of events. In essence, the revolution that Islam created in the world was inevitable, because the very fundamental ideal of Islam contains the fiery force of revolution. The eruption of this invincible power was entirely natural.

Islam’s fundamental creed—that we acknowledge no one but Allah, fear no one, and bow to no one else even by an iota, and that the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him) is Allah’s Messenger and our sole guide—was precisely this firm conviction that gave Islam its world-conquering power. This strength of creed and faith transformed ordinary people into revolutionaries. In reality, this freedom of mind and spirit was one of Islam’s great contributions. At the same time, any compulsion regarding religion or ideology was wholly contrary to the policy of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. People throughout the world were indeed invited to accept Islam, but Islam compels no one to change his religious belief. It does, however, strongly hope that people will seriously reflect upon Islam’s ideals, compare and study them alongside the other religions and ideologies of the world, and acknowledge their distinctive qualities impartially. For then, Islam is certain that no one will be able to refrain from accepting it. Indeed, Islam is a complete way of life entirely compatible with human nature. Islam has no doubt that sound reason and intellect can accept Islam alone as a complete life ideal.

This revolutionary message of Islam concerning liberation and freedom became a formidable challenge to the other religions and ideologies of the world. For if people are granted freedom to choose their creed, faith, and way of conduct, Islam’s flawless and complete ideal will powerfully attract people of every class, and people will spontaneously abandon their erroneous religions and ideologies—this is a tested truth of the Islamic da‘wah and movement. Thereafter, the extinction of the other religions and ideologies of the world is beyond doubt. The sole reason underlying the obstacles created in various countries to the propagation of Islam’s complete ideal lies in this fact.

The revolutionary ideal of freedom of mind (Freedom of mind) that Islam presented to the world was fully put into effect and implemented during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. During this period, many countries were conquered and many settlements accepted Islam’s sovereignty; yet not a single person was forced to abandon his religion. No one was enticed to do so. Whoever accepted Islam willingly and enthusiastically received equal status and rights, just like all other Muslims. Conversely, anyone who wished to remain firm in his former religion and ideology was also granted full freedom to do so. The Islamic caliphate assumed full responsibility for enabling him to live while practicing his own religion and enjoying security for his property, honor, and life. In return, a special ‘tax’ (Tax) was collected from them according to their means. This tax was not a fine of any kind. It was a special type of contribution toward the arrangements the state had to make to ensure their overall security. In Arabic terminology it is called ‘jizya.’ The word means recompense or exchange. In reality, it was merely the compensation for the arrangements made by the caliphate to safeguard their religion, property, wealth, honor, and lives. Wherever the caliphate was unable to fulfill its responsibility of providing this security, collection of it was not merely suspended; the tax already collected was also returned. This is written clearly, in letters of gold, on the pages of Islamic history.

The foundation of this state system, established by people who believed in the Last Messenger of the world, Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him), and devoted their lives to him, rested upon the elevated principles and ideals of individual freedom, fundamental human rights, equality without distinction, and brotherly affection and love. It was a state system completely opposed to Roman monarchism. On the other hand, even the most modern so-called democratic state system is extremely poor and inferior in comparison with it from the standpoint of general human welfare. In reality, making non-Arab peoples subject and subordinate to the Arabs was not a goal of the Rightly Guided Caliphate. Nor was its purpose to liberate them from the worst slavery of the Romans and Persians only to imprison them in the chains of Arab slavery. Rather, its ultimate goal in all its efforts, endeavors, struggles, and sacrifices was to grant human beings complete freedom from every kind of human and material servitude, and, while acknowledging the worship of the One Creator and the leadership of the Messenger, to provide them with an open, generous, and unrestricted opportunity to live and develop in a completely free environment according to the great laws of the religion of Islam. Its only means was sincere faith in Islam’s sublime ideal and being bound together by deep brotherhood and devoted love and affection for one another. During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, there was no class distinction between conqueror and conquered. People of every class and every level and rank were blessed with completely equal rights and status. There was no difference or disparity among them on the basis of language, tribe, or region. No distinction was even allowed between the non-Muslims of Iraq and Syria and the Christians of Najran and other areas of Arabia. Muslims did preach Islam among them, but nevertheless those who wished to remain steadfast in their ancestral religion were granted complete freedom to remain so. During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, the following two declarations of the Qur’an concerning acceptance of religion were fully implemented:

******(Arabic)

There is no place for compulsion or coercion of any kind in matters of religion and faith.

Whoever accepts guidance will benefit from it himself. And whoever wishes to remain astray will suffer its harm and misfortune himself. O Messenger, tell the people: my task is only to convey the message of truth to you; whether you accept it or not is your own responsibility. I bear no responsibility for your guidance or misguidance.

The Internal Administration of the Rightly Guided Caliphate

In the state system of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, the complete implementation of Islamic social civilization and culture had been accomplished. It was at once the state that guided religious life and the sole regulator of material development. Its foundation rested upon the religion of Islam, and its sole objective in all its efforts and endeavors was to secure the comprehensive welfare of humanity in accordance with the incontrovertible principles of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Noble Messenger (peace be upon him).

During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, all laws and regulations were enacted strictly in accordance with the Majid Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Messenger. Whenever the Rightly Guided Caliphs faced a problem or question whose direct solution they could not obtain from the Qur’an and Hadith, they resolved it in the best manner, keeping before them the brilliant example of the actions of the Noble Prophet (SAW), and they never allowed the fundamental ideals of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Messenger to be violated in any way.

According to the fundamental injunctions of Islam, the entire Muslim ummah was obliged to acknowledge and obey the caliphs. At the same time, the principle most firmly upheld was that no caliph or state official could be obeyed in opposition to the commands and injunctions of Allah and the Messenger. In matters concerning the authority to formulate detailed laws for practical and everyday life from the basic sources of the Qur’an and Hadith, no superiority, special status, or precedence was recognized for the caliph. In many cases, the caliph would instead seek Qur’an- and Hadith-based opinions or advice from other Companions. Everyone had the full right to disagree with the caliphs in this matter. Not only that, the general right to point out errors in the caliphs’ opinions and to criticize them openly was also fully recognized.

The caliph was elected according to the people’s spontaneous opinion or consent. Seizing the office of caliph by force or through hereditary succession was not only contrary to the Islamic system of government; in the view of Islamic law, it was also a grave crime. Among the Rightly Guided Caliphs there was no trace of royal pomp or dictatorial despotism. They considered themselves equal to the citizens. Except for the caliphate itself, there was not the slightest distinction between them and the general populace in any respect. Government officials and ordinary people had free access to the caliph’s court, and there was no scope for any obstruction in this matter. For this reason, it was extremely easy for them to become directly informed about the general condition and grievances of the people and to remedy them without any delay. For this very reason, it may be declared in a resounding voice that the Rightly Guided Caliphate was the only and first state in world history in which genuine popular rights were fully protected.

The Judiciary

During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, ensuring fairness and justice between two disputing parties was regarded as one of the caliph’s principal duties. For this reason, at first they conducted nearly all judicial proceedings themselves. However, they appointed representatives on their behalf for distant places. During the time of the first caliph, the governor appointed for each city also performed judicial duties. But during his caliphate, the second caliph made the judiciary completely independent and separate. Accordingly, a judge or qadi of independent status was appointed in every city. The judiciary was completely separate from and independent of the authority of the administrative department. Judges were entirely independent in delivering judgments. The caliph instructed them that every judgment they delivered must be based entirely on the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Messenger, and that it must not be violated in any way. The governor of the relevant area could neither exert any influence over the judge nor impose his authority upon him. A qadi or judge was appointed directly by the caliph. At times, the governor of the relevant city was also given the authority to appoint a judge; apart from that, however, special care was taken in appointing judges. Practical evidence of this is found in the following passage from an appointment letter issued by the fourth caliph: Appoint, for settling the people’s cases and lawsuits, such honorable persons whose judgments the people will accept wholeheartedly, and against which no one will feel either the courage or the need to protest. They must be free from every kind of greed, desire, infatuation, and jealousy. They must not be intimidated or influenced by anyone’s special status. In every matter, they must possess deep and subtle insight and sound judgment. They must be extremely cautious in doubtful and ambiguous matters. They must not be at all unsettled by the reasoned evidence and testimony presented by the two parties; rather, they must work with complete caution, thought, and investigation to reach the deepest truth of every matter. Once they reach a final decision in this way, they must not hesitate in the least to enforce it with complete firmness. They must not allow any recommendation or any office or status to obstruct the enforcement of their verdict. Although such people are never numerous, a judge must nevertheless possess the qualities mentioned above. When you appoint anyone as a judge, fix an adequate salary for him; then the needs of his livelihood will not compel him to accept bribes. Moreover, it is desirable that his standing be enhanced in your minds and in the esteem of society, so that no one dares to launch propaganda against him.

Besides the judges, every city always had a group of people highly skilled in Islamic law. Whenever the judges encountered difficulty or a problem in any matter, assistance was sought from them.

At this time, the Hadiths of the Noble Prophet (SAW) had not been compiled into books; they were preserved in people’s memories. One person knew one Hadith, while another remembered a different Hadith. No particular person remembered all the Hadiths, and this was one of the serious problems of that time. When a Hadith was needed to settle a matter brought before the judges, they would ask various people and try to learn the Messenger’s instruction or course of action concerning the matter. Thus, they would give judgment according to whatever Hadith of the Messenger they found. But when no specific Hadith could be found, they would exercise ijtihad, keeping before them the overall system of Islam and its course. For this reason, judges’ decisions on a particular matter sometimes differed. The practice of recording judges’ verdicts had not yet begun. Consequently, later generations had no opportunity to derive any benefit from them.

Some may wonder whether all judicial proceedings in this period depended solely on ijtihad; but that was not actually the case. The principle of ijtihad was used only to determine the detailed laws of the Shariah and to apply them to the particular circumstances and events of the age. It should be remembered that Islamic laws consisted of a number of fundamental principles; their detailed regulations had not yet been formulated. In fact, it is natural that laws given for all time and for all humanity should be of this nature. Only in this way can their practical application be possible and easy in every period of time and in every region of the world.

Even after judges had been appointed, there was no obstacle to the caliphs’ direct participation in settling the people’s disputes; indeed, in many cases they settled numerous disputes themselves. In such cases, the appointed judges merely acted as the caliphs’ representatives.

The Defense Department

During the caliphate, ultimate authority over conducting wars or commanding the army rested with the caliph. This was because the same practice had been followed during the time of the Noble Prophet (SAW), who himself led the army. But later, as the realm of government became more extensive, the caliphs began appointing separate commanders, despite themselves being the greatest heroes and warriors. Obeying the commander was necessarily considered as obligatory as obeying the caliph himself. After the end of a war, the commanders’ sole duty was to supervise military affairs and train the soldiers for the future.

During the caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), the entire army served voluntarily and without pay. Their names were not recorded in any register. It was during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA) that the military department was properly and systematically organized, and every soldier’s name was entered in the register. As a result, discipline was established in the army. If a soldier deserted or fell behind, he could easily be identified. A special kind of punishment was prescribed at that time for deserters. The deserter’s name would be publicized and proclaimed in the mosque of his own neighborhood: “This man has fled from the field of jihad; he has shown reluctance to sacrifice himself in the path of Allah.” In fact, even such a reprimand was more terrible for an Arab than the death penalty. The Arabs had established an unparalleled example of valor and astonishing courage among all the nations of the world; therefore, accusing someone of unmanliness and cowardice and publicly making such a declaration was far more painful than death. After that, the person concerned had no place left in society where he could show his face.

Hazrat Umar (RA) fixed salaries from the public treasury for all the soldiers. There was no fixed rate for these salaries. Excellence and precedence in following Islamic ideals were the sole criteria for determining the salaries of the mujahids. At the final stage, however, Hazrat Ali (RA) abolished this distinction as well and introduced equal salaries for everyone.

In the Islamic army, one “chief” was appointed over every ten soldiers. In Arabic military terminology, he was called an “arif.” The salaries of all the soldiers were entrusted to these arifs, who distributed them among the soldiers under their command.

Considerable progress was made in organizing the army during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. In the pre-Islamic era, the Arabs advanced to confront the enemy sometimes in ranks and sometimes in scattered formation. First, one or two warriors from each side would engage in single combat; then a general attack would be launched, and finally attacks and the use of weapons would take place in a disorderly manner. Muslims also followed this practice during the early stage of Islamic jihad. But later, when they began to face the well-organized armies of the Persians and Romans, they clearly understood that the ancient practice would have to be abandoned if they were to confront these organized armies and their military strategy by modern methods. They then reorganized their army and began using fully modern weapons. On the battlefield, the army began to be arranged in orderly ranks, with no one falling behind or ahead. The entire army was generally divided into five sections. The foremost division was called the “muqaddimah”; its duty was to initiate the battle. The central division was called the “qalb,” and the chief commander remained surrounded by it. The division stationed on the right was called the “maymanah,” and that on the left the “maysarah.” The division positioned at the rear was called the “saqah.”

An army divided into these five subdivisions was called the “khamis.” Each section had its own amir, who commanded it according to the orders of the chief commander. The cavalry had a separate amir. Muslim soldiers took special measures to protect the rear, so that enemy soldiers could not attack them from behind under any circumstances. They adopted special arrangements and procedures to protect the entire army from night attacks. The Muslims’ military intelligence service was active in the most highly organized and systematic manner. For this reason, they were able to learn most of the enemy’s secret intentions or plans in advance.

The Revenue Department

From the time of Hazrat Umar’s (RA) caliphate, separate local officials were appointed to collect revenue. The responsibility for collecting revenue was generally not assigned to provincial governors. The revenue collected was spent, according to the caliph’s instructions, on soldiers’ salaries and allowances and on other public welfare projects. The collected funds were sent to the central capital.

During the caliphate, two kinds of revenue were imposed: (1) permanent and (2) temporary. Among the permanent revenues, zakat, ushr, and jizya were notable. In contrast, war booty was temporary revenue or state income.

Kharaj

Generally, as a result of conquest in war, all the cultivable land of the conquered country was left in the possession of its former owners. However, a fixed portion of the crops produced was collected as revenue. In Islamic terminology, this was called “kharaj.” It may be regarded as a tax on cultivated land. In some cases, a fixed monetary tax was imposed according to the area of the land.

Ushr

Land owned by people who accepted Islam, or land whose owners were not required by the victorious Muslims to pay jizya, was called ushr land, and one-tenth or one-twentieth of its produce was collected through the state administration. Land seized by Muslims through force or as a result of war was called “ushri” land, and it was distributed exclusively among Muslims. Consequently, it remained in the possession of Muslims.

When Syria and Iraq were conquered during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar (RA), he asked his advisers how the conquered land should be distributed. Most people advised that the lands should be distributed among the Muslims.

Hazrat Umar (RA) said: “Then the rights of future generations will be destroyed. For if the lands are distributed now, nothing will remain for people yet to come.” Hazrat Abdur Rahman ibn Awf (RA) said: “Those who conquered the country through their own strength of arms are entitled to the land and slaves; what right can other people have to them?” In reply, Caliph Umar Farooq (RA) said: “That is true, but remember that after me there will probably be few further conquests, and therefore it will not be possible for Muslims then to acquire large amounts of wealth and land. In the future, many conquests will bring more burdens than benefits. If the lands of Iraq and Syria are taken from their owners, their conquered inhabitants made slaves, and everything distributed among the victorious Muslims, how will the system of guarding the frontiers function? For the Muslims will become occupied with farming. Moreover, the task of supporting orphans and helpless widows will also remain unfinished.”

After hearing this speech of Caliph Umar Farooq (RA), everyone said with one voice: “Your view is indeed correct and sound; there is no doubt about it. If armies are not stationed at the frontiers and in the cities, there will be no means of protecting these areas, and the enemies of Islam will once again establish their domination over these cities.” Hazrat Umar said: “This matter has now become clear. I now need someone who will undertake the survey of the whole of Iraq in order to determine the kharaj.” Umar ibn Hanif was then appointed to this task. He completed it with great diligence, and one year before Hazrat Umar (RA) attained martyrdom, the kharaj collected from Kufa in Sawad had reached ten million coins.

Even after the conquest of Syria, the soldiers demanded that the conquered land be distributed among them. But Hazrat Farooq-e-Azam (RA) again silenced everyone by giving the same answer. As a result, a vast amount of kharaj from the land of Syria, as from Iraq, continued to accumulate in the state treasury.

Indeed, Hazrat Umar Farooq’s (RA) view—that the farmland of conquered areas should not be distributed among the conquerors, but should remain in the possession of the former inhabitants, who should be allowed to cultivate it and from whom kharaj should be collected—was evidence of remarkable foresight. Had such a decision not been taken then, the Muslim nation would have forgotten its true responsibility, become occupied with fields and farms, and lost its military skill. Secondly, it would not have been possible to meet the necessary expenses of the Islamic soldiers guarding that area and fighting in other countries and regions. And that would have been the most serious and irreparable loss. For taking advantage of this, the Persian and Roman chiefs who had left their countries and taken refuge elsewhere after Muslim authority was established over their lands could have recaptured their countries and launched powerful attacks against the Muslims.

Jizya

In the Islamic caliphate, the money collected from dhimmis (non-Muslim loyal citizens) in exchange for protecting and safeguarding their lives, property, honor, and dignity was called “jizya” in Islamic terminology. It was collected only from adult, healthy, able-bodied men. It was not imposed on women, children, the poor, or the disabled. Hazrat Umar (RA) granted stipends from the public treasury to many poor dhimmis. Jizya was imposed according to a person’s financial condition, and its amount was neither less than 12 dirhams nor more than 28 dirhams. Hazrat Umar (RA) especially instructed the caliphs who succeeded him to show kindness toward the dhimmis, treat them gently, honor their agreements, fight to protect their lives and property, and not impose upon them responsibilities beyond their capacity.

Zakat

During the caliphate, zakat was imposed, in accordance with the Qur’an and Sunnah, on all kinds of Muslims’ accumulated wealth, livestock, cash assets, and agricultural produce. This zakat was duly collected and distributed among its eight categories of recipients.

Customs Duties

When Muslim merchants exported their goods abroad, that country collected from them a customs duty of one-tenth. When Hazrat Umar (RA) learned of this, he likewise ordered that a similar duty be imposed on goods imported into the Islamic state. In addition, one-twentieth was collected from dhimmi merchants and one-fortieth of the total wealth from Muslim merchants. However, nothing was imposed on wealth valued at less than two hundred dirhams.

Currency

Before Islam, Iranian and Roman gold and silver coins were in circulation in Arabia. These coins also remained in use during the caliphate of the Noble Prophet (SAW) and Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA). After the conquest of Iran, Hazrat Umar (RA) expressed his intention to standardize the weight of the dirham, since Iranian coins varied in weight. In short, during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate, the modern state system existed in a complete and functioning form and was in no way backward.

Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA)

Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) was the first caliph of the Islamic democratic state. In Islamic history, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) holds the place immediately after the Noble Messenger Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). In terms of Islamic tradition as well, he was the first outstanding person after the Messenger. Through his twenty-three years of effort, the Noble Prophet (SAW) presented Islam’s complete way of life, shattered the edifice of Arabia’s deep ignorance, and established Islam’s brilliant ideal state upon its ruins. Immediately after his death, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) crushed the uprising head of the counterrevolutionary forces of ignorance and preserved the existence of the Islamic state. For this reason, alongside discussion and analysis of the Prophet’s life, it is necessary to discuss the life of the first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), with greater importance. In this essay, I shall not discuss the complete biography of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA). Its sole purpose is to present a brief discussion of his qualities and distinguishing characteristics.

In the flow of time, the past, present, and future are so closely intertwined that no one period can be viewed as even slightly separate from another. For guiding the future path of any nation, the best approach is to examine its past with deep and penetrating insight. To rescue a nation from the faults and deviations observed in its national life, it is also necessary to place its brilliant past before the people. Just as, in diagnosing and determining a sick person’s disease and prescribing its treatment, it is necessary to examine the condition preceding the illness from beginning to end, so the discussion of past history and the study of the lives of historical figures are indispensable for diagnosing and treating a nation’s diseases. At the present time, the Muslim nation of the world has reached the extreme limit of decline. At this moment, the life-ideal of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) will undoubtedly be valued as a guide for the life-path of the Muslim nation.

Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) was the first among men to believe that Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) was truly a prophet. It was this faith that later earned him the honor of being given the title “Siddiq,” or “the truthful confirmer.” Throughout the long twenty-three years of prophethood, in his effort to establish the religion of Islam, he did not hesitate in the least to sacrifice his life, property, and honor; rather, in this respect he was ahead of all other Companions and Muslims. From the time he accepted Islam until the death of the Noble Messenger (SAW), he remained constantly occupied with assisting His Eminence, propagating the religion of Islam, and protecting Muslims from the oppression and persecution of the unbelievers. He gave every instruction of the Messenger precedence over all his own affairs. He cared nothing for his own life for the Messenger’s sake. In every direct confrontation with the unbelievers, he fought shoulder to shoulder with the Messenger. Alongside his unprecedented firmness of faith and steel-like steadfastness, his noble character was an incomparable model for the Muslims of the world. For this reason, he was an exceedingly popular person, and the love of all Muslims for him was extraordinary.

Because of Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) religious standing and the people’s boundless devotion and respect for him, when the Noble Messenger (SAW) was lying on his sickbed, the Messenger himself instructed him to lead the prayer. This was a highly significant event. After the Messenger’s death, he was elected the first caliph of the Islamic state. After detailed discussion in the general assembly of the Muslims, he was unanimously elected caliph. Upon being elected caliph, the valuable speech he delivered at that time was not only a historical event for the Muslims of the world; it was also an eternal guide in the field of Islamic political philosophy. The complete form of this speech is quoted here. Addressing the assembled people, he said in a solemn voice:

O people! The desire to become the head of state never arose in my mind; I myself was never desirous of this office. I never secretly or openly prayed to Allah to obtain it.

I have accepted this responsibility only so that no disorder may arise in the country.

I find not the slightest peace or comfort in holding governmental authority.

Such a great responsibility has been placed upon me that, without Allah’s help, I will not be able to discharge it successfully.

I have been appointed your leader, although I am not the best among you.

If I follow the straight and correct path, then help and support me. And if I abandon the path of justice, then guide me to the right path.

Truthfulness is a trust, while falsehood is treachery.

The powerless among you shall be powerful in my eyes; I shall secure all his rights for him.

And whoever is very powerful shall have no influence with me; if a weak person has any right over him, I shall not rest until that right has been fully secured.

When injustice, sin, and shamelessness spread among a people, Allah’s punishment descends upon them.

So long as I obey Allah and His Messenger, you too shall obey me.

But if I disobey Allah and His Messenger, it shall not be your duty to obey me.

The bold effort that Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) undertook during his brief caliphate to establish the supremacy of Islam’s ordinances has no parallel in the history of the Muslim world. In reality, during his caliphate the foundations of the Islamic state were firmly strengthened and it expanded across a vast part of the world. This great state extended in Asia as far as India and China, and in Africa as far as Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco. In short, this state accomplished immensely important work for the advancement of human civilization and culture, whose direct influence will continue until the end of the world.

Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) was the lifelong companion, devoted friend, and sincere and steadfast follower of the Noble Messenger (SAW). His heart was exceptionally compassionate. He was adorned with incomparable virtues and qualities.

After he was elected the first Caliph, Islam suffered the severe assault of the counterrevolutionary activities of the apostates, those who had abandoned Islam. In fact, at that time the Islamic state faced a delicate situation. Yet it was solely the incomparable personality of Abu Bakr (RA) that protected this nascent Islamic state from the assaults of the counterrevolutionary movement and saved the Muslim populace from destruction and catastrophe. He led armies against the Persian and Roman states and destroyed all the enemies of Islam at their roots. The state that arose thereafter has not yet been erased from the consciousness of the nations of the world, nor can it ever be erased.

The history of Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) caliphate is truly astonishing. It is from this history that the remarkable aspects of his immense personality shine before us. This great champion of truth was constantly engaged in helping the poor and needy. Seeing examples of his service to the poor makes it clear that there was no one on earth more compassionate toward the poor than he. On the other hand, his heroic steps to spread Islam and establish its supremacy awakened the pulse of new life in the heart of a worn-out nation. Before Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) courage, fortitude, steadfastness, and valor, the combined power of the contemporary world was as lowly and insignificant as a blade of grass. This foremost symbol of resolve and determination knew nothing of hesitation, reserve, or indecision. His ability and foresight in accurately understanding people’s latent talents, strength, and competence; appointing different people to different tasks according to their abilities and talents; and obtaining work from them accordingly were unquestionably unparalleled.

During the lifetime of the Noble Messenger (SAW), Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) lived as a devoted lover of the Messenger. Whenever the fierce Quraysh inflicted various inhuman tortures and abuses upon the Noble Messenger (SAW), Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) would place his own chest before them in his defense. He was the very first to accept the Islamic call of the Messenger of Allah, and during the difficult and precarious Hijrah he remained the Messenger of Allah’s faithful companion, sacrificing his all along the rugged desert- and mountain-filled route from the cave of Mount Thawr to Madinah. In Madinah, the Noble Messenger (SAW) had to face the conspiracies of the Jews and the guile of the hypocrites; and as a result of the continuous hostile activities of the Quraysh of Makkah and the Jews of Madinah, the entire Arab land became opposed to the Messenger. In this complex period, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), as the special companion and adviser of the Prophet (SAW), performed important services. In truth, the role Abu Bakr (RA) played in establishing Islam’s supremacy and the great service he rendered in this regard during the Messenger’s lifetime are not merely matters to be recorded in golden letters; each of them individually is sufficient to keep his life eternally alive. Indeed, it is exceedingly difficult to describe Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) excellence and status in words. For the sacrifices he made for the propagation and establishment of Islam were fundamentally matters of the heart and faith. Only Allah Most High knows the profound love for Islam and the Noble Messenger (SAW) that existed in his heart. The events that occurred during Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) caliphate after the Messenger’s death, and the policies and measures he adopted, reveal the first Caliph’s penetrating judgment, foresight, and deep and subtle knowledge. Immediately after he was elected Caliph, when the apostates raised their heads, he confronted them with great firmness and crushed the rebels with a strong hand. Thereafter he turned his attention to the Persian and Roman empires. Against these two states he employed the weapon of equality, and they possessed no weapon with which to protect themselves from its effect. The peoples of the Persian and Roman empires were being crushed under the cruel oppression of monarchy. The subjects of both empires had been divided into various classes. The curse of hereditary and tribal discrimination and distinction lay upon both peoples like an immovable boulder. The rulers regarded the common people as lowly and considered it their duty to deprive them of every kind of honor, dignity, and right. At precisely this time, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) raised the banner of Islam’s justice, fairness, and equality. He gave the commanders invading Persia and Rome special instructions never to let go of the standards of justice, fairness, and equality even for a moment, and clearly directed them to treat all the people of the conquered lands equally, regardless of nation, religion, or lineage. As a result, the people, battered for ages by oppression, persecution, tyranny, and inequality, were captivated by the radiance of Islam’s generous principles of equality and justice and surged forth like a bursting flood; despite the great military power and invincible armed forces of those two states, they were compelled to accept defeat at the hands of the few, poorly armed but heroic Muslim mujahidin.

Between the lifetime of the Noble Messenger (SAW) and the second phase of the caliphate, namely the caliphate of Hazrat Umar (RA), Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) caliphate possesses a great distinctiveness and special status. The age of the Messenger was essentially a period of guidance and reform. The sacred laws of the Shariah were revealed then. Laws and regulations were continuously revealed through the Messenger from Allah for the eternal guidance of humanity. In contrast, the age of Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) was an organizational phase. Rules were then formulated for administering the newly established state and carrying out all its functions; various departments were formed to maintain order in the affairs of the caliphate. Although the caliphate of the first Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), lay between these two periods, it shone with a distinct character because of the extraordinary and unusual circumstances that arose during it.

The disasters and calamities that arose during Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) caliphate placed all of Islam in grave danger. The united nation formed through the twenty-three years of the Prophet’s (SAW) striving and struggle was on the verge of being torn apart by a devastating disorder. In fact, the beginnings of political disorder had appeared during the final part of the Messenger’s lifetime. A false claimant named Musaylimah ibn Habib, claiming prophethood from Yamamah, sent a messenger with the message that half of Arabia should be handed over to him. Then another impostor, Aswad Ansi, also tried to attract the people of Yemen to himself by performing magic. After gathering strength, he even drove out the officials appointed by the Noble Messenger (SAW) from southern Yemen and brought it under his own rule. At that time the Noble Messenger (SAW) was compelled to send troops to Yemen to arrange for his defeat. Although the Arabs had believed in tawhid and abandoned idol worship, many of them were not fully aware of the inseparable relationship between Islam’s religious unity and its political governing institution. The Arabs were naturally freedom-loving; accepting subordination to any organized state government and continuing to obey it wholeheartedly was not in their nature. Thus, immediately after the Messenger’s death, various Arab tribes began declaring rebellion against the government of Madinah. The fire of rebellion spread rapidly from one end of Arabia to the other. Alongside the apostates, many others also refused to pay zakat to the Bayt al-Mal. When this news reached Madinah, terrible anxiety and unrest arose among the people. They could not understand what should be done in this precarious situation. Some Companions—even Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA)—held that no armed action should be taken against those who refused zakat at this difficult moment; rather, so long as they recited the kalimah tayyibah, ‘There is no god but Allah,’ it would be proper not to declare war against them. They thought that if an attempt were made to suppress those who refused zakat along with the rebels, the battlefield would become much wider and more extensive, with consequences unlikely to be good. But the heroic Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), disregarding every danger and apprehension, declared his resolve to wage open war against the zakat rebels just as against the apostate rebels, and no force could deter him from this course.

The importance of this war against the apostates in Islamic history is immense. Indeed, it would be no exaggeration to say that this war saved Islam and the Islamic state from eternal destruction. It is clear that if Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), in accordance with the opinion of most of the people of Madinah, had not waged this jihad against the apostates, the turmoil and disorder would not have been reduced at all. And if the Islamic army had not won this war, the situation would have deteriorated beyond description, bringing both Islam and the Muslims face to face with total destruction.

In view of this situation, it may be stated without doubt that Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) displayed extraordinary wisdom by building a strong resistance against the apostates. In reality, through this he changed the course of world history and newly laid the foundation of human civilization and culture.

Had Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) not triumphed in this jihad against the apostates, success for the Muslims against the Persian and Roman empires would have been out of the question; they could not even have advanced toward Iraq and Syria. In that case, it would have been utterly impossible to establish Islamic civilization and culture upon the ruins of those two great anti-Islamic states in place of Christian civilization and culture.

Had this great jihad not been organized, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) would probably not even have felt the need to advise Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) to compile the Noble Qur’an in book form.

Moreover, had it not been possible to destroy the apostates’ rebellion at its roots, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) could not have governed any strong state in Madinah, and it would never have been possible for Hazrat Umar (RA) to build a sky-high palace upon the firm foundation of the Islamic state governed by him.

In fact, these great and revolutionary events took place within the brief period of only twenty-seven months. People of this school do not wish to attach much importance to this short caliphate; rather, by the Rashidun Caliphate, and even by the Islamic state, they mean chiefly the caliphate of the second Caliph, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA), and present that before the public. They think that Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) could not accomplish any very great revolutionary work in this limited period and that his brief tenure was insufficient for such work. But in reality this is not at all true. Most of the revolutions in world history that opened ever-wider avenues of progress before humanity were accomplished in very short periods. History offers no shortage of examples. The first foundation of the Islamic state revolution created in world history was laid by the Noble Messenger (SAW). Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) protected it from the blows of counterrevolutionary attacks, and Hazrat Umar (RA) raised it to the highest stage of progress. Therefore, to properly understand the advanced caliphate-state of Umar Faruq (RA), it is essential to study in detail the caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), who preceded him and followed the Noble Prophet (SAW). We shall draw the readers’ attention to this subject.

The Distinctive Qualities of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA)

The Islamic society formed through the Islamic call and movement of the World Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), had no greater person after Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) than Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA). His superiority was unanimously recognized by the entire Muslim society not only during the World Prophet’s lifetime; even after his departure, he remained the undisputed foremost man throughout the Muslim world. Indeed, in the past, no center of Islamic society ever displayed the slightest disagreement on this matter. There was no room for disagreement concerning it.

Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that very few people are aware of the fundamental reasons for Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq’s (RA) undisputed superiority and of his special qualities and characteristics. What was the true reason that all Muslims’ attention was drawn toward him during the lifetime of the Noble Prophet (SAW)? This is a highly important question for the Muslim mind. Yet it is universally known that, among the qualities generally recognized in pre-Islamic Arabia as measures of superiority, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) possessed not the slightest distinction in any one respect. He was born into Quraysh’s aristocratic and highly respected Taym clan. But in the Age of Ignorance, his clan enjoyed no more honor or status than the other branches of Quraysh throughout Arab society; moreover, as a well-informed merchant he possessed considerable financial comfort, but men wealthier than him were still living among Quraysh. He was trusted and respected by the people of his lineage and clan. In Quraysh’s jahili social order, neither Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) nor the people of his lineage and clan could ever attain superiority and precedence equal to that of the other people. In the pre-Islamic age, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was not particularly advanced in eloquence, poetry, soothsaying, rivalry for leadership, or similar matters, and therefore could not command the same honor as others in contemporary society. Yet despite this, through what qualities, virtues, and public-benefiting deeds had the finest and purest society in human history accepted Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) as its leader and first Caliph, and placed unreserved confidence in him in all matters of religion and worldly life? There is no doubt that this question is immensely important for every student of history and every Muslim in general. But it is especially important to those today who wish to acquaint Muslims and the modern world with the characteristics of Islamic society and who strive to educate and awaken Muslim people regarding the ideal character of leadership. Indeed, because the comprehensive and beautiful ideal and standard that Islam presented for forming society and individuals was once implemented and realized, it became possible for Muslims to attain great leaders such as Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) and Hazrat Umar (RA).

An attempt has been made in this essay to answer the question under discussion. This essay sheds light on the character, qualities, and incomparable public service of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA). Observing the excellence and exalted status that Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) attained as a leader in the fully developed Islamic society, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) said in a deeply despairing voice:

If this is the true standard of excellence and caliphate, then your successors as Caliphs will face great difficulty, for no one will be able to attain your equal.

Purity of Nature and Character

When we discuss the life of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), the first thing that shines before us is the purity, refinement, and clarity of his heart and mind. For this reason, he had no particular difficulty or delay in recognizing Islam and the Noble Prophet (SAW) correctly. As soon as Islam’s call and the prophethood of the Noble Messenger were presented to him, he accepted them wholeheartedly. No doubt, hesitation, or jahili sense of superiority could create even the slightest obstacle in this path. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was a respected and honored man in contemporary society, and it is a psychological truth that a respected and leading person faces a mountain-like obstacle when accepting another person’s leadership. But Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) faced no such obstacle. This clearly proves that, despite being a respected and leading person, his heart and mind were completely free from the arrogance of leadership and the pride of honor.

By nature he was a profoundly perceptive and learned man with a critic’s eye. His life during the Age of Ignorance testifies that he was never prepared to accept anything without testing and examining it on the touchstone of criticism. Thus it was entirely impossible for him to believe blindly in Islam and the prophethood of the Prophet. Nevertheless, the sole reason he accepted Islam without delay was that, owing to his extraordinary mental purity and natural clarity, his mind was as bright and radiant as daylight regarding the Prophet’s truthfulness and the accuracy of his words. That is why he accepted Islam as the echo of his own heart. Ibn al-Daghinnah, an influential man of the jahili society, spontaneously declared concerning Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA): ‘You maintain the rights of close relatives, always speak the truth, provide for the needs of the needy, and help the wounded, oppressed, and afflicted.’ It goes without saying that no impurity can accumulate on the clear heart of such a person, nor could there be the slightest delay in acknowledging the Messenger’s truthfulness and accepting Islam. For one possessing such a pure soul and clear mind, the Prophet’s call and radiant countenance were almost equivalent to a miracle. At the very sound of truth, his consciousness awakened and his heart humbled itself. The World Prophet himself, testifying clearly to this quality of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), said:

Everyone to whom I presented the call of Islam felt some hesitation, doubt, and reserve about accepting Islam. But Abu Bakr ibn Abu Quhafa was the exception. Whenever I presented this matter to him, he faced no obstacle in accepting it, nor did he feel the slightest hesitation in this regard.

Because of his uniquely pure nature and character, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) gathered around himself countless people of pure character and righteous deeds. They were especially drawn to him because of his character, qualities, and excellence. In every important matter of life, they accepted his decisions wholeheartedly. When they saw that Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) had accepted Islam, they could not help being inspired by the decision of this discerning companion and trusted leader. Consequently, they too did not delay long in accepting Islam. Great personalities such as Hazrat Uthman ibn Affan, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Talhah ibn Ubaydullah, Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah accepted Islam through Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) invitation, and because of these great men the Islamic movement became extremely strong at its very first stage. Each of them was an extraordinary asset to Islam in ability and capability, and the greatness and eminence of the man who brought such people into Islam cannot be fully expressed in words.

Moral Strength and Matchless Courage

The moral strength and incomparable courage of Abu Bakr (RA) in proclaiming Allah’s word in the world and raising the banner of Islam are without parallel. It is universally known that he was both a leading figure and a merchant. For a leader, accepting another person’s leadership and thereby inviting danger upon his own leadership is extremely difficult. Moreover, accepting a movement through which one becomes despised and rebuked by the people, and which may ultimately destroy one’s business, requires extraordinary courage and resolve. For it may severely damage one’s material interests and livelihood. Ordinary, narrow-minded merchants could scarcely accomplish such a thing. Even if a merchant showed exceptional daring in this regard, one could expect no more than that he would wholeheartedly support a movement of his choice and provide it with as much financial assistance as possible. But to accept a movement in principle with one’s heart and mind, to engage in an all-out struggle against powerful opposing forces in order to establish its ideals in practice, and furthermore to expose one’s business and livelihood to grave danger—very few people can show such daring. Yet Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) displayed it to the fullest. Thereafter, all the daring adventurers who stepped onto this perilous path had before them only the remarkable revolutionary example of Abu Bakr (RA).¹{An unparalleled example of financial sacrifice: Abu Bakr (RA) was exceptionally generous in spending money both to establish and to defend Islam. Among the entire body of the noble Companions, his role in this matter was incomparable and exemplary. Whenever the Noble Messenger (SAW) called upon the Companions to make financial sacrifices for any cause, Abu Bakr (RA) came forward with the spirit of the highest sacrifice. During the expedition of Tabuk, when the Noble Messenger (SAW) called upon the Companions to make the greatest possible sacrifice, Abu Bakr (RA) alone expressed his intention to give all his wealth in the way of Allah. He was asked how his family would live if he gave away all his wealth. He replied: ‘Allah and His Messenger are sufficient for them.’ How wholly devoted Abu Bakr (RA) was to the way of Allah can be deeply understood from this unparalleled example of his financial sacrifice. —Editor}

Helping and Supporting the Oppressed

During the severe trials faced by the Islamic movement in its early stage, the contribution made by Abu Bakr’s (RA) wealth toward rescuing the oppressed followers of truth from the persecution of Islam’s enemies has few parallels in history. People from the slave class, such as Bilal al-Habashi (RA) and Ibn Fuhairah (RA), were being crushed in utter helplessness under the tyranny and oppression of their masters for the crime of accepting Islam. Through Abu Bakr’s (RA) affection and generosity, they were freed from this unbearable torment. For this, he had to spend a vast amount of money. The scale of his expenditure in this cause may be estimated from one fact. When Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) accepted Islam, he had forty thousand dirhams in cash savings; but twelve or thirteen years later, when he emigrated to Madinah, only five thousand dirhams remained with him. Yet throughout this long period his business had continued very successfully and had yielded substantial profits.²{Trustworthiness regarding the state treasury: Abu Bakr (RA) regarded the state’s wealth as a great trust, just as he regarded the administrative authority of the caliphate as a trust. Since he conducted trade to earn his livelihood, at first he took no salary or allowance from the state treasury. Later, however, his business became inactive because his full-time duties in the caliphate left him no time for it, so he began receiving a nominal allowance from the state treasury like an ordinary citizen. This barely sufficed to support his family. Once, under these circumstances, his wife saved small amounts of food and prepared a sweet dish. When the Caliph asked her in surprise, she explained that she had been saving portions from the regular provisions. Hearing this, the Caliph remarked: The amount of food saved to make this sweet could be dispensed with even by us. Therefore, in future, that quantity of food will be reduced from what is brought from the Bayt al-Mal. This incident proves how vigilant he was concerning the trust placed in the state treasury. —Editor}

Self-Sacrifice for the Messenger

From the beginning of the World Prophet’s Islamic call and movement until the final stage of severe danger and hardship, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) remained self-sacrificing and wholly devoted to him. Whenever the Quraysh tried to inflict any pain or torment upon the World Prophet, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) immediately placed his own life and honor at risk, came forward to help him, and advanced to confront the impending danger. Some leading men whose authority and leadership had been threatened by the growing popularity and progress of the Islamic call once gathered at a certain place to consult one another and became preoccupied with devising means of taking the necessary measures for self-protection against the approaching danger. They were all terribly angry, resentful, and blinded by rage. Just then the Noble Prophet (SAW) arrived there. These enemies of Islam suddenly attacked him. They said: ‘You are the one who insults and condemns our religion and our worshipped idols.’ The Noble Prophet (SAW) replied, ‘Yes, I am the one who does so.’ Suddenly one man seized the Prophet’s cloak and raised his hand intending to strike him severely. At once Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) arrived there. He understood their evil intention. Taking every danger upon himself, he stepped forward and cried angrily: ‘Would you kill a man merely because he declares that Allah alone is his Lord?’

At the difficult moment of the Hijrah, the Noble Prophet (SAW) chose Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) as his traveling companion. The Prophet’s journey was extremely perilous, and Abu Bakr (RA) knew very well that his life could be endangered at any moment. He also knew that, on this journey, the danger likely to befall his companion would be no less than that threatening the Prophet himself. Yet even after clearly knowing and understanding all this, he regarded it as a great blessing for himself and thanked Allah that he would have the opportunity to accompany the Prophet and confront every kind of danger on the journey.

On the way from Makkah to Madinah, this small caravan first took shelter in a mountain cave called Thawr. When entering this cave, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) gave practical proof of his devotion to the Prophet. In the uninhabited mountain cave infested with wild beasts, Abu Bakr (RA) entered first and cleaned it. He blocked its countless openings. The Noble Prophet (SAW) was resting there with his head on Abu Bakr as-Siddiq’s (RA) knee. At that moment, a venomous snake emerged from an open hole and bit Abu Bakr (RA) on the foot. Abu Bakr (RA) was afflicted by the poison, but fearing that the Prophet might awaken and that his rest might be disturbed, he did not move even slightly. The excruciating pain of the poison, however, caused him such distress that two tears fell from his eyes onto the Messenger’s cheek. It is difficult for us to imagine what boundless love and sincere reverence for the Messenger (SAW) enabled Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) to behave in this way.

A Remarkable Balance of Firmness and Gentleness

Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) possessed a remarkable balance of firmness and gentleness. This was one of his principal characteristics and, for that reason, was deeply harmonious with the Prophet’s nature. Wherever firmness was necessary, he stood firm as steel to precisely the required degree. Conversely, wherever gentleness was essential, he never indulged in baseless anger or empty notions of self-respect. There he was like melted, liquefied metal. Once, a Jew named Fakhakh was mocking while invoking Allah’s name; this caused a fierce fire of anger to blaze in Abu Bakr’s (RA) body. He struck the man with all his strength and said, ‘Had no “no-war” treaty been signed between you and us, I would cut off your head this instant.’ When the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was being signed, the Quraysh representatives mockingly told the Noble Prophet (SAW) that his companions would abandon him in a time of severe danger. Abu Bakr (RA) became extremely angry and answered so harshly that such words would ordinarily not be expected from a patient man like him. But his sense of honor and dignity was so keen that this reply burst spontaneously from his lips. Moreover, the person to whom he spoke so harshly had been one of Abu Bakr’s (RA) protégés during the Age of Ignorance. For that reason, the man was compelled to endure and swallow the rebuke.

On the other hand, when Allah crowned the Muslims with victory at the Battle of Badr and numerous unbelieving chiefs were brought as captives, he revealed himself as an unfathomable ocean of affection and mercy toward them. Yet he could not forget for a moment that these Quraysh chiefs had tormented helpless Muslims through persecution and oppression, had driven the steamroller of inhuman cruelty over the World Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and his Companions, and had forced them to leave their homeland. Abu Bakr (RA) himself had also suffered persecution and oppression at their hands in many ways. But for Islam he endured all this without complaint. Even so, he could not think of taking the slightest revenge on these captives. Therefore, unlike some other Companions, he advised the World Prophet not to have the prisoners killed, but to release them after accepting ransom. Abu Bakr (RA) believed and hoped that, receiving this unexpected kindness from the Muslims, the unbelieving chiefs might be attracted toward Islam and strive to earn Allah’s pleasure.

Foresight and Discernment

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah is an important chapter in Islamic history. The circumstances in which this treaty was concluded and the terms upon which it was based appeared extremely disappointing and heart-rending for the Muslims. Yet its eventual outcome was not merely a great source of encouragement for Islam and the Muslims; in reality, it was for them a clear victory—Fath Mubīn. Abu Bakr’s (RA) role when this treaty was signed displayed undeniable evidence of his subtle foresight, sharp judgment, and immense presence of mind. Not a single Companion was prepared to accept its terms. Umar al-Faruq (RA) was so opposed to the terms that he went before the Messenger and spoke in extremely harsh words. (For this he regretted it throughout his life.) Only Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) supported the Messenger from beginning to end in this matter. He not only supported the treaty with all his strength, but also used his influence to reassure the other Muslims. It was as a result of these efforts that Umar al-Faruq’s (RA) dissatisfaction was eventually calmed.

Indeed, although the treaty openly and outwardly appeared harmful to the Muslims, damaging to their dignity and ominous for the future—and although, for this reason, not one person in the entire Muslim community supported it with complete confidence—Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA), several years before its benefits became evident, perceived with the eye of insight its far-reaching goodness. The Noble Prophet (SAW), through revelation and divine inspiration, was fully aware of the inherent benefits and immense advantages of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was therefore firm, convinced, and unshakable. But the support and firmness Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) displayed without such assistance was truly astonishing. If this was the successful effect of the spontaneous light of faith, then it must be said that this highest degree of faith had been attained only by Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA). And, by virtue of his political insight and discernment, it has no real parallel in the history underlying the treaty.

Equally Beloved to Allah, the Messenger, and the Muslims

Because of his sincere and devoted service, Abu Bakr (RA) was equally beloved by Allah, the Messenger, and the Muslim people. In fact, the honor of this popularity was so elevated that, after the World Prophet, it is doubtful whether anyone else equaled him in this respect. No example of it can be found in Islamic history. Here, several of its causes are being mentioned.

When the Noble Prophet (SAW) was lying on his deathbed, he assigned Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) the responsibility of leading the people in prayer. In this matter, he firmly rejected every suggestion that anyone else should do so. Consequently, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) regularly led the prayer. One day, because he could not reach the mosque at the proper time, Bilal (RA) asked Umar al-Faruq (RA) to lead the prayer. Fearing that the prayer would be delayed, Umar (RA) began leading it. His voice was extremely loud and far-reaching. As soon as the sound of his takbir reached the ears of the World Prophet, who was lying in the chamber adjoining the mosque, he suddenly raised himself and asked, ‘Where is Abu Bakr today?… This is pleasing neither to Allah nor to the Muslim people.’

Not only that, the extraordinary honor and trust Abu Bakr (RA) enjoyed in the eyes of the World Prophet were also unparalleled. The Noble Prophet (SAW) himself expressed this clearly in one of his sayings:

Among all the Companions, no one has shown him greater favor than I have. If I were to take anyone in human society as an intimate friend, I would take Abu Bakr (RA) as my friend. Of course, our friendship, companionship, brotherhood, and firm bond of faith already exist and will remain until Allah reunites us. (Bukhari)

How great Abu Bakr’s (RA) position was in the presence of the World Prophet can be clearly understood from the course of the Messenger’s life. In Makkah, the Noble Prophet (SAW) often visited Abu Bakr’s (RA) home. In Madinah as well, his presence was indispensable in most important matters. One day, the Prophet had invited three poor Companions to his own home for a meal; but he was detained at the Messenger’s court until late at night by an especially urgent matter and could not return home in time to entertain them. Umar al-Faruq (RA) himself said that Abu Bakr (RA) was the World Prophet’s constant companion. His help and advice were extremely necessary in all the Muslims’ general and civilizational affairs. He was informed about many confidential matters. Before the Prophet’s death, of all the doors opening into the mosque’s precincts, every door except Abu Bakr’s (RA) was closed. Whenever the Companions saw the Noble Prophet (SAW) unusually angry, they learned the true situation through Abu Bakr (RA) and, when necessary, sought forgiveness.

Character Traits

Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) was naturally adorned with an elevated and noble character. Even during the Age of Ignorance, he possessed the virtues of purity, honesty, compassion, generosity, justice, and trustworthiness. In the society of that time, he was a trustworthy man. Although he was a respected member of a society in which drinking, adultery, and wickedness had assumed an all-consuming form, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) remained completely pure from all its corruption and filth. Indeed, these qualities were present in him by nature. Later, through the moral teachings of the Qur’an and his close companionship with the Prophet, these qualities shone even more brightly in his character.

Taqwa reaches full maturity in a person when, on the one hand, his mind is free from every false thought and ideology and, on the other, his limbs refrain from every wrongful and sinful act. After the World Prophet, such taqwa was manifested in Abu Bakr’s (RA) character more clearly than in anyone else.

Abu Bakr (RA) naturally detested leadership, authority, domination, love of the world, and craving for honor. He spent his wealth freely and generously in the way of Allah. Indeed, during the caliphate he became indebted by six thousand dirhams. Even so, he was unwilling to spend even the smallest amount of public money for himself. Therefore, before his death, he instructed that his own garden be sold to repay the debt owed to the Bayt al-Mal, and that whatever money remained should be sent to the succeeding Caliph.

Firmness and Steadfastness

The greatest hardship and trial in Abu Bakr’s (RA) life came at the time of the World Prophet’s death. The affection and attachment he felt for the Prophet may be described as love. Yet, despite this, the incomparable patience and composure he displayed upon hearing of the World Prophet’s death have few parallels in history. Not only that: had Abu Bakr’s (RA) unshakable firmness and powerful steadfastness not guided the Muslims along the right path at this critical moment for Islam, there is no doubt that the entire Muslim community would have faced a terrible and all-encompassing catastrophe. In fact, when the general Muslims heard of the Prophet’s death, they became deeply distressed, and many lost all sense of direction. Even a strong and clear-minded man like Umar (RA) became so overwhelmed that, standing in the Prophet’s Mosque, he addressed the Muslim public, saying that the Prophet (SAW) had not died; rather, just as Moses had gone to Allah for forty days and then returned, Muhammad (SAW) had likewise gone away briefly and would return. If anyone said that the Prophet had died, he even threatened to kill him outright, saying that after the Noble Prophet (SAW) returned, such speakers would be severely punished.

Indeed, it is impossible to form an accurate idea of how unbearable that terrible event, which caused such an intense reaction in Umar al-Faruq’s (RA) mind, must have been for the other Companions. Moreover, one can only faintly imagine what a devastating reaction the news of the Prophet’s death could produce in Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA), the World Prophet’s constant companion. It is especially shattering when we know that Abu Bakr (RA) would become restless even at the Prophet’s slightest pain. Yet how Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) remained patient upon hearing of the World Prophet’s death, how he faced this heart-rending event, and how he saved the Muslim people from utter darkness through the light of the Qur’an is truly astonishing. At the moment of the Prophet’s death, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA) was not in Madinah; he was at a place called Sanah, near the city. Upon receiving the news, he quickly arrived in Madinah. He found everyone burdened with grief and troubled with anxiety, and saw Umar al-Faruq (RA) standing in the Prophet’s Mosque delivering a speech. He did not stop anywhere even for a moment, but went straight to Aisha’s (RA) room, removed the covering from the Prophet’s blessed face, and kissed it. Addressing him, he said: ‘How pure and noble you were in life, and how pure you are today in death!’ Then he went before the assembled people and said:

Those who worshipped Muhammad (SAW) must know that Muhammad (SAW) has died. And those who worshipped and served Allah must remember that Allah is eternally alive and living; He does not die.

Then he recited this verse from the Noble Qur’an:

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Muhammad was only a Messenger. Many Messengers passed away before him. If he should die or be killed, would you turn back?

Upon hearing this verse, Umar (RA) understood that the Messenger’s death was certain. As soon as this realization arose intensely in his mind, he collapsed to the ground, overcome with grief. After this, he and the other Muslims began to think deeply about the seriousness and magnitude of the matter and its far-reaching consequences. Indeed, the shock caused in the public mind by the Prophet’s death had deprived almost everyone of the power to think and judge. The blow of Abu Bakr’s (RA) speech caused the dense darkness to vanish into nothingness at once. Anyone with even the slightest understanding of social science can appreciate how great a danger the Muslim community was rescued from by this.

Political Foresight and Wisdom

One event immediately following the Prophet’s death is sufficient to prove Abu Bakr’s (RA) superiority in political foresight and wisdom. The Prophet had died, and the burial arrangements had not yet been completed. Meanwhile, the Ansar of Madinah had gathered at Saqifah Banu Sa’idah and begun deliberating and reflecting on the system of government and the caliphate after the Messenger. During this discussion, the question also arose: who would thereafter possess the right to the caliphate—the Ansar or the Muhajirun? The Ansar were highly conscious of their rights, and the Muhajirun were in no way behind them. Matters reached a point at which some people said: ‘One amir will be from among us, and one amir will be from among you.’ The situation became so confused and tense that, at any moment, countless sharpened swords might have been drawn.

On the one hand, there was this difficult situation. On the other hand, the leading Muhajirs, including Hazrat Umar and Hazrat Abu Ubaidah (RA), were deeply engaged in discussion at the Prophet’s Mosque regarding the situation after the Prophet’s death. At that time, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), accompanied by Hazrat Ali (RA), was busy arranging the Prophet’s shrouding and burial. Meanwhile, someone conveyed to Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) news of the assembly convened at Saqifah Banu Sa’idah. He was also informed of the speeches delivered by the Ansar leaders. Upon receiving this news, he sent for Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) to come outside. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) expressed his preoccupation. But when he was informed of the gravity of the situation, he clearly understood that unless the situation was brought under control immediately, there was a grave danger that the Muslim ummah would be torn into pieces. Thinking of the future of Islam and the Muslim nation, he postponed the important task of the Prophet’s burial arrangements. Then, in order to attempt to save the Muslim nation from imminent destruction, he went to Saqifah Banu Sa’idah accompanied by Hazrat Umar and Abu Ubaidah (RA).

Upon reaching Saqifah Banu Sa’idah, he first tried to assess the entire situation and understand its true nature. He could clearly sense that the intensity of some of the speeches had deeply wounded the hearts of those present. Many people had become extremely agitated. Yet even upon witnessing this situation, he was not in the least discouraged. He began bringing the situation under control and removing the mutual misunderstandings among the people. When Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) first wished to speak, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) restrained him, for he understood that in this tense situation Hazrat Umar al-Faruq’s speech might make matters even more confused. He then stood up and began to speak himself. His speech was exceedingly solemn, moving, poignant, and richly embellished with elevated language. His address was founded in every respect on justice, knowledge, and reason. It touched the hearts of the assembled people and melted them. Some of the Ansar wished to reply to this speech, but in order to preserve peace, this was not at all possible. He said everything that could appropriately be said in praise of the Ansar, and at the same time presented his own view of the prevailing situation on the basis of exceptionally conclusive arguments. As a result, all the clouds, fears, doubts, and labyrinths of uncertainty vanished in an instant. When he saw that the situation had calmed and all the commotion of discord and strife had disappeared, he proposed, as a most capable statesman: “Hazrat Umar and Hazrat Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (RA) are among the best of your people; choose whichever of them you wish and pledge bay’ah to him.”

As soon as Hazrat Umar (RA) heard this proposal, he determined what his duty was. Before anyone else’s name could become the subject of discussion, with remarkable presence of mind he extended his hand toward Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) and said:

“Extend your hand; we shall pledge bay’ah to you. The Noble Messenger (SAW) appointed you to lead the prayers in his place. For this reason, you alone are the person fit to become the caliph of the Muslim community. By pledging bay’ah to you, we shall in reality gain the opportunity to pledge bay’ah to the best of the beloved companions of the Messenger.”

Hazrat Abu Ubaidah (RA) stepped forward, addressed Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), and said:

“You are the best of all the mujahidin. You alone were the Prophet’s companion in the Cave of Thawr. Prayer is the most important obligatory duty of the Muslims, and in it you were the representative and successor of the Noble Messenger (SAW). Therefore, while you are present, no one besides you can hold the office of caliph. ”

In fact, by expressing their innermost thoughts in the words quoted above, the two leading mujahid leaders represented the entire Muslim ummah. They proposed and supported the election of a person who was truly the most trusted, capable, and excellent individual in contemporary society. At last, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) agreed to assume the important responsibility of the nation. As soon as the people present understood his consent, they became eager to pledge bay’ah to him. Indeed, this assembly at Saqifah Banu Sa’idah was extremely important in the history of Islam. There can be no doubt that if, at that time, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) had not displayed extraordinary intelligence, presence of mind, insight, unshakable firmness, and steely inflexibility, the Islamic nation would have been shattered immediately.

Qualifications for Succeeding the Universal Prophet

The one whom Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) succeeded was no ordinary human being; he was the final Prophet, honored by Almighty Allah with the highest distinction. Allah Himself guided him by sending revelation directly to him. He assisted him constantly through the angels. He established his authority through miracles. His character and all his qualities had developed directly under Allah’s instruction and nurturing. Therefore, he had not the slightest imperfection or fault in any respect; rather, he was a human being who had reached the final stage of fully developed perfection. Properly fulfilling the responsibility of succeeding such a great leader of immense rank was by no means an easy task. However modest the standard by which a later person entrusted with responsibility might be measured against the Prophet’s all-encompassing beauty and majesty, that standard would still be so high and elevated that very few people could have the courage to weigh themselves against it, and fully pass it would be exceedingly difficult. The task becomes still more difficult when those who apply the measure themselves deserve to be measured by standards higher than the highest. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) had succeeded the foremost man of humanity and the exalted leader of immense distinction only after passing such a difficult standard, and he had stated this very point clearly in his first policy-setting address. Here is presented the principal portion of the speech he delivered immediately after being elected caliph:

“O people, I have been appointed your caliph, yet I am not better than you. Therefore, if I do what is right, assist and support me. And if I make a mistake, correct me and set me on the right path. … Whoever among you is without influence shall be influential in my sight. I shall secure his right from those who have usurped it. Conversely, whoever is influential shall be without influence in my sight. I shall recover from him the property of others that he has seized. … As long as I obey Allah and His Messenger, you too shall obey me. But if I disobey Allah and His Messenger, then it is not your duty to obey me.”

In this address, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) described the aims and objectives of his government in clear language. He also defined the limits of the exercise of authority. He even indicated how he should be treated if he exceeded those limits by so much as a little. At the same time, he illuminated the great truth that, as the head of an Islamic state, he was fully responsible for following the path shown by the Noble Messenger (SAW), and that the Muslim people would be obliged to obey him only so long as he himself continued to obey Allah’s Messenger; but if he deviated from this even slightly, the Islamic public would not merely have the right to refuse him obedience—they would also have the right to declare open rebellion against him. In truth, properly fulfilling the responsibility of succeeding the greatest of prophets, Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), and generally inviting everyone to measure their own words and deeds against those of the Prophet in that age was no ordinary matter. It was especially audacious to present such a challenge before those who had direct and complete knowledge of the Noble Messenger’s words and deeds, and who possessed to the fullest degree the courage and ability to criticize even a person of the greatest stature. Yet Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) truly displayed this daring, and history is irrefutable testimony that he fulfilled the responsibility of succeeding the Universal Prophet to the fullest extent possible. To prove this truth, a statement by Hazrat Umar (RA), the finest human being after Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), is noteworthy. Astonished and overwhelmed by witnessing his extraordinary accomplishments, he said in a voice filled with deep regret:

“If the practical example and standard of serving Islam and the Muslims is what you have established, then none of those who come after you will have the courage to attain a rank equal to yours.”

When Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) was appointed caliph, he did not inherit the responsibility of governing a well-organized and firmly established state. The truth is that after the age of prophethood, he himself had to lay the foundations of Islamic government anew. For this reason, every problem, complication, and obstacle that could arise before a newly established state stood before him, towering like a mountain. Not every ruler can properly solve all such complexities. Only those specially gifted by Allah with the ability to govern a state can accomplish this correctly. The first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), naturally possessed this ability. Consequently, immediately after the death of the Universal Prophet, when the Muslim nation faced severe problems, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), through his boundless competence and skill, successfully resolved them all. The way he confronted all the internal and external threats and challenges to the Islamic state within a very short time, and the extraordinary administrative skill he displayed, are undoubtedly rare examples in the history of governance. It is not possible to give a detailed account here; a few matters may, however, be indicated briefly.

(1) We have already discussed the reaction produced among the Ansar by the death of the Universal Prophet and the profound intelligence and presence of mind with which Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) brought the entire adverse and chaotic situation under control. Although after the pledge of allegiance to Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) at Saqifah Banu Sa’idah there was no expectation of any rebellious action by the Ansar, it was thought that the consequences of the Ansar leader Sa’d ibn Ubadah’s refusal to pledge bay’ah could become grave. Some people even advised that repressive measures be adopted against him immediately. But Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) regarded this as a temporary emotional outburst and adopted the policy of ignoring it. He immediately perceived that if any preventive measure were taken against Sa’d, the entire Ansar tribe might become agitated; whereas if no such measure were taken, Sa’d would have no companion except his shadow. At the time, Hazrat Abu Bakr’s view appeared outwardly mistaken, but the subsequent course of events proved that his opinion had been entirely accurate and correct. Moreover, had any action been taken against his decision in those circumstances, the consequences would have been extremely grave.

(2) After the death of the Prophet (SAW), many misconceptions about Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) and his government arose in the minds of the members of the Prophet’s family. As a result, several political complications also began to emerge. The relationship between the members of the Prophet’s family and the Muslim people was extremely delicate, emotional, and sensitive. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was in no way lacking in feeling in this respect. Yet above all these relationships stood his tremendous sense of duty, for whose preservation he was responsible before both Allah and the people. The mental anxiety that grew intense in Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) because of the mutual conflict between these two tendencies can be clearly understood from several of his speeches at that time. He could not employ ordinary political tactics with Hazrat Fatimah (RA), Hazrat Ali (RA), and Hazrat Abbas (RA), because doing so would have been entirely contrary to the emotions of the Muslims and would therefore have assumed a very serious character even politically. As a prudent and far-sighted person, he himself could not desire this. On the other hand, it was not possible for him to support their viewpoint regarding the caliphate and related matters, because he believed that doing so would be contrary to the Shariah. Above all, the dignity of the caliphate was being considerably undermined because some members of the Prophet’s family had not yet pledged bay’ah to Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA). Furthermore, in such circumstances, the possibility that the enemies of Islam might create a severe catastrophe at any moment was by no means slight. All this was as clear as daylight; yet Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) neither did anything contrary to popular sentiment nor deviated from the policy that ought to be adopted according to the Shariah. The greatest source of comfort in this respect was that Hazrat Ali (RA) was the leader of the Banu Hashim tribe in this disagreement. He might differ with him on some matter, but it was beyond doubt that he could not create any kind of catastrophe. For precisely this reason, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) adopted a policy of boundless generosity. History bears witness that the policy he adopted was fully founded on reason and truth.

(3) When Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was appointed caliph, the overall condition of the country was extremely bad. At every moment there was fear of an attack from the Romans; internally, almost all of Arabia except Makkah, Madinah, and Ta’if had been swept by apostasy and refusal to pay zakat. In addition, false claimants to prophethood and people greedy for wealth began to raise their heads in various places. Their number of supporters continued to increase rapidly. Meanwhile, the battles of Tabuk and Mu’tah had begun an endless conflict between the Muslims and the Romans. The Romans were constantly poised to attack the Muslims, and their courage had increased further because of the Muslims’ retreat at Mu’tah. In such circumstances, if news spread of internal disorder in the caliphate and the outbreak of rebellion in the country’s principal regions, it was only natural that they might attack Madinah without delay. In fact, both dangers had existed from the outset, and as soon as Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was appointed caliph, he had to confront them both. It is easy to understand with what extraordinary courage and what excellent intelligence and judgment he confronted these two dangers and achieved an overwhelming victory.

Immediately after being appointed caliph, he first sent out the army prepared to attack the Romans. In fact, during the lifetime of the Noble Prophet (SAW), the decision had been taken to send this army under the leadership of Hazrat Usamah ibn Zayd; but because the Prophet suddenly fell ill, its departure was postponed for the time being. After the Prophet’s death, a large number of Companions began to hold opposing views regarding sending this army. Some argued that dispatching such an army outside the capital under the extremely dangerous internal and external circumstances would be an act of shortsightedness. Others objected to the command of Hazrat Usamah, who was of slave ancestry. But Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) stood firmly by his policy despite all these obstacles and adverse circumstances. He declared clearly: “I cannot lower the standard that the Noble Messenger himself raised.” In reply to the proposal of those who held opposing views, he said: “Even if dogs and jackals tear me to pieces, I cannot cancel the Messenger’s plan and decision. How can I remove from office one whom the Messenger appointed?”

In short, despite all these obstacles and adverse circumstances, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) sent out the army under Hazrat Usamah’s leadership. Indeed, it was as a result of this immeasurable firmness and courage of the Khalifat al-Mu’minin that Allah’s boundless mercy descended. The army sent under Usamah’s leadership returned to Madinah after achieving a magnificent victory. Consequently, the internal enemies were extremely astonished and alarmed, while the foreign enemies became very frightened and apprehensive. When the rebellious tribes of Arabia heard that this army had been sent against the Romans, they could not help trembling upon realizing the immense inner strength of the state centered in Madinah. On the other hand, Heraclius became extremely preoccupied with protecting the borders of his state. In a word, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) killed two birds with one stone, and it is undeniable that his plan achieved complete success.

After the danger of external attack had been removed, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) used his remaining strength to crush the internal rebellion and counter-revolution with great firmness, although some members of an influential group of Companions favored a lenient policy and opposed adopting severity in this matter. They said: “Those who identify themselves as Muslims should not be fought or deprived of the protection of their lives and property merely because they refuse to pay zakat.” But Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) could not support this view at all. He said plainly: “Prayer and zakat are acts of worship of equal standing in Islam. If war may be waged to establish prayer, why should it not be waged against those who refuse to pay zakat?” He declared: “By Allah, I shall fight those who create a distinction between prayer and zakat—those who pray but do not pay zakat—and those who refuse today to give even a rope that they used to give as zakat during the time of the Messenger.” He further said: “Even if no one accompanies me in this jihad, I shall fight alone.”

As a result of Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) uncompromising and inflexible attitude, renewed determination and enthusiasm arose in the hearts of all the Muslims, and within a very short time every form of rebellion and counter-revolution was uprooted from the realm of the caliphate. The most memorable point in this regard is that despite the rebellion having assumed an extremely extensive scale, the Madinan government being surrounded by numerous complex problems, and, above all, a large number of his own people favoring a lenient policy toward the rebels, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was not subdued in the slightest. Rather, he rejected every proposal to adopt compromise and leniency. Only those possessing profound self-confidence and fearless trust in Allah can appreciate what degree of these qualities is required to take such a terrible step. Indeed, at such a critical moment, if Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) had not displayed this steadfast attitude, but, frightened by the growing rebellion and counter-revolution, had restrained his sword before the rebels and apostates, then even the name of the Islamic state would have been erased from the pages of history—of this there can be no doubt. Had that happened, the history of world civilization would have been written in an entirely different manner; indeed, the course of world civilization itself would necessarily have come to a standstill. As a result of Hazrat Abu Bakr’s (RA) firm role and uncompromising idealistic action, the powerful tide that entered Islamic civilization during his rule flooded the entire land of Arabia and, after watering the neighboring kingdom of Iraq, began to flow over other countries as well. No example can be found in world history of a new civilization achieving such breadth, expansion, and progress so suddenly and within such a short time.

Indeed, only when a person of such noble character as Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) directs a state can not only the advancement and overall welfare of its millions of inhabitants be achieved, but Islam too attain prosperity and prestige.

The Caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA)

The illustrious life of the first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), is full of numerous brilliant achievements. In particular, the sky-high pyramid of effort and striving built during his brief caliphate of two and a quarter years will remain imperishable and undimmed until the Day of Resurrection. Immediately after the death of the Universal Prophet, the entire land of Arabia—and indeed the Islamic world—was about to be engulfed in the needle-piercing darkness of jahiliyyah. Many powerful and influential tribes declared rebellion against the Islamic government. False claimants to prophethood raised the flag of rebellion in various regions. Those who refused to pay zakat not only abstained from giving zakat, but also roared their threats to plunder Dar al-Khilafah, Madinah al-Munawwarah. In a word, as the blazing sun of Islam began to set, its radiant flame suddenly approached extinction like an oil-less lamp at the end of the night. But owing to the far-sightedness, courageous spirit, subtle political intelligence, and extraordinary patience and composure of the Messenger’s successor and the great caliph, Islam’s lamp was not merely saved from permanent extinction; by that brilliant torch of guidance, all Arabia was illuminated. For this reason, it must be said that the great person who, after the disappearance of the Universal Prophet, saved the establishment of the Islamic way of life from destruction and to whom the Muslim world owes an immeasurable debt was the first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA).

During the caliphate of the second caliph, Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA), many great achievements were accomplished and numerous difficult and complex matters were satisfactorily resolved. Even the vast empires of Rome and Iran were shattered by the impact of the Islamic flood. This is a completely historical truth that no one can deny. But by whom was the foundation of the Islamic caliphate preserved, the irresistible revolution and powerful spirit of self-sacrifice awakened in the hearts of the entire Islamic ummah, and the Divine Caliphate organized and disciplined? Above all, who saved the Islamic society-state from the storm and tempest of destruction? In answer to all these questions, only the name of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) can be uttered. In this article, we shall attempt to present an examination and review of the activities during the caliphate of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) and the sky-reaching expansion of Islam.

The Consultative Character of the Caliphate

It is undeniable that Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA) laid the first foundation of the Islamic caliphate according to the ideal of prophethood. First, his election took place on the basis of the open opinion of the people. Moreover, behind each of the many major and important tasks he completed stood the spontaneous verdict of the finest Companions, who were trusted by the Islamic citizens and held the status of their natural representatives. For this reason, he never permitted Companions of this class to leave Dar al-Khilafah. The Noble Messenger (SAW) had listed Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) among those going with the Usamah expedition. But the first caliph did not permit him to leave Madinah even for a task more important than that; he himself obtained permission for this from Usamah.

When the need arose to attack Syria, he first placed the matter before a distinguished group of the Companions for consultation. After detailed discussion, a proposal by Hazrat Ali (RA) was unanimously accepted. Consultation was likewise undertaken regarding the declaration of jihad against those who refused to pay zakat. It is true that at that time the consultative council was not properly constituted as it was during the caliphate of Umar al-Faruq (RA); nevertheless, in no important national, governmental, or religious matter was there ever any neglect in seeking the views and opinions of the distinguished Companions.

Internal Administrative Discipline

After determining the nature and structure of the state, improving internal administration and discipline, distributing important offices, and properly selecting officeholders were extremely urgent tasks. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr (RA), the conquest of lands and expansion of the realm had only begun; therefore, his caliphate must be understood as extending only over the Arabian Peninsula. He divided the Arabian Peninsula into several provinces and districts. Madinah, Makkah, Ta’if, San‘a, Najran, Hadramawt, Bahrain, and Dumat al-Jandal, among others, were separate provinces. An administrator—called a governor in modern terminology—was appointed in each province. All kinds of state responsibilities fell within his duties. A head was also appointed for each department in the capital of the caliphate. For example, Abu Ubaydah (RA) had been appointed minister of finance before being made commander in Syria; Umar (RA) was a judge; and Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit (RA) were officials of secretarial rank at the caliphal court.

In selecting governors and officers, Abu Bakr (RA) always gave preference to people who had held comparable offices during the era of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), and he tried to entrust each task to someone who had previously performed it. As a result, he hardly ever faced difficulties caused by appointing incompetent or inexperienced people to any department.

Whenever Abu Bakr (RA) appointed someone to an important post, he would generally summon him, explain his responsibilities and duties in detail, and advise him in highly influential and moving language to observe God-consciousness, justice, and fairness in every matter. Here we reproduce part of the advice he gave when appointing Amr ibn al-As and al-Walid ibn Uqbah (RA) as collectors of zakat:

Fear Allah publicly and in solitude. Whoever fears Allah, He creates for him a path and means of obtaining sustenance that no one could imagine. Whoever fears Allah, He forgives his sins and grants him twice, or even more, the reward for his good deeds. Seeking the welfare of the people and serving them is undoubtedly an excellent act of God-consciousness.

You are advancing along such an important path that there is no room whatsoever for the slightest negligence, excess, or indifference regarding the establishment of the faith and the strengthening of the caliphate. Therefore, abandon the disgraceful habits of weariness and neglect.

When appointing Yazid ibn Sufyan as governor of Syria, he addressed him and said:

O Yazid! You have many close relatives, and through your authority you may give them many opportunities to pursue their interests. But know that this is my greatest fear. The Noble Prophet (PBUH) said:

If a ruler of the Muslims appoints someone as an officer with authority over the Muslims merely out of affection, without that person’s entitlement, Allah’s curse descends upon him. Allah accepts neither any excuse nor any expiation from him. Ultimately, He will cast him into Hell.

Strict Vigilance over Rulers

However well the laws of a government may be drafted and codified, if strict vigilance is not maintained over responsible rulers and there is no proper and unhindered system for the people’s sharp criticism, the entire system of governance is bound to be shattered and the people’s natural hopes and expectations of the authorities are bound to fail. For this reason, despite the first caliph’s natural humility, gentleness, forgiveness, patience, and other noble qualities, circumstances sometimes compelled him to undertake the difficult task of distinguishing the genuine from the adulterated and right from wrong through particular severity, scrutiny, and intense criticism. Excessive gentleness and friendliness in personal matters were his natural traits; yet in religious, administrative, and caliphate-related affairs, he tolerated not the slightest error or negligence. Therefore, whenever an undesirable fault became apparent among the governors, he punished it with the utmost severity.

Gentleness in Administering Punishment

Abu Bakr (RA) personally treated offenders with extreme gentleness and compassion. During the lifetime of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), a man confessed to him that he had committed adultery. He compassionately advised him to repent and not publicize the matter; but since the offender was unwilling to protect himself from the punishment prescribed by the Shariah, he appeared before the Noble Prophet (PBUH), voluntarily confessed his crime, and accepted the punishment.

This same quality of Abu Bakr (RA) remained present during his caliphate. Ash‘ath ibn Qays, a false claimant to prophethood, was arrested and brought before him. Eventually, he repented and begged for his life. Abu Bakr (RA) not only granted him freedom but also arranged his marriage to his own sister. In fact, from a political perspective, the caliph’s chief responsibility is to safeguard the people’s moral character, lives, and property. Although no permanent police department had yet been established, this function was still being administered according to the system established by the Noble Prophet (PBUH). However, Abdullah ibn Masud (RA) was appointed officer in charge of the guard and security department, and punishments for several specific crimes were also prescribed. In this matter, he had to seek counsel and exercise ijtihad on the basis of the Qur’an and Hadith in the dignified assembly of the Companions, which functioned as an Islamic parliament.

In short, the first caliph paid special attention to securing peace and safety in public life and keeping the highways free and safe from every kind of danger. If anyone created even the slightest obstruction or impediment in this work, he would inflict a severe exemplary punishment. Yet he never violated the limits of the Shariah’s penal law.

The Financial Department of the Caliphate

During the era of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), there was no well-organized system for managing the financial department. As soon as wealth was received from various sources, he would have it distributed among the needy. No change was made to this system during the time of Abu Bakr (RA). In the very first year of his caliphate, he gave twenty dirhams per person to freed slaves, women and men, and people of every class, high and low. When a Companion objected to maintaining such equality in the distribution of wealth, he replied: ‘The differences in people’s status and merit are undeniable; but what connection can that have with receiving more or less in the distribution of wealth?’ Toward the end of his caliphate, a Bayt al-Mal was formally established; but it never accumulated a large amount of wealth or money. Consequently, there was no need to arrange for its preservation or guarding. Once, when a Companion asked about this, he replied: ‘A single lock is sufficient for its protection.’ After his death, the Bayt al-Mal at a place called Sanai was inspected under the leadership of Umar Faruq (RA), and it was found that only one dirham remained. Seeing this, the people exclaimed: ‘May Allah have mercy on Abu Bakr.’

Military Organization

During the era of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), there was no well-organized and disciplined army. Whenever the call of war was heard, the entire Muslim population would gather before the Noble Prophet (PBUH) with intense eagerness to join it. Roughly the same practice continued during the time of Abu Bakr (RA). However, he introduced a new system: whenever he sent an army on a particular expedition, he divided all the soldiers into several units and appointed a commander for each. Thus, the practice of appointing an Amir al-Umara, or ‘Commander-in-Chief,’ also began during the time of the first caliph, and Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first to be appointed to this important and highly honored post.

Indeed, organizing and arranging the army in this way made it much easier for the Muslim mujahidin to confront the well-organized Roman army.

Character Building and Training of Soldiers

Every battle and conflict fought during the era of the Noble Prophet (PBUH) and the Rightly Guided Caliphate was waged for Allah’s pleasure and the defense of the Islamic state. For this reason, special attention was paid to developing the moral character of the people who had devoted themselves to this cause. Consequently, the Islamic army became superior to the entire world in moral character. After the Noble Prophet (PBUH), Abu Bakr (RA) also paid special attention to this aspect of military training. When sending armies on particular expeditions, he would accompany the commander for a considerable distance and bid him farewell after giving valuable advice. When sending a commander on an expedition to Syria, he advised him as follows:

You will encounter people who have devoted themselves to the worship of Allah. Do not attack them. In addition, I give you ten further instructions: do not kill women, children, or old people; do not cut down fruit-bearing trees; do not depopulate any settlement or cultivated place. Never slaughter goats or camels except to meet the need for food. Do not set fire to date orchards. Do not seize any part of the spoils unlawfully, and do not be cowardly or lacking in courage.

Acquisition of Military Equipment

Abu Bakr (RA) implemented a specific plan for acquiring military equipment. A substantial portion of whatever was deposited in the state fund from various sources was spent on transport and the purchase of weapons. The share assigned in the Qur’an from the spoils of war to Allah, the Messenger, and close relatives was all spent on meeting these military needs. After other urgent tasks, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) would also spend the remaining resources on this sector.

The first caliph designated a special pasture at a place called Baqi for raising camels and horses. Arrangements were made there for caring for thousands of state-owned animals. The state animals collected as sadaqah and zakat were kept there.

Inspection of Military Centers

Despite being burdened by various worries and emotional pain due to the weakness of old age, Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) personally visited and inspected the military camps. Whenever he noticed any practical or spiritual fault or deviation among the soldiers, he immediately corrected it. On one occasion, a large number of soldiers were assembled at a place called Jurf for a particular expedition. Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) went to inspect them. When he reached the tent at a place called Banu Fazarah, the mujahidin stood to honor him. There he noticed among the soldiers from different tribes a mutual pride in nobility and superiority. Through advice, he tried to suppress tribal and genealogical pride and mutual jealousy and hatred, and to awaken Islamic tolerance and brotherhood among all.

Opposition to Un-Islamic Practices

The greatest cause behind the later distortion of the religions and ways of life preached by the prophets was the gradual spread and encouragement of innovations among the people. As a result, innovative systems took the place of the original religion, and the true religion disappeared. During the time of Abu Bakr (RA), no significant beginning of innovation was observed in Islamic society. Nevertheless, whenever anything of that kind appeared anywhere, he would immediately strive to remove it.

Abu Bakr’s (RA) Role Regarding the Qur’an and Hadith

In the battles fought against the false claimants to prophethood, many Qur’an memorizers among the mujahidin were martyred. In particular, so many memorizers of the Qur’an attained martyrdom in the bloody Battle of Yamamah that the responsible Companions began to fear that the Noble Qur’an might be lost. Therefore, the need to collect, compile, and arrange the Noble Qur’an became urgently apparent.

In fact, the verses and surahs of the Noble Qur’an had been revealed at specific times and in connection with particular events, and by the instruction of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), they had immediately been written down by designated Companions. They were clearly written on palm leaves, camel skin, bones, stones, and wood. At the instruction of Abu Bakr (RA), they were gathered together and given the form of a well-organized book. From an Islamic perspective, it is easy to understand how great an achievement this was.

Abu Bakr’s (RA) approach to Hadith was extremely cautious. He stated clearly that it was improper to narrate a Hadith without being firmly convinced of its authenticity and free from every kind of doubt. He himself would never accept a Hadith unless he found multiple corroborators and witnesses for it.

Establishment of the Islamic Legal Department

Abu Bakr (RA) established a special department to carry out the important work of research, investigation, and legal analysis concerning Islamic law. Umar, Uthman, Ali, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Muadh ibn Jabal, Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, Zayd ibn Thabit (RA), and other eminent scholars and thinkers were appointed to this work. Answering the fatwas requested by the people was also their responsibility.

Propagation of Islam

One of the most important responsibilities of the caliph, who held the rank of the Messenger’s representative, was to propagate Islamic ideals. Abu Bakr (RA) had paid special attention to this from the very beginning. Indeed, the bright stars of the Islamic sky were the fruit of the tireless efforts of Abu Bakr (RA), whose life was devoted to the truth. After the heavy burden of the caliphate was placed upon him, his inclination and activity in this direction naturally increased. As a result, the entire Arab land resounded with the powerful call to propagate Islam. Abu Bakr (RA) instructed the mujahidin sent in every direction to propagate Islam. He dispatched special delegations to convey Islam’s call to the Arab tribes scattered throughout different regions. They carried out this work with complete dedication and sincere devotion. As a result, idolaters and Christians from near and far embraced Islam. The Arab tribes along the borders of Iraq, Arabia, and Syria responded to the Islamic call of Khalid (RA).

Fulfilling the Promises of the Noble Prophet (PBUH)

Repaying the debts incurred during the era of the Noble Prophet (PBUH) and properly fulfilling his promises and undertakings were also among the responsibilities of the caliphate. Abu Bakr (RA) completed these tasks at his first opportunity. In particular, after acquiring immense wealth through the conquest of Bahrain, he publicly announced that if anyone was owed anything by the Noble Prophet (PBUH), or if any promise of his remained unfulfilled, it could be fulfilled through him.

Treatment of the Family and Relatives of the Noble Prophet (PBUH)

Although some misunderstanding initially arose between him and the family and close relatives of the Noble Prophet (PBUH) concerning the garden of Fadak, he always treated them with great warmth, compassion, and respect. He kept a close eye on ensuring the happiness and peace of the Mothers of the Believers and meeting all their needs. In addition, he fulfilled with full respect and devotion the bequests that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) had made concerning other people.

Protection of the Rights of Dhimmi Subjects

During the era of prophethood, Abu Bakr (RA) properly protected all the rights of those non-Muslims who had been granted refuge in the Islamic state and with whom special treaties had been concluded through written agreements. Similarly, during his caliphate, he granted the non-Muslim dhimmi subjects of the conquered lands nearly the same rights as Muslim subjects. The treaty signed with the Christian inhabitants of Hira was as follows:

Their monasteries and churches shall not be destroyed, nor shall any palace built for refuge in times of need be demolished. They shall not be prevented from ringing bells or blowing horns. During their special festivals, they shall not be prohibited from carrying out processions with crosses.

Only a few points from the lengthy treaty have been mentioned here. It demonstrates the brilliant example of religious tolerance found in the Islamic system of government.

During the time of the first caliph, the amounts of jizya and general taxation were extremely low. Moreover, they were imposed only on those able to pay. Of the seven thousand inhabitants of the Hira region, one thousand were exempted from every kind of jizya, while the remaining people were charged only ten dirhams per person annually. The treaty also stated that if any dhimmi became elderly, incapacitated, or poor, no tax would be taken from him; rather, his maintenance would be provided from the Bayt al-Mal. Can any example of such impartial governance and generous treatment of subjects be found in the history of the world?

The Character Traits of Umar Faruq (RA)

Through the sincere striving of his life, the Prophet of the World, Muhammad (PBUH), formed a complete idealistic society of elevated character. Every person in the society he formed was elevated like a mountain peak in idealism and moral character, unyielding before injustice and falsehood, and, in the eyes of opponents, extremely formidable and impregnable. This is fully true and applicable to almost all the Companions. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that they differed considerably in gentleness, severity, humility, modesty, and patience. This difference is accepted as a practical reality arising from variations in temperament. In this context, when we examine the personal character of Umar Faruq (RA), an astonishing image of an extraordinary iron man appears before us. Indeed, Umar (RA) established in Islamic society an exceptionally vigorous, radiant, fearless, and unyielding model of personality. In the vast sky of the Islamic caliphate, he was like a shining moon. His role in the field of the caliphate was exceptionally strong and elevated.

This strength in Umar’s character was evident from the very beginning of his life. In pre-Islamic society, he was known as an extraordinary hero. When he was a rising warrior of twenty-seven, the sun of Islam rose over the desert of Arabia. From the mountain heights of Makkah resounded the world-shaking message of tawhid. To Umar Faruq, this message was wholly new and unfamiliar. Hearing it, he became extremely angry and agitated. Consequently, whenever he heard that someone had accepted Islam, he would become that person’s fierce enemy. When a slave girl from his own clan accepted Islam, he beat her unbelievably severely. Moreover, whenever he heard that anyone else had accepted Islam, he would stride forward proudly to ruin that person. Yet, astonishingly, despite all his violence, he could not induce even a single person to abandon Islam. Eventually, he decided to kill the Prophet of the World himself. One day, he set out for that purpose with a sharply honed sword hanging from his shoulder and a proud stride. But on the way, when he heard that his own sister and brother-in-law had accepted Islam, it was as though lightning had struck him. He immediately rushed to them and beat his sister and brother-in-law so severely that streams of blood began to flow from their bodies. Yet despite this, not the slightest weakness appeared in their faith in Islam. Instead, they addressed Umar Faruq and said: ‘Do whatever you wish. But extinguishing the brilliantly shining torch of faith in Islam from our hearts is beyond your power.’

Umar Faruq (RA) was overwhelmed with wonder at the steadfastness of these new Muslims. He became bewildered while pondering why they were so self-forgetful and devoted to Islam, and by what philosopher’s stone an uncivilized, disobedient person became worthy of being called human. Eventually, he too was compelled to bow his head before Islam’s firm principles and philosophy. The conversion to Islam of such an extraordinary hero as he caused tremendous excitement in both opposing societies of Arabia at that time. The unbelieving society was astonished and at the same time disheartened; conversely, a youthful surge of enthusiasm and inspiration appeared in the small Islamic society. At that time, the Muslims were extremely weak, powerless, and helpless. Far from openly living an Islamic life and performing necessary religious rites, even declaring themselves Muslims had become a source of grave danger for them. In particular, worshipping Allah in the House of Allah was altogether impossible for them. With the conversion to Islam of a fearless warrior such as Umar (RA), the situation suddenly changed. When he himself publicly declared that he had become Muslim, the unbelieving society became intensely hostile and enraged toward him. When his maternal uncle, the influential unbelieving leader al-As ibn Wa’il, wished to give him protection, he refused it because of his characteristic vigor and courage. For after believing in Islam’s revolutionary declaration, ‘There is no god but Allah,’ accepting the protection of any unbelieving person or power is wholly unbecoming for a person with self-respect. Moreover, he went with the Muslims to the Ka‘bah and performed the prayer there. In reality, this became possible through the courage of the brave Umar. For this reason, at the court of prophethood he was given the title Faruq, meaning ‘the one who distinguishes truth from falsehood.’

After accepting Islam, Umar (RA) remained in Makkah Sharif for approximately six or seven years, until the Hijrah. During this period, he, along with the others, endured without hesitation the inhuman persecution, oppression, and crushing torment inflicted upon the Muslims by the unbelievers. Indeed, without unparalleled devotion to Islam, extraordinary moral firmness, and steadfastness of character, it would have been extremely difficult for the Muslims of that time to preserve their faith while being crushed beneath the millstone of the unbelievers’ satanic persecution.

The first battle of Islam took place on the field of Badr. The subtle judgment, self-sacrificing spirit, and unwavering resolve that Hazrat Umar (RA) displayed in this battle have been written in resplendent letters in the history of Islam. For the sake of Islam, he was not prepared to forgive even a very close relative in the least. On the battlefield, his maternal uncle As was killed by the blow of his own sword. He felt not the slightest hesitation even in piercing the breast of this close relative with a weapon. This sacrifice for Islam was truly unparalleled.

In the Battle of Badr, the Muslims achieved a glorious victory, and approximately seventy unbelieving chiefs were captured by the Muslims. When discussion began about how they should be treated, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) clearly expressed his opinion, saying: “It is desirable to kill them, and each of us should slaughter his own relative with his own hand.”

In the sixth year of the Hijrah, the Noble Prophet set out for Makkah with fourteen hundred Muslims, intending to perform Hajj. When he reached a place called Zul-Hulayfah, he learned that the Quraysh of Makkah would not allow the Muslims to enter the city under any circumstances that year. In this situation, news spread that Hazrat Uthman (RA) had been martyred. At that time, the Noble Prophet accepted from the Companions the pledge of self-sacrifice. Hazrat Umar (RA) was among those at the forefront. At last, when a peace treaty was signed with the Quraysh, one of its conditions seemed plainly unacceptable to Umar Faruq (RA), and it dealt a tremendous blow to his keen sense of honor and courageous nature. He immediately appeared before the Messenger and submitted: “When we are truly established upon the truth, why is there any need to make peace with falsehood in such a humble and submissive manner?”

The Battle of Hunayn took place in the very year of the conquest of Makkah. Hazrat Umar (RA) fought in this battle with extraordinary steadfastness. In the ninth year of the Hijrah, when news spread that the Roman emperor was preparing to attack Madinah, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA), at the request of the Noble Prophet, brought half of all his possessions and presented it in the service of the Messenger.

Upon hearing the news of the death of the Prophet of the World, the entire Muslim community was on the verge of collapsing from intense grief. Meanwhile, thinking that the hypocrites of crooked character might take advantage of the opportunity and attempt to create some grave calamity, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) began delivering an eloquent speech while standing in the Prophet’s Mosque: “Whoever says that the Prophet of the World has died, his neck will be struck off.” In reality, this was merely an actual expression of Hazrat Umar’s innate fiery courage.

The fiery and uncompromising spirit that was consistently observed in Hazrat Umar’s character produced some adverse reactions among certain Companions. For example, when Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), having reached the final stage of his life, became anxious about appointing the next Caliph, he personally expressed his opinion in favor of appointing Hazrat Umar (RA) to the office. Through his long experience of life, he had undoubtedly realized that after his departure, Umar Faruq (RA) was the person most qualified for the Caliphate. When he expressed this opinion to Hazrat Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf (RA), he said: ‘By Allah, Umar Faruq is better than your opinion of him. But the matter of concern is that his nature is exceedingly intense and stern.’ (Tabari) In reply, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) said: “The reason is that I possessed excessive gentleness and humility. But when responsibility itself is placed upon him, he will abandon many of his habits and traits. O Abu Muhammad! My experience is that whenever I became angry with anyone, Umar would strive to extinguish the fire of my anger and advise me to adopt a gentle attitude.” (Al-Islam wal-Hadaratul-Arabiyyah)

Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) also had to answer the people regarding the stern nature of Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA). When his opinion concerning the next Caliph became known among the people, some came and asked him: “If you appoint a person with a nature as stern as Umar’s as your successor, what answer will you give when you reach Allah?” Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) subtly refuted their mistaken opinion, saying: “I will stand before Allah and say that I chose as Caliph the finest and best of the later Ummah.”

Indeed, just as Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) held a position of honor in the presence of the Noble Prophet, Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) held a similar position in the presence of Hazrat Abu Bakr. (Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun, p. 206) For this reason, the above statement of Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) is entirely true.

After Hazrat Umar (RA) was appointed Caliph, the first words to issue from his lips and enter the ears of the Muslim people were these: ‘O Arabs, your way is to follow behind the leader like tethered camels. But it is important to observe where and how the leader takes you. As for me, I can say this: by the Lord of the Kaaba, I shall certainly bring you onto the right path.’

Immediately after the burial of Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) was completed, he brushed the soil from his hands and stood up to deliver a speech. Addressing the assembled Muslim people, he said:

O Muslim people! Allah has joined you and me together, and after my two former companions, He has kept me alive and remaining. By Allah, I shall settle every matter that is brought before me. And concerning whatever remains beyond my knowledge, I shall strive with a full sense of responsibility and devotion to Allah. Indeed, if people treat me with kindness and goodness, I shall treat them likewise. But if anyone adopts bad and undesirable conduct, I shall also inflict a severe punishment upon him.”

This policy-defining speech of Hazrat Umar (RA) was the guide for the conduct of his Caliphate. The clear opinion of experienced people is that he acted throughout according to these words. He neither fell short of them by a single degree nor exceeded them.

Hazrat Umar (RA) himself used to pray to Allah:

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O Allah, I am naturally a stern person; make me gentle and tender. I am weak; grant me strength. I am miserly; make me generous. (Al-Islam wal-Hadaratul-Arabiyyah)

After Hazrat Umar (RA) was appointed Caliph, he undertook to send a large number of soldiers to strengthen the campaign in Iraq. Even after appealing for this purpose for several consecutive days at public gatherings, he delivered a deeply moving and inspiring speech. As a result, the Muslim people prepared themselves in groups to join the jihad. At the final stage of this ongoing struggle, an open confrontation took place between the Muslims and Iran. The Muslims were defeated, however, and of the nine thousand soldiers, only three thousand remained. On hearing the news of this defeat, Hazrat Umar Faruq became extremely displeased and angry. He then delivered a fiery speech calling for self-sacrifice for Islam, and it created an eruption among the Arab tribes. Indeed, countless Christian citizens also became ready to leap into the field of battle alongside the Muslims in this war.

During the Caliphate of Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA), Islam achieved extraordinary victories. At that time, the banner of Islam was raised over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Armenia, Iran, Palestine, Azerbaijan, Algeria, and Tripoli. Indeed, just as no example of such conquest of lands had been seen before this, neither was there one afterward. None of the arrows he shot failed to strike its target. None of the standards he raised was ever lowered.

The lives of Muslims were the most precious thing to him. He appointed as commanders men who held a particularly high standing in the contemporary society for knowledge, intelligence, and sound judgment. In the Battle of Nahawand, he wrote to Nu’man ibn Muqarrin:

I have learned that the non-Muslim enemies are gathering in groups in the city of Nahawand to engage you in battle. As soon as you receive this letter, set out with the Muslims near you, under the shade of Allah’s command, help, and mercy. Do not lead them along difficult and arduous routes, for that will cause them great hardship. Do not interfere with any legitimate right of theirs; otherwise they will become displeased and agitated. Do not lead them into dense forest paths either. Know that one Muslim person is dearer and more valuable to me than one hundred thousand gold coins.

He sent countless soldiers into various battles to bring these unprecedented campaigns of conquest to success; but whenever he received news of the martyrdom of any soldier or commander in battle, hot tears of anguish melted from both his eyes in an uninterrupted stream and flowed copiously, and even the good news of the conquest of some vast land could not stop them.

Hazrat Umar (RA), like the two great men who preceded him—the Noble Messenger and Abu Bakr Siddiq—was a standard-bearer of justice and honesty. The words that issued from his lips were likewise like theirs. When he sent Muslimah al-Ashja‘i to suppress the rebellious Kurdish people, he said to him:

Set out in the name of Allah and fight the rebellious people with all your strength in the path of Allah. When open battle takes place with your polytheist brothers, first present three proposals to them. Invite them to accept Islam. If they accept Islam, lay down their weapons, and are prepared to remain in their homes, it is your duty to collect zakat from their wealth. If they are prepared to join you in fighting against the unbelievers, their rights and status shall be equal to yours. But if they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them submission and the payment of kharaj. Do not impose upon them any burden beyond their strength and capacity. If they are unwilling to pay kharaj, fight them. Allah will help you against them.

Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) was not prepared to tolerate the slightest comfort-seeking, luxury, or pomp among provincial governors and government officials of the various departments. He strove with all his might to preserve complete unity and equality between rulers and subjects. He made ceaseless protective efforts so that the luxurious civilization and undisciplined character of non-Arabs would not touch them. He wrote plainly to the governor, Hazrat Utbah ibn Farqad (RA): Avoid luxury, pomp, sensual indulgence, polytheistic customs and practices, and silk garments.

He obtained a promise from newly appointed governors that they would not ride Turkish horses—because this was then regarded as the height of luxury—that they would not appoint doorkeepers, and that they would keep their doors constantly open and accessible to the needy and those in want. If anyone violated this, he would immediately remove him from office.

Hazrat Sa‘d built a magnificent palace in the city of Kufa. Hazrat Umar (RA) had it set on fire and reduced to ashes. In Egypt, Hazrat Kharijah ibn Hudhafah built an upper-story structure. On hearing of it, Hazrat Umar (RA) sent orders for it to be demolished, because, apart from its other unlawfulness, it threatened to violate the privacy of the neighbor. (Kitab al-Kharaj)

When he was present in Makkah during Hajj, Umar Faruq (RA) would issue a public proclamation inviting anyone with a complaint against a governor to submit it directly to him. One man complained against a governor that he had struck him with one hundred lashes without cause. In reply, he said, “You shall strike the concerned governor one hundred lashes.” It is easy to understand how severe this judgment was. The governor concerned trembled at it. He stood and said: ‘If this is done, the governor’s dignity will be destroyed and the work of administration will come to a standstill.’ Hazrat Umar (RA) said: “Despite that, it is essential to establish such an example of justice, because the Noble Prophet himself did exactly this.”

When Hazrat Khalid ibn al-Walid (RA) learned that he had spent a large sum of money without any national or general necessity, Hazrat Umar (RA) sent an order dismissing him from office. He said: “If Khalid spent this money from his own funds, he has undoubtedly wasted money; and if he spent the money of the Bayt al-Mal, he has overstepped his authority and betrayed the trust.”

Hazrat Umar (RA) conducted the affairs of the Caliphate by following in the footsteps of the great men who preceded him. He said: “My two companions have already passed away. They followed the same path and method. If I act contrary to them, I will be adopting an entirely different path.” Indeed, this seems to echo the words of the Prophet of the World: ‘If there were to be a prophet after me, it would be Umar.’

The Noble Prophet himself gave the correct explanation of the sternness and uncompromising spirit observed in the character of Umar Faruq (RA). He said: ‘Among my Ummah, no one is as firm and stern as Umar regarding the matters of Allah.’

Another person said, ‘Umar is generous toward truth, but toward injustice and falsehood he is miserly to the bone.’

In reality, Hazrat Umar (RA) was not a blind slave to his nature; it is not at all true that he adopted severity in any matter merely because of an innate harshness. Rather, his understanding of severity and gentleness was extremely clear, and his mind and heart were always alert in this regard. Therefore, he himself declared plainly:

The affairs of the Caliphate cannot be properly fulfilled unless a severity is adopted that does not reach the level of oppression. Nor should gentleness be adopted in a matter whose foundation rests upon weakness. (Kitab al-Kharaj)

This severity, moreover, was entirely confined to matters of the Shariah—to the rights of Allah and the rights of His servants. But in personal matters, Hazrat Umar (RA) never displayed the slightest severity. Rather, in such matters he was softer and more yielding than wax. This is precisely what is learned from a speech of Umar Faruq (RA) himself. In this connection he said:

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By Allah, when my heart becomes soft concerning Allah, it becomes softer and gentler than the foam of water. But when it becomes firm and stern regarding the religion and Shariah of Allah, as required, it becomes harder and more impregnable than stone.

Indeed, the stern policy Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) adopted in carrying out the responsibilities of the Caliphate was absolutely essential from the perspective of statecraft. Dismissing Hazrat Khalid ibn al-Walid, dealing sternly with governors, and enforcing Islamic rulings with great strictness were all part of the immense responsibility of Hazrat Umar’s Caliphate. Everything he did was for fulfilling the difficult responsibility of the office of Caliph. For without doing so, such a delicate and important responsibility as the Caliphate could not have been fulfilled in the least. And, God forbid, if Hazrat Umar too had failed to fulfill the responsibility of the Caliphate and establish a practical model of the Islamic state system, the disappearance of the Islamic way of life would have been inevitable.

Yet his severity, inflexibility, and lack of forgiveness in carrying out the responsibilities of the Caliphate were only one aspect of Umar’s character. Its other aspect was his unparalleled contribution in showing mercy, sympathy, and forgiveness. In that society, among Allah’s rational creatures, no one was more entitled to mercy and sympathy than slaves. As soon as Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) assumed the responsibility of the Caliphate, he completely freed all Arab slaves. At the same time, he issued a constitutional provision stating: ‘An Arab may never become anyone’s slave or bondsman.’ In accordance with the social and economic system of that time, freeing all non-Arab slaves was extremely difficult. Nevertheless, he implemented many laws and regulations beneficial to them. He even instituted government allowances or stipends for them, just as for their masters and owners.

Hazrat Umar (RA) treated the dhimmis and non-Muslims with such warmth and respect that even Muslims today do not treat Muslims in the same way. He remained particularly conscious of this matter until the final moment of his life. At the same time, he was never in the least sparing in showing forgiveness and favor in general.

The second Caliph did not perform general public welfare work only at the governmental level. He was personally engaged at all times in serving the welfare of humanity. He went from house to house among the families of the mujahidin who had gone to the field of jihad, asking about their condition. If anyone had a need, he immediately arranged for it to be met. Whenever he saw hungry people anywhere, he promptly arranged food for them. During the Caliphate of Umar Faruq (RA), complete equality and parity were established between the rich and the poor, the destitute and the wealthy. He issued strict instructions to responsible officials not to show the slightest discriminatory treatment among the people. He himself disliked all flattery and praise. When he appeared as a defendant in the court of Madinah, the judge stood up to honor the Caliph of the Muslims. Seeing this, he immediately said: ‘This is the first injustice you have committed in this case.’ At that time, the whole world trembled before the power and authority of the Caliph; yet because of the principle of equality he followed, foreign ambassadors could not readily recognize the Amir al-Mu’minin. He was a man possessed of an extremely keen sense of propriety. Before the verses concerning the veil were revealed, ordinary Muslim women—and even the wives of the Noble Prophet—did not observe the veil. But even then he could not approve of this lack of veiling and the unrestricted movement of women.

The Fundamental Basis of Faruqi Character

The sublime character traits of Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) were established upon an exceedingly firm foundation. He acquired this foundation through the close and intimate companionship of Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), the establisher of the highest moral standards. Personally, he was adorned with noble qualities, a living embodiment of Prophetic character. Reflected most prominently in the mirror of his character were sincerity, surrender to Allah, aversion to worldly pleasures, restraint of the tongue and heart, justice, truthfulness, humility, and an unadorned way of life. These noble qualities were so firmly rooted in his character that whenever anyone came into his company, they left a deep impression upon that person’s character as well. Many Companions eagerly sought his company in order to learn true taqwa and piety from him. The Noble Messenger himself said about him:

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Allah Most High firmly established the truth upon Umar’s tongue and heart. He was one who clearly distinguished between truth and falsehood.

Its influence was fully reflected in the character of the officials who held public office during the Faruqi Caliphate.

The Intensity of Fear of Allah

The principal source of Umar’s firmness of character was his firm conviction in Allah’s power and might. With profound humility and a fearful, trembling heart, he would remain engaged in prayer until deep into the night. When he recited the verses of the Quran that describe Allah’s greatness and majesty, he would become deeply overwhelmed with emotion and break down in uncontrollable weeping. His heart was so tender and moist with feeling that once, when he began reciting Surah Yusuf in the Fajr prayer, his heart became overwhelmed, and, weeping all the while, he was compelled to complete the entire Quran before going into ruku.

He greatly feared the reckoning on the Day of Resurrection. He often said that even if he somehow escaped the torment of Hell on the Day of Resurrection, he would consider himself very fortunate if his good and bad deeds were equal. Once, holding a blade of grass in his hand, he began to say in a voice weighed down by sorrow: ‘Alas, if only I were free of responsibility like this blade of grass! Alas, if only I had never been born!’ His heart and mind always remained fearful and apprehensive out of fear of Allah. For this reason, he often said: If it were announced from the higher realm that all the people of the world would enter Paradise except one, my mind would still remain troubled and anxious with the fear that perhaps I might be that unfortunate person.

Love and Obedience to the Messenger

To attain purity and refinement of mind and character, and noble and genuine moral qualities, it is absolutely essential to acquire sincere love for the Prophet of the World, Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), the fundamental source of noble character, and genuine devotion to following his Sunnah. Indeed, a heart that is not filled with love for the Messenger, and a step that does not follow the excellent example of the Noble Messenger (SAW), cannot be blessed with the bounties of this world and the Hereafter. Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) was a true and devoted lover of the Messenger. He loved the Noble Messenger (SAW) more than his own life, wealth, children, and relatives. For this reason, he was unable to accept the death of the Noble Prophet (SAW) suddenly or easily.

The brightest aspect of Hazrat Umar’s (RA) character was his literal following of the Noble Messenger (SAW) at every step. In all his actions—eating and drinking, clothing, sitting and rising, walking, conversation, and everything else—he followed the Prophetic model with devotion. The Noble Messenger (SAW) lived his life amid deprivation, hunger, and poverty. Therefore, even though Hazrat Umar (RA) became the ruler of the vast empires of Rome and Persia, he lived like a very poor man. Once, his daughter, the Mother of the Believers Hazrat Hafsah (RA), said: ‘Allah Most High has now granted comfort and abundance. Therefore, you should no longer refrain from wearing fine clothes and eating excellent food.’ He replied: ‘Have you forgotten the sorrowful and poverty-stricken life of the Noble Messenger? By Allah, I shall continue to follow my “leader” … hoping that in the Hereafter Allah will grant me happiness and comfort.’

Whatever action he had seen the Noble Messenger (SAW) perform, and however he had seen him perform it, he always endeavored to perform that action in exactly the same way. If someone, seeing the manner of his action, asked him its reason, he would say candidly: “I did it this way because I saw the Noble Messenger (SAW) perform this action exactly this way.”

A Keen Sense of Responsibility

Hazrat Umar (RA) possessed an exceedingly keen sense regarding his responsibilities and duties. He considered himself accountable for everything concerning the people and willingly endured whatever hardship was required to discharge that responsibility. For all the wealth and property of the Muslim people or the state entrusted to his care, he bore the utmost hardship and exertion. If any loss occurred to the Bayt al-Mal, he made good the loss; and if anything was lost, he did not hesitate in the least to undertake personally whatever labor was necessary to find it.

Hazrat Ali (RA) said: One day, seeing Hazrat Umar (RA) riding swiftly on a camel, I asked him, “Commander of the Believers, where are you going?” He replied, “A camel collected as zakat has gone missing, and I have set out to look for it.” I said, “By doing this, you are making it exceedingly difficult for your successors to discharge their responsibilities. That is, if you endure so much hardship in carrying out the duties of the Caliphate, those who become caliphs after you will also have to endure similar hardship.” Hearing this, he said:

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O father of Hasan! Do not reproach me. By Him who sent Muhammad (SAW) with prophethood, even if a single camel were to die on the banks of the Euphrates, Umar himself would be held accountable for it on the Day of Resurrection.

Indeed, words such as these can be spoken only by one possessing an immeasurable sense of responsibility and a sincere, unwavering belief in accountability on the Day of Resurrection. There can be no doubt that such effort and willingness to endure hardship for the protection of state property are possible only through such conviction.

Hazrat Umar (RA) would walk through residential areas at night to learn the people’s true condition. For three consecutive nights, he heard the sound of crying coming from the same house. He then called the people of the house and asked the reason for the child’s crying. The child’s mother said, “Since an allowance for a child is not allocated from the Bayt al-Mal until breastfeeding is stopped, we are trying to wean this nursing child immediately. That is the real reason for the child’s crying.”

On learning this, he immediately had the following announcement made:

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Do not hurry to stop nursing your children. From now on, we are allocating food for every Muslim child.

At the same time, he sent clear instructions for this ruling to be implemented immediately throughout the entire Islamic state.¹ {A Unique Example of a Sense of Responsibility: In this connection, another historical incident deserves mention. Once, in the dead of night, Caliph Umar (RA), accompanied by Ibn Abbas (RA), went to inspect a rural area far from Madinah. As they passed through a neighborhood, they heard children crying inside a dilapidated nearby hut. Peering inside, they saw an elderly woman placing a pot filled with water on the stove and lighting a fire, while children sat around it crying from hunger. The woman paused from time to time to comfort them: “Be patient a little longer; the food will be ready soon.” But in the end, no food was prepared. After crying for a long time and becoming exhausted, the children finally fell asleep. The woman too sighed deeply and said to herself, “At least we have survived this night.” Seeing this heartbreaking condition, Caliph Umar (RA) and his companion approached the woman. In answer to their questions, she said, “There is no able-bodied male earner in my family, and I myself cannot earn enough to feed the children. So for several days I have been placing a pot filled only with water on the stove and comforting my hungry children in this way.” By questioning her further, they learned that no food assistance had yet reached them from the state Bayt al-Mal. Hearing this heartrending story, the Caliph and his companion hurried back to Madinah and opened the door of the Bayt al-Mal storehouse. He then lifted a sack of flour and a sack of sugar onto his own shoulders and set out for the poor woman’s home. At that time, Ibn Abbas (RA) requested that the Caliph allow him to carry at least one sack on his shoulder. The Caliph unequivocally refused, saying, “Ibn Abbas! Today you have come forward to lighten my burden; but on the Day of Resurrection, when I am accused of this failure to discharge my responsibility, you will not come forward to lighten the burden of my sins.” This incident is vivid proof of how keen the sense of responsibility of the second Caliph was. —Editor}

This humanity, sympathy, and compassion for the suffering of others should be strongly evident in the character of state leaders guided by Islamic ideals.

Hazrat Umar (RA) was truly like a loving and affectionate father to every weak and orphaned person in society. Justice and fairness were his foremost characteristics. He attached equal importance to freedom and equality. ¹ {Uncompromising on the Question of Freedom: Hazrat Umar’s (RA) attitude toward human freedom and fundamental human rights was uncompromising. He did not approve of infringing upon anyone’s freedom even slightly without a reasonable and lawful cause. He also issued strict instructions to the governors in this regard. Nevertheless, a complaint once reached the Caliph against the governor of Egypt, alleging that the governor had imprisoned several people merely on suspicion, without any reasonable or legal cause. The Caliph immediately summoned the governor and asked him the reason. The governor could give no satisfactory answer. The Caliph then rebuked him, saying, “Their mothers gave birth to these people as free persons. Where did you get the right to enslave them?” Indeed, until the final moment of his life, Caliph Umar (RA) remained firm upon this forceful principle. No one could move him even an inch from it. —Editor}

Standing among the weak and needy of society, he worked for the overall welfare of humanity. His policy did not apply only to Muslims. He showed not the slightest discrimination toward the non-Muslim citizens loyal to the Islamic state. He issued instructions to administrators at every level to treat them justly and follow the principles of fairness. He repeatedly urged them to avoid every kind of injustice and oppressive treatment toward them. In this connection, one of his own historical statements is especially noteworthy. He said:

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The welfare of the responsibility Allah Most High has entrusted to me depends chiefly on three things: properly preserving the trust, carrying it with strength, and governing and administering justice according to the injunctions revealed by Allah.

Regarding the state treasury, he said:

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Know that the welfare of this state treasury lies in only three kinds of use: it must be received rightfully—that is, according to what is due; it must be given rightfully—that is, in fulfillment of what is due; and receiving or giving through invalid means must be prohibited. For a person of weak faith, implementing justice in governance and judgment is sufficient.

In judicial matters, he prepared himself wholeheartedly to establish justice. When two disputing parties appeared before him seeking judgment, he would kneel before Almighty Allah and pray, saying:

O Allah, help me in this matter, for either of the two parties may cause me to deviate from my religion—if I fail to administer justice.

Aversion to Luxury and Contentment with Little

In reality, greed and craving for material pleasures are the principal causes of immorality, lack of character, and corruption. For this reason, Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) naturally detested them. His contemporaries unanimously acknowledged that, in renouncing luxury and being content with little, he surpassed everyone. Whenever the Noble Messenger (SAW) wished to give him something, he would say, “O Messenger! There are many people more needy than I. They are more deserving of receiving it.” Hazrat Umar’s (RA) body never touched soft, fine clothing. A patched robe, a worn and tattered turban, and torn, battered shoes were the only adornments of his entire life. Wearing these, he would meet the ambassadors of Caesar and Kisra and representatives from near and far. People would be stunned and astonished when they saw his coarse food. He would say, “Do you think I am unable or unwilling to eat fine and delicious food? By Allah, were it not for fear of the Day of Resurrection, I too would indulge in luxury and worldly pleasures as you do.” He also strictly instructed government employees to refrain from similar luxury and indulgence.

Contentment with little was part of his innate character. For several consecutive years after being appointed Caliph, he did not take a single coin from the Bayt al-Mal. Yet his entire family was being battered by hardship, want, and poverty. Seeing his condition, the Companions arranged for him to receive from the Bayt al-Mal an allowance sufficient to obtain very ordinary food and clothing. Hazrat Umar (RA) agreed to accept it only on the condition that, “I will continue receiving the allowance only for as long as it is needed. As soon as my own financial condition improves, I will stop taking it.” Then Rubai ibn Ziyad al-Harami said, “Commander of the Believers! In view of the rank Allah Most High has granted you, you are more entitled than anyone in the world to live a life of luxury, comfort, and enjoyment.” Hazrat Umar (RA) replied angrily, “I am merely the trustee of the people. Can betrayal of a trust ever be permissible?” One day, seeing him eating coarse food, Hazrat Utbah (RA) said, “Commander of the Believers! If you spend somewhat more on food and clothing, the wealth of the Muslims will not be diminished.” Hazrat Umar (RA) replied, “It is most regrettable that you are tempting me with worldly comfort and luxury.”

In fact, after being entrusted with the responsibility of the Caliphate, Hazrat Umar (RA) exercised the utmost caution in his way of life. For at that time, even the appearance of a minor mistake on his part could have become a cause for corruption to gain a foothold in the character of the entire Muslim population.

The Caliphate of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA)

During the ten years of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq’s (RA) rule, the Islamic Caliphate attained the highest prosperity and unprecedented progress. It was during this period that the two powerful states of Rome and Persia came under Muslim rule. In fact, history is unable to offer another example of the revolution created in a very short time by a small number of desert dwellers. Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Timur the Lame had sought to swallow the entire world and had devastated the earth; but none of this can be compared with the conquests and territorial expansion during the reign of the second Caliph. The former men rose from one direction like all-destroying storms, creating floods of oppression, tyranny, and bloodshed before moving on in another direction. After conquering the Syrian city of Tyre, Alexander brutally killed one thousand of its citizens. He also did not hesitate to turn thirty thousand citizens into slaves and sell them.

But in the countries, cities, and towns over which the flag of the Islamic Caliphate was raised during the time of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA), not a single example of oppression, tyranny, or persecution can be found. The Islamic army had been specifically instructed not to interfere with children, the elderly, or women in any way. Far from widespread and indiscriminate slaughter, even cutting down green trees was strictly prohibited for Islamic soldiers. Everyone was impressed and attracted by the extraordinary examples of justice, fairness, and courtesy that Muslim rulers established in the conquered regions. Consequently, the people regarded Islamic Caliphate rule as an extraordinary mercy and earnestly prayed that this mercy would immediately descend upon their countries and nations. Indeed, out of overwhelming gratitude, they did not hesitate to provide special aid and cooperation to the victorious Muslims. During the conquest of Syria, the non-Muslim inhabitants of Syria themselves voluntarily supplied information and intelligence to the Muslims. During the conquest of Iraq, the non-Arab people there voluntarily built bridges for the Islamic soldiers, gathered secret information about the opposing side, and gave them the opportunity to prepare to confront the situation. In view of all these circumstances, it goes without saying that Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) cannot in any way be compared with bloodstained conquerors such as Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan.

The bloodshed of Alexander and Genghis may perhaps have produced some temporary result in the society of their time; but it is beyond doubt that a state founded upon oppression, tyranny, and bloody struggle cannot generally bring any lasting welfare to human society. This is particularly applicable in light of the events mentioned above. Today, not even the slightest trace of these world-conquering heroes can be found anywhere. But the vast Islamic state established by Umar al-Faruq (RA) fully developed the noble qualities of justice, fairness, tolerance, equality, brotherhood, generosity, and compassion. For this reason, in world history the Faruqi Caliphate is rightly being called a golden age and an age of genuine human welfare.

The State Structure of the Caliphate

Although the Islamic system of Caliphate governance began in the time of Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), and its foundation was laid during his brief rule, a sound and well-organized state system was in fact initiated during the time of the second Caliph, Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA). It was then that the developed form of the Caliphate captivated and attracted the people of the world. During his reign, not only did the vast states of Caesar and Kisra come under Muslim rule, but the Islamic Caliphate state and government also gained the opportunity to perform their respective functions fully, with their proper dignity and responsibilities. Indeed, nearly every department and aspect that may exist in a modern developed state was properly present in the Faruqi Caliphate.

During the Caliphate of Hazrat Umar (RA), the Islamic flag flew over the entire region from the borders of the Indian subcontinent to Egypt and Syria. People of various nations and languages lived across this vast region. Hazrat Umar’s (RA) earnest effort was devoted to shaping Arab and non-Arab Muslims into one nation and one community in every respect. Islamic philosophy of life and the spirit of faith had indeed bound the inhabitants of this vast region together, but the course of their tribal life still flowed turbulently as before. In some cases, the ignorant spirit of hatred and hostility was also attempting to raise its head. Yet Umar al-Faruq’s (RA) strict adherence to ideals and principles was striving every moment to remove the accumulated refuse of the Age of Ignorance. Hazrat Umar (RA) wished to shape all the inhabitants of the Islamic state into one nation, united in heart and mind and directed toward one goal, and to organize and prepare them for struggle against the enemies of Islam. Moreover, he kept a vigilant eye to ensure that Muslims who went to live among other countries and peoples for various purposes would not lose their distinctiveness and become assimilated into other nations. He completely purified the whole of Arabia from the impurity of people hostile to Islam. Through his exceptional foresight, he reformed and developed agriculture to strengthen the foundation of the Islamic state and promote the economic advancement of Muslims. For this reason, he prohibited the buying, selling, and distribution of agricultural land within the Islamic state. In addition, he warned Muslims against adopting the customs, practices, traditions, civilization, and culture of other nations. He generally advised and instructed everyone to shape their lives according to that of the Noble Messenger (SAW).

The Structure of the Faruqi Caliphate

The Caliphate of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) was, in every respect, a state based on popular rights. During his reign, all the country’s problems were presented before the Majlis al-Shura. A final decision on each matter was made with the Quran, the Sunnah, and the practices followed by the first Caliph before them. In the Majlis al-Shura, decisions were sometimes reached unanimously and sometimes on the basis of the majority’s opinion. The following Companions were its principal members: Hazrat Uthman (RA), Hazrat Ali (RA), Hazrat Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf (RA), Hazrat Muadh ibn Jabal (RA), Hazrat Ubayy ibn Ka‘b (RA), and Hazrat Zayd ibn Thabit (RA).

Besides this Majlis al-Shura, a general assembly also existed to advise him and settle important state matters. All the Companions from among the Muhajirun and Ansar, as well as tribal chiefs, participated in it. This general assembly was convened at especially important and critical moments. Otherwise, for the conduct of daily affairs, he relied solely on the decisions of the Majlis al-Shura, whose decisions were regarded as final. Besides these two assemblies, another assembly was functioning at that time, which may be called the Majlis al-Khas, or special assembly. Only the Muhajir Companions participated in it.

A state based on popular rights means a state and government in which every citizen has the opportunity to enjoy all of his rights, and in which everyone can express his own opinion and communicate it to others. All these characteristics were fully operative in the Caliphate of Hazrat Umar (RA). There, every person could claim his rights with complete freedom.

After Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) was elected Caliph, he delivered an important speech announcing the fundamental principles of his Caliphate, in which he said clearly:

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My right to your wealth is no more than the right recognized for the guardian of an orphan over the orphan’s property. If I am wealthy and comfortable, I will take nothing; but if I am poor, I will take only the necessary amount according to customary practice. ¹ {Another narration says: ****(Arabic) “I will take only what is minimally necessary for me.”}

O people, you have certain rights over me, and it is your duty to demand them from me. First, it is my duty to ensure that the revenues of the country and the spoils of war are not spent needlessly; second, it is my duty to improve the standard of your livelihood and protect the frontiers. You also have the right to expect from me that I will never cast you into danger.

In another speech he said, “Whoever among you sees me deviating from the principles should try to guide me to the right path.” One of the listeners present stood up and said, “By Allah, if I see any deviation from principle in you, I will correct it with this sharp-edged sword.”

Hearing this reply, Hazrat Umar (RA) offered thanks and said, “Allah has created among this nation people who can correct his deviation from principle. For this I offer thanks to Allah.”

This speech was not merely a collection of attractive slogans and stirring words; it was in fact the manifesto, or principles, of the Islamic Caliphate. Caliph Umar al-Faruq (RA) observed these principles with great firmness. Thus, when the Commander of the Believers fell ill, he refused even a small amount of honey from the Bayt al-Mal for use as medicine, solely because permission had not previously been obtained from the people. Only after appearing in the Prophet’s Mosque and openly obtaining permission from the assembled people did he agree to take it. Can the history of the great rulers of the world offer any similar example?

Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) granted the people an unrestricted right to criticize him. Consequently, even an ordinary citizen did not hesitate in the least to criticize the Caliph. This opportunity was not enjoyed only by male citizens; women were no less forward in this regard. When a woman objected to the Caliph’s opinion concerning the determination of a wife’s mahr, saying, “O Umar! Fear Allah,” Umar al-Faruq (RA), realizing his own mistake, abandoned his position and accepted the woman’s view wholeheartedly in accordance with the Quran and Sunnah. Indeed, this kind of justice and fairness lay at the root of the unprecedented success of Hazrat Umar’s (RA) Caliphate.

The Internal Administration of the Faruqi Caliphate

Hazrat Umar (RA) divided the entire Islamic state into eight provinces. Makkah, Madinah, Syria, Basra, Kufa, Egypt, and Palestine—these areas were then regarded as separate and distinct provinces. In addition, Khurasan, Azerbaijan, and Persia were also included as three provinces within his Caliphate. For each province, senior officials were appointed separately, including a governor, a chief secretary for the civil and military departments, a chief collector, a director of the police department, a chief treasurer, and a chief judge.

Usually, people were appointed to these positions of responsibility in accordance with the advice of the Majlis-e-Shura. The caliph’s principal task was to keep a sharp and watchful eye on the governors of the provinces and to mold their character and habits according to Islamic ideals. Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) accomplished this task with exceptional skill. He was the ever-watchful guardian of the Islamic state. He was not prepared to tolerate even the slightest deviation from Islamic ideals in administration. When appointing governors and people to positions of responsibility, he obtained from them a pledge that they would strictly follow Islamic ideals and accept no influence whatsoever from luxury or Jahili civilization. At the same time, he had a complete inventory prepared of all their wealth; if an abnormal increase in anyone’s wealth was later observed, he compared it with and verified it against the inventory prepared earlier. If he found anyone’s property swelling without cause, he confiscated half of it for the Bayt al-Mal.

Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) paid special attention to ensuring that rulers and high-ranking officers did not overstep their bounds anywhere. For this reason, every Hajj season he publicly announced that anyone with a complaint against a government official must bring it to the caliph’s attention without the slightest delay. At the same time, he established an effective system for properly redressing all complaints, so that no complaint would remain merely a complaint, but each would receive an immediate remedy.

The Caliph of the Muslims took special care to keep the rulers’ doors always open to the people. Whenever he saw even the slightest obstacle preventing the people’s grievances from reaching the ears of the rulers, he removed it at once. He continually urged responsible government officials to remain ever active in carrying out their daily duties. The advice he sent on this occasion to Abu Musa al-Ash‘ari (may Allah be pleased with him) will be regarded as invaluable guidance for government officials of all times and countries. He wrote:

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Then know that the proper course of action is not to put off today’s work until tomorrow. If you do so, many tasks will accumulate before you. As a result, you will become bewildered under the burden of work. You will not know what to do, which task to undertake and which not to undertake. Ultimately, you will ruin all the work.

Preserving the Moral Standard of the People

In addition to the rulers, the caliph worked tirelessly and with a special sense of responsibility to preserve the moral character and religious dignity of the ordinary people living in the Islamic state. Indeed, just as he himself was a living embodiment of Islamic morality, he exerted himself to mold the entire Muslim nation collectively and every Muslim individually in the same way. In those days, the traditional pride of ancestral nobility and personal arrogance were ingrained in the very bones and marrow of the Arabs; there was a distinction between human beings and non-humans between masters and servants. But the second caliph washed away and completely eradicated this disgrace and mass of filth through the flow of Islamic teaching and moral thought. When eating, he himself would seat the poor, needy, and slaves beside him and eat with them. He said: ‘Allah’s curse is upon those who consider eating together with slaves and the poor and needy shameful and degrading.’ Indeed, in the history of the world to this day, no other example of such an egalitarian ruler can be found.

Poets and poetry had a great influence over the people of that society. By issuing a state decree, Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) put a stop to the poets who composed obscene, abusive poems about people. He kept a close watch to ensure that the flames of jealousy and hatred between people would not blaze up and reduce the strong edifice of Muslim brotherhood to ashes, and that the people would not forget their national aims and ideals and become absorbed in ease and comfort, pomp, luxury, and sensual enjoyment.

In short, he took special care to protect Muslims from every form of moral decline and adorn them with elevated moral character. He never fell short in his efforts to establish complete equality and brotherhood among the people of society and to awaken in them a sense of self-respect and responsibility. He also continually tried to keep the provincial governors alert in this regard.

Internal Governance and Administrative Order

When, after Syria and Iran were conquered, a demand arose to distribute the agricultural lands of the conquered regions among the victorious soldiers, the caliph rejected it. After detailed discussion at a session of the Majlis-e-Shura, the decision was taken in accordance with the view of Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him).

During the caliphate of al-Faruq, a survey was conducted over a vast area of Iraq, and all the cultivable land there was distributed among the people. Arrangements were made to collect ‘ushr and kharaj from them. Revenue collection was begun in Syria and Egypt. The collection of business duty tax was an ijtihadi ruling of Caliph Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him), and it was introduced into the Islamic system of government for the first time during his reign. Needless to say, this was fully compatible with the economic principles of Islam.

The second caliph conducted a census of the entire Muslim world. During his reign, proper courts and criminal courts were established in the districts. The necessary rules and regulations for the judiciary were laid down. Judges were given high salaries so that there would be not the slightest reason to encourage bribery. In addition, a fatwa department was opened at that time to resolve various complex matters.

He established a police department to maintain internal peace and security in the country. When appointing Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) and sending him as Bahrain’s chief police official, he gave him special instructions to keep a sharp eye on the people’s moral character in addition to maintaining peace and security. The police force was instructed to pay special attention to ensuring that shopkeepers could not cheat customers in the slightest in measurement or weight, that no one built houses along public roads, that no unbearable loads were placed on pack animals, and that wine could neither be produced nor bought and sold. In fact, the police’s fundamental duty was to keep a sharp watch so that the public interest and the commands of the Shariah would not be obstructed in the least, but that the dignity of both would be fully preserved.

Before Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him), there was no prison anywhere in Arabia. He was the first to establish a prison in Mecca. Later, similar prisons were established at the central headquarters of the districts.

Establishment of the Bayt al-Mal

Before the caliphate of al-Faruq, there was no permanent institution for storing government wealth. Whatever revenue came in was immediately spent on necessary purposes or to help the needy. Although Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) had set aside a room for establishing a Bayt al-Mal, it remained closed almost all the time; there were no assets in it worth storing. When he died, a search of the Bayt al-Mal found only a single coin remaining. Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) apparently first recognized the need to establish a Bayt al-Mal in 15 AH and, with the approval of the Majlis-e-Shura, built a large Bayt al-Mal complex in Medina. After the Bayt al-Mal was established in the capital, similar institutions were established at the district centers. A separate officer was appointed for this department at each location. After meeting local expenses from the annual income of the branch Bayt al-Mals, whatever surplus remained was sent to the central Bayt al-Mal in Medina al-Tayyibah. These few facts are sufficient to give an accurate idea of the Bayt al-Mal’s responsibilities and expenditures: the salaries and stipends fixed for the residents of the capital alone amounted to thirty million dirhams. A separate department for keeping the Bayt al-Mal’s accounts was established, and the various necessary accounting registers were properly put into use. At that time, no proper system of reckoning the years was yet in use in Arabia; Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) remedied this deficiency by introducing the Hijri calendar in 16 AH.

House Building and Public Works

As the Islamic state continued to expand, the work of constructing various buildings increased accordingly. During the rule of Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), there was no separate department for carrying out this work. Nevertheless, under the responsibility of the provincial governors and senior officials, the work proceeded properly. In every place, government buildings were constructed for officials to live in, and bridges, roads, and mosques were built for the comfort and convenience of the people. Similarly, forts, camps, and barracks were built for military needs, and buildings for the Bayt al-Mal or treasury were constructed to safeguard the state treasury. Umar’s policy of economy in state affairs is especially noteworthy. Even so, the Bayt al-Mal complexes were generally built more sturdily and grandly.

Because of the special relationship between Mecca and Medina, it was essential that communication and travel between the two cities be extremely easy and safe. Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) built many police posts, inns, and fountains along the long road from Medina to Mecca.

To improve agriculture and increase production, the caliph arranged throughout the country for wells and canals to be dug and for an efficient irrigation system to be established. A canal was dug from the Tigris River to supply sweet water to Basra. This canal was approximately nine miles long. In this connection, Nahr Ma‘qal, Nahr Mayad, and Nahr Amir al-Mu’minin deserve special mention.

City Building

When the Muslims emerged from the barren, desolate deserts of Arabia into the outside world as a world-conquering power, they were captivated by the lush greenery and delightful scenery of other countries. In order to fulfill the responsibility of propagating and establishing Islamic ideals, they were compelled to settle far away from the capital, Medina, to perform various governmental functions on behalf of the Islamic state. As a result, they built various cities and towns in neighboring countries. During the caliphate of Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him), the famous historic cities of Basra, Kufa, Fustat, and Mosul, among others, were founded. At first, only eight hundred people began living in Basra; within a short time, however, its population reached approximately one hundred and twenty thousand. As a center of Islamic knowledge and science, this city remained a source of pride for Muslims for a century. The city of Kufa came into existence when an Arab governor of Iraq rebuilt the capital. Houses suitable for forty thousand people were built in this city. By Umar’s order, its roads were constructed forty cubits wide. The congregational mosque built there could accommodate forty thousand Muslims praying at one time. The city’s historical standing as a center of knowledge and science is universally known.

The history of the construction of Fustat is deeply moving. Amr ibn al-As (may Allah be pleased with him), the conqueror of Egypt, established a military camp between the Nile and Mount Muqattam. At that time, by chance, a dove built a nest in his tent. When Amr (may Allah be pleased with him) was leaving the place, he left the tent standing properly out of concern that the peaceful nest of this heavenly guest should not be disturbed in any way. Later, the city of Fustat grew up around this tent. A certain traveler of the fourth century wrote about this city:

This city is the rival of Baghdad, the center of the West, and the glory of Islam. No other mosque in the Muslim world holds as many gatherings for discussions of knowledge and science as its congregational mosque. More ships from around the world lie at anchor in its seaport than anywhere else.

The city of Mosul lies at the meeting point of East and West; it was named with this in mind, although it was built in an entirely rural setting. It is a practical example of transforming a remote village into a great city. A vast congregational mosque was built here on the orders of Umar (may Allah be pleased with him). After the conquest of Alexandria, Amr ibn al-As (may Allah be pleased with him) stationed a number of soldiers on the seacoast, because there was a fear of an attack by Roman enemies by sea. Later, a large settlement grew up there.

Military Administration

When Islam became the owner of a kingdom even vaster than the Roman Empire, and the great, extensive realms of Caesar and Kisra came under its control, an organized military administration became essential. In 15 AH, Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) adopted an effective policy in this regard and began striving to mold the entire Muslim world into a military nation. In the first stage, the work began with the Ansar and Muhajir Muslims. A salary was fixed for each of them according to rank. A particularly noteworthy point in this matter is that the same amount of stipend was fixed for their slaves as for those to whom the salaries were assigned.

After some time, this policy assumed an even broader form. People from all the tribes and clans of Arabia were included in it. In the end, stipends were fixed even for nursing infants. This meant that every child in the Arab world was counted as a soldier in the Islamic army from the day of birth.

Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) kept a vigilant eye on the special training of soldiers; indeed, a special, emphatic decree was issued to prevent anyone in the conquered territories from abandoning military life and taking up agriculture or trade. For had that happened, there was a grave fear that the military ability, talent, valor, and courage of the Muslim mujahids would disappear.

During the reign of the second caliph, special care was taken to preserve the soldiers’ health; particular attention was paid to the climate when establishing soldiers’ camps. In spring, the soldiers were sent to lush, green regions. Military centers were established on the outskirts of nearly all large cities. The military intelligence department was made especially active in collecting secret information from enemy camps. Indeed, the military principles and practices laid down by Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) thirteen hundred years ago have not merely remained unchanged in principle even nearly fifteen hundred years later; it has not been possible to add anything to them to this day. The Arabs’ sharpened swords were never willing to depend on anyone else’s favor for victory; nevertheless, Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) displayed particular brilliance in implementing the military strategy of engaging the enemy with peoples of its own kin and thereby making them fight one another. Consequently, countless brave warriors of non-Arab, Roman, and Greek peoples joined the Islamic army and fought against members of their own nations; this will remain eternally memorable in history.

The Work of Propagating Islam

Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) carried out the work of propagating and establishing the religion with special attention. In inviting people to embrace Islam, he never used the sword or state power; rather, he tried to make them Muslims by captivating and attracting them with the distinctive qualities of the Islamic way of life, its incomparable beauty, and its deeply moving inner spirit. When he invited his slave to accept Islam, the slave clearly refused to accept it. He then said, ‘La ikraha fi’d-din’—‘There can be no compulsion in accepting the religion of Islam.’

When standing on the field of battle against an unbeliever, he offered the invitation to accept Islam for the last time and as the final opportunity. For even if someone accepted Islam at that very moment, it would become unlawful to fight him. This was the Muslims’ final effort to avoid war and bloodshed. Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) molded all Muslims into living embodiments of Islamic morality. As a result, wherever they advanced, along every road and through every settlement, the influence of their moral character and gracious conduct was reflected, and truth-seeking people, captivated and enthralled by it, embraced Islam. When the Roman emperor’s ambassador came to the Islamic military camp and saw the commander’s simple way of life, sincerity, and generous conduct, he spontaneously accepted Islam. A prominent man of Egypt was so impressed when he heard from people about the qualities of the Muslims that he promptly embraced Islam along with two thousand people.

After propagating Islam, the most important task was to educate the Muslims themselves in Islamic teachings and to establish Islamic civilization and culture in practice. Umar’s efforts in this field had begun in particular during the time of the first caliph. It is universally known that Umar al-Faruq’s efforts lay behind the publication of the Qur’an Majid in book form, the source and sole foundation of Islam. After becoming caliph, he arranged with full vigor for its widespread teaching. Respectable salaries were fixed for the teachers appointed for this purpose. Several distinguished Companions were sent to Syria to teach the Qur’an. Extensive study of the Qur’an began everywhere so that the Qur’an Majid could be studied in complete purity and accuracy.

In the Islamic way of life, Hadith holds the place immediately after the Qur’an. Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) also made wholehearted efforts in the service of Hadith. He had many Hadiths of the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) recorded and sent to the provincial governors, instructing them to circulate them among the people. In addition, he sent various Companions to areas such as Kufa, Basra, and Syria to teach Hadith.

Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) was, however, exceptionally cautious in accepting Hadith. Although, in the view of the hadith scholars, all the Companions were trustworthy and reliable, he knew very well that none of them was above human characteristics and qualities. For this reason, he specially warned people against narrating Hadith in excessive numbers, and he warned everyone concerned to ensure that people first paid attention to the Qur’an and only then accepted Hadith.

Immediately after Hadith comes fiqh. Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) himself used to explain matters of fiqh during various sermons, and from time to time he wrote and sent essential fiqh issues to the rulers of distant places. Whenever differences of opinion arose on any matter, he presented it at the public assembly of the Companions and settled it, as far as possible, by consensus. When appointing senior officials in the districts, he paid special attention to people’s knowledge and experience concerning Islamic rulings and laws, and he appointed jurists at high salaries for the widespread propagation of Islamic law throughout the Muslim world. In short, during the rule of the second caliph, proper arrangements were made for the extensive teaching and propagation of Islamic knowledge and sciences. During his reign, mosques were built throughout the territories and imams and muezzins were appointed in them. The Haram Sharif was enlarged for the convenience of the people. The Prophet’s Mosque was also greatly expanded. Every year he himself went on Hajj and personally supervised the provision of all comforts and facilities for the pilgrims.

General Public Welfare Works

When a devastating famine struck Arabia in 18 AH, Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) became deeply worried, alarmed, and distressed. During this time, he himself abstained from every kind of pleasure, comfort, luxury, and delicious food. When the caliph saw his own son eating fruit, he became angry and said: ‘The entire population is starving and writhing in the pain of hunger, while you are tasting sweet and nourishing fruit?’ The desperate efforts he made at this time to relieve the people’s suffering will remain eternally memorable in history. At this time, he spent all the wealth of the Bayt al-Mal wholeheartedly and imported food from all around, distributing it among those afflicted by the famine. He made proper arrangements for nursing and raising orphaned children and provided livelihoods for the poor and needy. However, this arrangement was not for all poor and needy people in general; it was specifically for those who were unable to earn.

Umar’s (may Allah be pleased with him) remarkable policy was that he imposed an additional tax on the grape harvest because, in that age, it was the food exclusively of the rich, while he imposed a comparatively lower tax on dates because they were the food of the relatively poor and ordinary people.

Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) was also especially informed about the internal details of conditions in the distant areas of the country, and nothing could remain unknown to him or beyond his sight. Even if some violation contrary to the Shariah arose within the confined privacy of people’s family lives, or if anyone was afflicted by the cruel blows of want and poverty, it would not remain unknown to Caliph Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him). For this reason, he appointed reporters and informants throughout the country. The historian al-Tabari wrote:

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Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) remained uninformed about nothing. Detailed reports were sent to him about those who had rebelled in Iraq and those who had been rewarded in Syria.

Umar’s (may Allah be pleased with him) intelligence department learned through one of his letters about a governor’s secret life of luxury. When the caliph was informed of this, he dismissed him and wrote: ‘I cannot tolerate the way you are currently living.’

Justice and Fairness

The most notable aspect of the caliphate of al-Faruq was his impartiality, sound judgment, and unbiased justice. During his rule, not even the slightest injustice could take place.

The historic justice and fairness of Umar al-Faruq (may Allah be pleased with him) were not limited to Muslims; the doors of his justice were open and forever accessible to non-Muslim citizens as well, including Jews, Christians, and Magians. When Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) saw an elderly non-Muslim man begging and asked him the reason, the man replied: ‘Jizyah has been imposed upon me, although I am a poor man.’ Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) took him to his own home, gave him some cash assistance, and wrote to the person in charge of the Bayt al-Mal: ‘Fix stipends for all the poor dhimmis of this kind. By Allah, it cannot be justice to benefit from them during their youth and then fail to provide for their security in old age.’ Indeed, Umar al-Faruq’s caliphate remains an enduring and brilliant model for alleviating the suffering of humanity.

Character Traits of Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him)

Hazrat Uthman (RA) was the third Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. All the qualities of a rightly guided caliph were fully present in his personal character. By nature, he was chaste, trustworthy, truthful, just, patient, and helpful to the poor. Although he lived in the intensely alcohol-consuming society of the Age of Ignorance, wine had never passed his lips. The sacred companionship of the Noble Messenger (PBUH) made his moral character even purer, cleaner, and more radiant.

Indeed, fear of Allah is the primary source of moral character. No sin can be mentioned that a person whose heart does not tremble with fear of Allah would be incapable of committing. Hazrat Uthman (RA) was always trembling and tearful out of fear of Allah. Whenever he saw a grave, he became restless. He would often quote the Noble Messenger (PBUH) as saying: “The grave is the first stage of the life hereafter. If this stage is crossed easily and safely, it may be hoped that all the subsequent stages will also be traversed with ease. On the other hand, if danger appears at this very stage, all the later stages will become difficult.”

Hazrat Uthman (RA) accompanied the Noble Messenger (PBUH) in almost all the wars of Islam and was wholly devoted to sacrificing himself for him in every circumstance. In daily life, too, he was always alert and actively attentive to removing the suffering and hardship of the Noble Messenger (PBUH). He was exceptionally vigilant in showing personal reverence, devotion, and respect toward the Noble Messenger (PBUH). With the hand by which he had touched the hand of the Noble Messenger (PBUH) and pledged allegiance to Islam, he never allowed even the slightest stain to fall in his lifetime. During his caliphate, he made proper arrangements to meet the needs of the family of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), so that they would not face any poverty or hardship.

The inevitable result of his such sincere and profound devotion, reverence, devoted love, and heartfelt affection for the Noble Messenger (PBUH) was that he made every possible effort to follow him in every matter, great or small. He spared no effort to imitate the Noble Messenger (PBUH) exactly even in ordinary speech, actions, and movements. The way he had seen the Noble Prophet (PBUH) perform ablution, pray, and deal with the dead, he performed all these acts in precisely the same way. Whenever he saw anyone doing something contrary to, or in a manner different from, the Sunnah of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), he immediately objected and asked the person concerned: “Did you not see the Noble Messenger (PBUH) perform this act with your own eyes?” Indeed, this literal following of the Noble Messenger (PBUH) was one of his distinguishing qualities as an idealistic Companion.

Modesty and humility were distinctive qualities of Hazrat Uthman (RA). Historians and biographers have given particular importance to mentioning his modesty. It has also been reported that the Noble Messenger (PBUH) himself accorded special esteem to this modesty of his.

Because of his natural shyness, the weakness brought on by old age, and having been raised amid limitless family comfort and prosperity, Hazrat Uthman (RA) was accustomed to wearing fine clothes and eating excellent food. He did not possess the endurance of hardship and innate austerity of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA). But that is no reason to think that he lived a life of splendor and luxury. The truth is that, although he himself possessed immense wealth, he adopted no ostentatious standard of living whatsoever. For this reason, a luxurious and lavish way of life was extremely distasteful to him.

By nature, he was extremely humble and free from arrogance. Although many people were employed for his household affairs, he performed all his own tasks himself and felt no shame or humiliation in doing so. He did not know what miserliness meant in personal life. He was the wealthiest person in Arabia at that time. Therefore, generosity was the chief adornment of his character. He spent his wealth not on his own comfort and enjoyment, but on the welfare of the general public. In the cause of Islam, no one in the society of that time could equal him in the extent to which his wealth was spent.

All the wells in Madinah contained salty water. Sweet water was available from only one well, known as “Ruma”; but its owner was a Jew. To meet the needs of the people, Hazrat Uthman (RA) purchased that well for twenty thousand dirhams and endowed it for public use. When the rapid increase in the number of Muslims in the city made it essential to expand the Prophet’s Mosque, he spent a vast sum to complete this indispensable task. Likewise, during the Battle of Tabuk, he spent money from his own funds to arm and organize a thousand mujahids. At that time, however, the poverty and deprivation of the Muslims were oppressing and distressing them mercilessly. In a word, Uthman (RA) was an incomparable philanthropist. Although the wealth was privately owned, it was spent extensively through his hands for the welfare of the general public. Neither the luxury of capitalism nor the taint of exploitation and oppression could corrupt his private ownership in the slightest.¹ {A Paragon of Generosity: In generosity and charity, Hazrat Uthman (RA) was incredibly open-handed. Each of his acts of charity was like a fairy tale. Once, a needy man approached Hazrat Uthman (RA) hoping for assistance. When the man reached near Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) house, he saw him (Uthman) intently picking mustard seeds one by one from the ground. Seeing this, the visitor became extremely disappointed. Thinking Uthman (RA) a despicably stingy person, he was about to turn back. Suddenly, Uthman (RA) noticed the visitor. He called him over and asked why he was returning in that manner. The man recounted the whole incident from beginning to end. Hearing him, Uthman (RA) smiled faintly. Just then, as it happened, seven camels laden with merchandise arrived and stopped there. Uthman (RA) gave the visitor all the merchandise, along with the camels. The man was utterly stunned by this and repeatedly expressed regret for his unfavorable opinion of Uthman (RA).—Editor}

Hazrat Uthman (RA) was a living embodiment of patience and forbearance. No matter how great or severe the suffering, hardship, danger, or calamity, he cut through it all with the sharpened weapons of sabr, patience, and endurance, and stood firm like a mountain against every adversity.

His way of life was highly disciplined, moderate, and restrained. Although deeply occupied during the day with carrying out the responsibilities of the caliphate, he spent most of the night absorbed in prayer and spiritual devotion. Often he stayed awake the entire night and recited the complete Qur’an in a single rak‘ah. Such incidents occurred many times in his life. Hazrat Uthman (RA) was one of the few Companions who had learned to read and write during the Age of Ignorance, before Islam. His competence and skill in this field were recognized and praised even by the Noble Prophet (PBUH). For this reason, he, along with others, was appointed to write down the revelation. Whenever revelation came to the Noble Messenger of Allah (PBUH), proper and reliable arrangements were made to record it. Hazrat Uthman (RA) was especially proficient in this work.

Although he was proficient in writing, he was not equally capable in public speaking. After being chosen as caliph, he ascended the pulpit for the first time and, without delivering a formal sermon, merely said:

“My two predecessors, Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar (RA), came prepared beforehand. I too shall come prepared in the future. But I believe that you need an imam (leader) who is capable in action more than an imam capable in public speaking.”

Having said these few words, he descended from the pulpit. Thereafter, however, he delivered speeches at various times as needed, and these revealed his considerable ability. His speeches were very brief, rich in knowledge, and of a high standard.

A hadith narrated by Hazrat Uthman (RA) states: “Reading and teaching the Glorious Qur’an is the most excellent act deserving reward.” He himself acted upon this hadith until the final moment of his life. Perhaps for this reason, he spent most of his time reciting the Glorious Qur’an. He was also a hafiz of the entire Qur’an. A profound bond existed between his heart and the Qur’an. At the final moment of his life, when armed rebels had surrounded him on all sides, he still withdrew himself from everything else and became absorbed in reciting the Qur’an with deep devotion.

Since he had been a scribe of revelation, he possessed unparalleled expertise in knowledge of the Qur’an. He demonstrated exceptional skill and presence of mind in presenting evidence from the Qur’an on various complex issues and deriving the rulings of the Shariah from it. His contribution to protecting the Glorious Qur’an from the conspiracies of its opponents will remain eternally undiminished. He exercised greater caution than the other Companions in narrating hadith. For this reason, he narrated only 146 hadiths from the Noble Messenger (PBUH). This caution, of course, was largely a personal matter, arising from individual taste and perspective. Therefore, despite being Companions of the same Prophet, there was a vast difference among the Companions in the number of hadiths they narrated, and this was entirely natural.

Although Hazrat Uthman (RA) was not counted among the great mujtahids such as Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA), and Hazrat Ali (RA), he exercised ijtihad on many matters of the Shariah. Such ijtihads and various settlements and judgments have been recorded in the books of Islam. His knowledge of various subjects was unparalleled. He personally performed Hajj every year and fulfilled the responsibility of Amir al-Hajj. Even after assuming the responsibilities of the caliphate, he never once refrained from performing Hajj. The opinions, judicial decisions, and judgments he gave at various times regarding the Shariah will remain an extremely valuable asset forever from the perspective of the practical interpretation of Islamic law. He differed with other Companions on various matters of ijtihad. But when he gave an opinion on the basis of the Qur’an, hadith, and reason, he remained steadfast because of his firm self-confidence. Since Hazrat Uthman (RA) was a successful and accomplished merchant, he had particular expertise in arithmetic. For this reason, his proficiency in ‘Ilm al-Fara’id, the science of inheritance distribution, was universally acknowledged. His contribution, together with that of Hazrat Zayd ibn Thabit (RA), to formulating the fundamental principles of this science must certainly be recognized. The Companions believed that unless this science were correctly formulated before these two experts in fara’id passed away, the science itself would disappear.

The Caliphate of Hazrat Uthman (RA)

When Hazrat Uthman (RA) was thirty-four years old, the call to the religion of Islam began in the city of Makkah. In view of the social customs, practices, and religious outlook of Arabia at that time, the call to tawhid was initially entirely unfamiliar to Hazrat Uthman (RA). Nevertheless, because of his personal purity, quest for truth, and sense of justice, he became ready to accept the call to the religion of Islam.

Acceptance of Islam

Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) accepted Islam at the very beginning of the Prophetic mission. Immediately afterward, he devoted himself to propagating Islam. First, he began spreading the Islamic call among his friends and acquaintances. He had a close relationship and familiarity with Hazrat Uthman (RA). One day, he presented the explanation of the Islamic call to him. After hearing everything, Hazrat Uthman (RA) felt a powerful attraction to this great truth and prepared to go to the Noble Prophet (PBUH) to accept Islam. When he met the Noble Prophet (PBUH) on the way, the Prophet too invited Uthman to accept Islam in moving words. In connection with this event, Hazrat Uthman (RA) said: “As soon as I heard those few words from the mouth of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), a tremendous upheaval arose in my heart. I spontaneously began reciting the declaration of faith and accepted Islam by placing my hand in the hand of the Noble Messenger (PBUH).”

Hazrat Uthman (RA) belonged to the powerful Umayyad clan, one of the foremost clans of Makkah. The entire clan was a staunch rival and opponent of the Noble Messenger’s (PBUH) clan, Banu Hashim. The Umayyads were particularly fearful of the Noble Messenger’s (PBUH) growing success and victories. For these meant that all leadership and dominance might pass from the hands of the Umayyads into those of Banu Hashim. How grave this matter was in the tribal society of that time can easily be understood only by those familiar with the nature and character of tribalism. But because the mirror of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) heart was free and clear of the stain of clan and tribal hatred, accepting Islam did not become impossible for him despite countless obstacles and difficulties. When he accepted Islam, the total number of Muslims was only thirty-five or thirty-six.

After he accepted Islam, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) himself took the initiative and arranged the marriage of his daughter, Hazrat Ruqayyah (RA), to Hazrat Uthman (RA).

Migration

Seeing the steadily increasing spread and strength of Islam in Makkah, the polytheist society became deeply worried and agitated. Their anger and resentment grew increasingly intense. As a result, despite his personal merit and hereditary honor, Hazrat Uthman (RA) was forced to endure inhuman persecution for Islam. To force him to renounce Islam, his uncle himself would tie him up and beat him mercilessly. None of his relatives was prepared to come forward to rescue him from this condition. The intensity of the persecution inflicted upon him continued to increase. Eventually, it became unbearable for Hazrat Uthman (RA). At last, at the direction of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), he migrated with his family to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in a caravan. Solely for the sake of the true religion and true ideal, this caravan abandoned its homeland and set out along an unknown road.

For a long time after they set out for Abyssinia, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) received no news about them. He therefore became very worried and anxious. Some time later, when he learned that they had reached their destination, he spontaneously exclaimed:

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‘Among this community, Uthman was the first person to migrate with his entire family.’

Hazrat Uthman (RA) stayed in Abyssinia for several years. Not long after his return from there, arrangements were completed for migration to Madinah. Uthman (RA) then also went to Madinah with his family. By circumstance, Hazrat Uthman (RA) was compelled to refrain from participating in the first direct confrontation between Islam and disbelief, namely the Battle of Badr. During this battle, his wife, the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayyah (RA), fell seriously ill. For this reason, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) did not permit him to go to the battle and instructed him to care for the sick woman. But he remained burdened by this grief throughout his life. He could never forget, even for a moment, the pain of being unable to participate in Islam’s first battle.

But in every battle that took place thereafter, he accompanied the Noble Messenger (PBUH) with complete courage and valor. In the sixth year after the Hijrah, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) set out with his entire company toward Makkah to visit the Ka‘bah. When the caravan was stopped at a place called Hudaybiyyah, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) sent Uthman (RA) to Makkah as an envoy, assigning him the task of speaking with the infidel polytheists. In Makkah, the infidel polytheists placed him under confinement. When no news of him arrived for several days, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) and the Muslims became especially anxious. At that time, word spread everywhere that Hazrat Uthman (RA) had been martyred. As soon as he heard this news, the Noble Prophet (PBUH) took an oath of allegiance from the fourteen hundred Companions with him to avenge it. In Islamic history, this is known as the Bay‘at al-Ridwan—the pledge of supreme self-sacrifice to attain Allah’s pleasure—and has been recorded in letters of gold.

Election as Caliph

After Hazrat Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (RA), Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) carried out the responsibilities of the Islamic caliphate for ten long years. When he was wounded by the dagger of an unknown assassin, he formed, at the twilight of his life, a six-member board to choose the next caliph. Hazrat Ali, Hazrat Uthman, Hazrat Zubayr, Hazrat Talhah, Hazrat Sa‘d, Hazrat Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, and Hazrat Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf (RA) were the honored members of this board. The board was also instructed to complete the selection of the caliph within three days. After Hazrat Umar al-Faruq’s (RA) burial was completed, attention was given to choosing the caliph. Two days passed in discussions, exchanges of views, consultations of public opinion, and related activities. On the third day, at the proposal of Hazrat Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf (RA), Hazrat Uthman (RA) was chosen as caliph. Among the assembled Companions, Hazrat Ali (RA) was the first to pledge allegiance to him. Thereafter, the assembled people rushed forward to give their allegiance. Thus, on the 4th of Muharram in 24 AH, Hazrat Uthman (RA) was unanimously invested as caliph and assumed the administration of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Carrying Out the Responsibilities of the Caliphate

During his caliphate, Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) conquered Syria, Egypt, and Persia and incorporated them into the well-organized Islamic state. In addition, he introduced an administrative code for governance, order, and administration. For this reason, carrying out the responsibilities of the caliphate was relatively easy for Hazrat Uthman (RA). In this work, he simultaneously followed the flexibility, gentleness, and compassion of Hazrat al-Siddiq and the administrative skill, prudence, and firmness of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA). For one year, he kept the previous administrative system unchanged. In accordance with the former caliph’s decision, he appointed Hazrat Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas (RA) governor of Kufa. This was the first appointment made by Caliph Hazrat Uthman (RA). Later, in 26 AH, he also removed him from office.

Within the first year of the Uthmanid Caliphate, Tripoli, Algeria, and Morocco were conquered. This opened the way for the Muslims’ advance toward Spain. Several military expeditions had been conducted against Cyprus during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA). In 28 AH, under the leadership of Hazrat Amir Muawiyah, the banner of Muslim victory was raised over this important island in the Mediterranean Sea. Thus, during the caliphate of Hazrat Uthman (RA), the boundaries of the Islamic state were greatly expanded and extended. It was during this period that Islamic caliphal rule was established in Kabul, Herat, Sijistan, and Nishapur.

The first six years of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) twelve-year caliphate passed in complete peace, order, and regularity. A vast area comprising many countries was incorporated into the Islamic Caliphate. Revenue in the Bayt al-Mal increased enormously. Extraordinary progress in agriculture, commerce, and administration brought unprecedented prosperity to public life. A notable contribution of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) caliphate was to make the administrative system of Islam’s vast empire progressively stronger and, through sharp intelligence, precise management, and sound policy, suppress the rebellious activities and posture of the conquered peoples and establish a peaceful life.

As caliph, Hazrat Uthman (RA) had to suppress numerous rebellions. During his reign, the banner of rebellion was raised in Egypt; the inhabitants of Armenia and Azerbaijan stopped paying kharaj; and the people of Khurasan also raised the head of rebellion. These revolts were the result of the eruption of the poison vapor of hatred and vengeance smoldering in the hearts of the conquered peoples. But Hazrat Uthman (RA) was able to suppress them through exceptional vigilance and prudence. As a result of a policy combining firmness with gentleness, the people of all these regions accepted the allegiance of the Islamic Caliphate.

The naval conquest was a special contribution of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) caliphate. Because of Hazrat Umar’s (RA) precautionary policy, the Muslims had not begun to be sent on expeditions along the perilous sea routes during his reign. But Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) boldness made it possible to overcome the danger and fear with ease. As a result of his flawless military planning, the vast naval force of the Roman emperor, consisting of five hundred warships, was forced to suffer a crushing defeat.

The System of Governance in the Caliphate

The system of governance of the Rashidun Caliphate began as a consultative state system. Hazrat Umar al-Faruq (RA) made this system still firmer and more organized. Hazrat Uthman (RA) also continued this system during the early part of his reign. In the final phase, however, many disruptions began as a result of the rise of the Umayyads. Hazrat Uthman made every effort to prevent this and, for that purpose, readily accepted any beneficial advice offered by responsible people.

It should be noted in this connection that in the caliphal state system, every person possesses the absolute right to protect his fundamental rights and openly criticize the policies and actions of the rulers. Even the caliph himself was not granted the authority to take away this right to the slightest extent. It is undeniable that toward the end of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) reign, the consultative system began to develop some cracks. Nevertheless, the rights of the people were not allowed to be diminished in the least.

Regarding internal administration, those responsible persons holding governing authority are generally more capable than irresponsible persons of expressing better and more accurate opinions. For this reason, even today, consultative bodies of this kind are formed in various civilized and developed countries. Fourteen hundred years ago, Hazrat Uthman recognized this need and formed such a consultative council comprising responsible government officials. Written proposals were generally requested from the members of this body. When disorder and disruption first appeared in the administration of the Kufa region, written proposals were requested from the council members with the aim of eliminating them. From time to time, meetings of such a council were also convened in the central capital. In 24 AH, a meeting of this council was held in the capital for the reform and development of the overall condition of the country; most of the responsible officials capable of offering opinions at this level attended it.

The division and reorganization of the entire country into provinces and districts was an extremely urgent task for making the administrative system more active and stronger. Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) had divided the whole region of Syria into three separate provinces: Damascus, Jordan, and Palestine. Hazrat Uthman (RA) placed all these regions under one governor and made them one vast province. This reorganization of the province proved highly fruitful from the standpoint of administrative discipline. In the end, when the entire country had become a playground of disorder and anarchy, the districts connected with Syria remained completely free from this calamity.

Hazrat Uthman (RA) created a new post of military commander. Until then, the provincial governor had also performed the duties of commander of the army stationed in the concerned region. This was inevitably bound to cause considerable difficulty in the work.

Under the governing system of the Rashidun Caliphate, the Caliph was the head of state. He held the highest authority in the administrative department. Keeping a close watch over all subordinate rulers and administrative officers was one of the Caliph’s most important duties. Hazrat Uthman (RA) was naturally tenderhearted and mild-tempered. On a personal level, he was the living embodiment of patience, forbearance, forgiveness, and endurance. But in governing the country and properly conducting affairs of state, he was extremely strict and unforgiving. Questioning officials, making inquiries, and, when faults and shortcomings were found, correcting them with a firm hand were his established policies. In this regard, even if a highly respected official was found guilty of such a fault, he would not hesitate in the least to remove him from office. In his view, wasting or embezzling the property of the Bayt al-Mal and the luxurious lifestyles of the rulers were unforgivable crimes.

For the purpose of controlling the country’s administrative machinery and correcting its defects, Hazrat Uthman (RA) formed a central ‘Investigation Committee’ and sent it throughout the areas outside the capital. The committee traveled through the entire region and observed firsthand the work of administrative officials and the condition of the people. Moreover, to obtain direct knowledge of the general condition of the country, Hazrat Uthman (RA) would question the people present about the situation in various regions before beginning his sermon on the pulpit on Friday. He listened to what they said with particular attention. In addition, a general announcement had been made to all the people of the country that if anyone had any complaint against an administrator, it should be submitted to the Caliph during Hajj. For at that time all responsible officials of the Islamic Caliphate were required to be present in Mecca. Thus, during the reign of Hazrat Uthman (RA), an effective system was in place for hearing complaints from the people face to face and remedying them.

It should be noted that Hazrat Uthman (RA) made no change in the general administration and system of governance and discipline, nor in the institutions established by Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) in the various departments of government. Rather, he made them more organized and stronger. As a result, tax collection improved significantly. In addition, the amount of revenue collected from newly conquered areas increased many times over. Consequently, the expenditure funds of the Bayt al-Mal became much richer than before, and large sums were distributed among the people as stipends and allowances. The more the Caliphate expanded during the reign of Hazrat Uthman (RA), the more extensive the work of development and reconstruction became. During this period, numerous buildings were constructed for various offices of the provincial governments. Alongside this, roads, bridges, and mosques were also built on a large scale. Numerous public inns were established for long-distance travelers.

Making all the routes leading to the capital more accessible and comfortable was absolutely essential for ensuring sound administration and facilitating the movement of the people. Hazrat Uthman (RA) took the appropriate measures for this purpose. In addition, through his initiative, police posts were established along the roads to Medina and Najd, and wells were dug to provide fresh water. From the direction of Khaybar, floodwater would sometimes come and inundate Medina. As a result, the townspeople suffered greatly. There was even a fear that the Prophet’s Mosque might collapse because of it. For this reason, Hazrat Uthman (RA) had a great dam built near Medina. From the standpoint of public welfare, this ‘Mahzur’ dam built by Hazrat Uthman (RA) was one of his notable contributions.

Hazrat Uthman (RA) played a very extensive and able role in the expansion and reconstruction of the Prophet’s Mosque. During the time of the Noble Prophet (SAW), he purchased adjoining land for this purpose and endowed it to the mosque; moreover, this work was undertaken again during his own caliphate. At that time, there was a particular need to expand the mosque, but the owners and residents of the houses adjoining it were in no way prepared to agree, fearing that they would lose their proximity to the mosque. Hazrat Uthman (RA) continued his efforts to explain the matter to them and persuade them to consent. In this way, five long years passed. He was not prepared to acquire the land by force or through the administrative machinery. In 29 AH, the Companions were specially consulted on this matter. Following this, on Friday, Hazrat Uthman (RA) delivered an address before the people in a deeply moving voice. In the address, he explained in particular the problem caused by the increase in the number of worshippers and the mosque’s cramped condition. After hearing the address, the people willingly and spontaneously became ready to give up their houses.

Hazrat Uthman (RA) further improved and expanded the arrangements Hazrat Umar Faruq (RA) had made for the military department. He was the first to separate the military department from the administrative department and establish it as an independent institution. On his initiative, the military forces at each central location were placed under a special military officer. As a result, an efficient arrangement was made to meet, with great speed, the need to send military forces to any distant place. During this period, military bases were also established in the regions of Tripoli, Cyprus, Tabaristan, and Armenia.

During the caliphate of Hazrat Uthman (RA), special importance was attached to breeding and preserving horses and camels. For this purpose, vast grazing grounds were developed throughout the territories under his rule. Numerous grazing grounds were also prepared around the capital, and water was provided near them.

The Work of Preaching the Faith

The Caliph is essentially the successor and deputy of the Noble Prophet (SAW), responsible for carrying out all collective duties. His foremost duty is to serve the Faith properly and spread it widely. Hazrat Uthman (RA) remained ever vigilant and exceptionally conscientious in carrying out this responsibility. Whenever non-Muslims were brought as captives from actual jihad, he himself explained the Faith to them, expounded its teachings, displayed its beauty, and invited them to accept Islam. As a result, hundreds of people accepted Islam and gained the great opportunity to become part of the Muslim community.

Besides preaching Islam to nonbelievers, he also made extensive arrangements for the religious education and training of the Muslims themselves. He personally informed the people of the urgent rules and issues of the Faith. If the ruling of the Faith on a matter was unclear to him, he would ask other expert Companions, act accordingly, and instruct the people to follow it. He allowed no hesitation or reservation in this matter.

When necessity demanded it, Hazrat Uthman (RA) did not hesitate to introduce new arrangements based on the fundamental principles of Islam. When the population of Medina increased greatly, a single call to prayer for the Friday prayer, made inside the mosque before the imam, no longer seemed sufficient. For this reason, he introduced the practice of giving another call to prayer before it, from an elevated place.

At this stage, Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) great contribution was an unparalleled undertaking to protect the Qur’an forever from every kind of disagreement and distortion. During the campaigns in Armenia and Azerbaijan, warriors from Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and other regions gathered together. Most of them were new Muslims, of non-Arab descent, and inexperienced in the Arabic language. Hazrat Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman (RA) also took part in this jihad. He personally observed extremely serious differences and discrepancies in the manner and style of Qur’an recitation among the Muslim warriors who had participated in these two campaigns. It became apparent that the people of each region recited the Qur’an according to their own preference and had come to regard that as the only manner and style of Qur’an recitation. After the war, he arrived in Medina and presented the entire matter in detail to the Caliph, Hazrat Uthman (RA). He expressed deep concern and said that unless these disagreements and differences were completely eliminated without delay and a system established for reciting the Qur’an in one uniform manner and style, the Muslim community too would create various divisions and disputes concerning the Book of Allah, like the Christian Romans. Upon Hudhayfah’s (RA) drawing his attention to the matter, Hazrat Uthman (RA) understood its urgency clearly. He obtained the original manuscript of the Qur’an from Umm al-Mu’minin Hazrat Hafsah (RA), had numerous copies prepared by Hazrat Zayd ibn Thabit (RA), Hazrat Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr (RA), and Hazrat Sa‘d ibn al-‘As (RA), and sent them to various Muslim regions. He instructed the general public to accept and follow it as the final recension of the Qur’an. At the same time, he destroyed all copies of the Qur’an that people had written privately.

Indeed, had Hazrat Uthman (RA) not taken this step, the followers of the Torah, the Gospel, and other heavenly scriptures, who have been plunged into grave disagreement and discrepancy concerning them, would have caused the community of the Last Prophet to fall into similar division and discrepancy, and the Qur’an would likewise have suffered such a fate—of this there is not the slightest doubt. Therefore, this magnificent achievement of Hazrat Uthman (RA) will forever be written in golden letters in the history of Islam.

The Life and Character of Hazrat Ali (RA)

Early Life

Hazrat Ali (RA) was the paternal cousin of the World Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). In the year the Noble Prophet (SAW) received prophethood, Hazrat Ali was only ten years old. His father, Abu Talib, had many children. Because of financial hardship and famine, he had become bowed down under the unbearable burden of poverty. Seeing this condition, the Noble Prophet (SAW) consulted his other uncle, Hazrat Abbas (RA), about how to lighten Abu Talib’s distress. The Noble Prophet (SAW) said to him, ‘We should share equally in our uncle’s poverty and suffering.’ In accordance with this advice, Hazrat Abbas (RA) took upon himself all responsibility for raising Abu Talib’s son, Ja‘far, while the Noble Prophet (SAW) himself took upon himself all responsibility for raising Hazrat Ali.

Indeed, Abu Talib’s contribution to the Noble Prophet (SAW) was unique. He was the chief of Banu Hashim, and Banu Hashim held extraordinary prominence, influence, and prestige over all the Quraysh tribes. The service and maintenance of the Ka‘bah and all related responsibilities had been entrusted to Banu Hashim. For this reason, Abu Talib’s prominence and leadership in the Arab society of that time had become established as a permanent institution. The religious leadership of all Arabia was connected with this family. The Noble Prophet (SAW) had become an orphan before his birth. Consequently, from a very short time after his birth, he was raised in the loving lap of his uncle Abu Talib and entered adulthood. After receiving prophethood, he embarked on spreading the call to monotheism with Abu Talib’s strong support and protection. Thereafter, Abu Talib shielded him with his own breast from every blow of oppression and persecution inflicted by the forces of disbelief, and in this way protected his nephew against the attacks of the unbelievers. Because of this support and patronage, the polytheistic Quraysh became intensely hostile to the entire family of Abu Talib and subjected them to oppression, persecution, and torment by every possible means. The ultimate form of their oppression was seen when all the polytheists of Mecca collectively decided to sever every relationship with this family, and ultimately the family was forced to take refuge in a mountain ravine. But Abu Talib, the leader and chief of this family, which supported the truth, was not subdued in the least; he silently bore every kind of opposition and persecution.

Acceptance of Islam

This Abu Talib’s son, Hazrat Ali (RA), became known from childhood as a companion and close associate of the Noble Prophet (SAW). For this reason, after the beginning of his prophethood, he had the opportunity to witness with his own eyes the astonishing changes that began in the life of the Messenger (SAW). When the Noble Prophet (SAW), in response to Hazrat Ali’s own questions about this transformation, explained the monotheistic Faith to him and invited him to believe in it, he immediately accepted the Faith of Islam with an unwavering mind and an enthusiastic heart.

At this point, the names of many people have been mentioned in the books of Hadith as the first to believe in the Messenger (SAW). The final conclusion of Muslim scholars is that among those who first believed while still boys, Hazrat Ali (RA) was the very first.

After accepting Islam, the thirteen years of Hazrat Ali’s (RA) life were spent in the close companionship of the Messenger (SAW) in Mecca. Since he was always with the Messenger (SAW), he had abundant opportunities to participate with him in every matter—in consultation assemblies, educational gatherings, debates with unbelieving polytheists, and gatherings devoted to the worship of the One Allah. In the early period of his prophethood, when the Noble Prophet (SAW) devoted himself to the worship of the One Allah in utmost secrecy and away from public view, Hazrat Ali (RA) was also able to be present. Despite this secrecy, Abu Talib once saw his son and nephew engaged in a particular kind of worship and asked, ‘What are you two doing?’ The Noble Prophet (SAW) then explained the meaning of the monotheistic Faith and the worship of Allah. Having heard everything, Abu Talib said, ‘All right, there is no harm in it. You may do it, but it will not be possible for me.’

For three consecutive years after receiving prophethood, the Noble Prophet (SAW) refrained from openly presenting the call to the Faith of Islam. During this time, he continued all the work of preaching the Faith with particular secrecy. Along with presenting the call to selected people, he also fulfilled the responsibility of shaping their minds and character according to the ideals of the Faith. In the fourth year, Allah Most High revealed the following command to him:

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Warn and caution the full number of people nearest to your kin concerning the afterlife punishment for disbelief and polytheism.

Upon receiving this command from Allah Most High, the Noble Prophet (SAW) climbed to the summit of the nearby Mount Safa and, before a large gathering of his own kinsmen, raised his voice to deliver the call to the monotheistic Faith for the first time. Thereafter too, the Noble Prophet (SAW) made efforts in various ways to invite the members of his family and clan to believe in the true Faith. On one occasion, he even instructed Hazrat Ali (RA) to arrange a feast for this purpose.

Assistance in Preaching the Faith

Hazrat Ali (RA) was then no more than fourteen or fifteen years old. Yet despite his young age, he arranged a grand feast for the members of his clan and family with exceptional skill. All the concerned people attended the feast. Nearly forty people took part. Almost all the influential chiefs of the Quraysh clan gathered there. After the meal, the Noble Prophet (SAW) stood and, in a brief address, invited those present to accept the Faith of Islam. In this connection, he tried to inspire them all to assist him in the great responsibility of preaching the Faith that Allah Most High had entrusted to him. At the conclusion of the Noble Prophet’s (SAW) address, Hazrat Ali’s (RA) voice was heard first in the gathering. He declared fearlessly, ‘I am young in age, and my physical weakness is indescribable. Nevertheless, I shall be your companion, constant associate, and wholehearted helper in this great undertaking.’ Hearing this, the Noble Prophet (SAW) said, ‘You are my brother and my successor.’

After approximately thirteen years of prophethood had passed in Mecca, Allah Most High instructed the Noble Prophet (SAW) to migrate to Medina together with all the Muslims. Accordingly, the Noble Prophet (SAW) told the Muslims of Mecca to leave for Medina one after another. This created the fear that the city of Mecca would become empty of Muslims. Seeing this situation, the unbelieving polytheists became particularly alarmed and frightened, thinking that the Muslims might gather somewhere outside, become a great force, and attack them. Fearing this, they resolved to eliminate the ‘enemy’ beforehand. Allah Most High informed the Noble Prophet (SAW) of this through revelation at the proper time and ordered him to migrate without delay. He left the house after having Hazrat Ali (RA) lie in his own bed, and set out toward Medina accompanied by Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA).

The unbelieving polytheists blockaded and surrounded the Noble Prophet’s (SAW) home throughout the night in order to kill him and bring about the eternal setting of the radiant sun of Islam. Hazrat Ali (RA) was then merely a young man of twenty-two or twenty-three. Despite being aware of the unbelievers’ deadly conspiracy, he slept peacefully in the Messenger’s bed with immense courage. In the morning, the enemy forces entered the house and found that the Noble Prophet (SAW) was absent, while a young man who was ready to sacrifice his life for him lay unconscious in his bed, firmly resolved to give his life. They then realized the complete failure of their united undertaking and the inevitable success of the Noble Prophet (SAW), and fell into grief, shame, and despair.

A Life of Activity in Medina

After this, Hazrat Ali (RA) remained in Mecca for two or three days. After duly returning the trusts of the people that had been kept in his custody, in accordance with the Messenger’s (SAW) instruction, he too left Mecca and set out toward Medina.

Upon arriving in Medina, Hazrat Ali (RA) first took a direct part in the construction of the Prophet’s Mosque. In accordance with the Messenger’s (SAW) instruction, he laid its foundation and, together with the other companions, completed its construction.

Thereafter, when the arduous and active life of the World Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), began, Hazrat Ali (RA) remained his companion there like a shadow, with wholehearted devotion and unyielding courage. He took full responsibility and participated in almost all of the Noble Prophet’s (SAW) battles and jihads. In these matters, no one could equal the bravery he displayed. In the Battle of Badr, the Noble Prophet (SAW) set out from Medina accompanied by three hundred and thirteen self-sacrificing Companions. Two black flags fluttered at the front of the caravan as signs of the Muslim army’s advance. One of those flags was carried by Hazrat Ali (RA). After reaching the place called Badr, the Noble Prophet (SAW) sent a daring raiding party under Hazrat Ali’s (RA) leadership to observe the movements of the enemy. In the Battle of Uhud, when the Noble Prophet (SAW) was wounded and fell into a pit, the enemy troops advanced rapidly toward him. At that time, Hazrat Mus‘ab ibn Umayr (RA) first fought them and attained martyrdom. Immediately afterward, Hazrat Ali (RA) advanced, took hold of the flag, and, displaying the utmost valor in the defensive battle, turned the tide of the war.

In the campaign against Banu Qurayzah as well, the flag was carried by Hazrat Ali (RA), and after capturing the Jews’ fortress in accordance with the Messenger’s (SAW) instruction, he performed the Asr prayer in its courtyard. After receiving news of the martyrdom of Hazrat Uthman (RA) at Hudaybiyyah, Hazrat Ali (RA) also took part in the pledge of self-sacrifice obtained from the Companions. Later, when the peace treaty with the polytheists of Mecca was written and signed, the Noble Prophet (SAW) instructed him to write it. In the Battle of Khaybar, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) and Hazrat Umar (RA) led the first two expeditions, but victory was achieved in neither. Finally, the Noble Prophet (SAW) entrusted Hazrat Ali (RA) with the responsibility of conquering Khaybar’s impregnable fortresses. He fought with tremendous valor and raised Islam’s victorious banner over the fortresses of Khaybar. In the campaign to conquer Mecca too, he entered the city in triumph carrying the flag of the vanguard. After returning from the Battle of Tabuk, the Noble Prophet (SAW) appointed Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) as the ‘Amir of Hajj’ and sent him to Mecca for that year’s Hajj. After he had departed, Surah Bara’ah (al-Tawbah) was revealed. The Companions present in Medina expressed the view, after hearing the entire surah, that it would be very good if it were recited before the Muslims gathered for Hajj. The Noble Prophet (SAW), recognizing its importance, sent Hazrat Ali (RA) to Mecca with this responsibility.

Among the delegations that the Noble Prophet (SAW) sent to various regions for the purpose of preaching Islam, the dispatch of a delegation to Yemen was particularly important. Hazrat Khalid ibn al-Walid (RA) tried in various ways for six long months but failed to achieve success. Finally, in the tenth year AH, the Noble Prophet (SAW) decided to send Hazrat Ali (RA) with this responsibility. As soon as Hazrat Ali (RA) arrived in Yemen, a fundamental change began in the situation there. He explained the doctrines, greatness, and distinctive features of Islam to the people, and as a result thousands accepted Islam.

In the month of Rabi al-Awwal of the eleventh year AH, the Noble Prophet (SAW) passed away. This devastating grief plunged the entire Muslim world into profound anguish. The members of the Prophet’s family became the most distressed and sorrow-stricken of all. Everyone’s heart was shattered, and their eyes turned forever into streams of tears. Hazrat Ali (RA) was an important figure among the Prophet’s family. Just as the grief was unbearable for him because of his close personal relationship, so too was it unbearable because of his family and kinship. Moreover, the orphanhood of the Prophet’s daughter, Hazrat Fatimah (RA), struck his heart with unbearable pain. He became utterly broken and, for a long time, severed all relations with society and the state, remaining entirely confined to his home. During this period, apart from managing his own grief, consoling Hazrat Fatimah (RA), and compiling the Qur’an, it became completely impossible for him to show the slightest interest or curiosity in any other work. Some time later, when Hazrat Fatimah (RA) also passed away, he seemed to rouse himself and went to the first Caliph, Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), before whom he pledged allegiance to the Caliphate.

After Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), during his caliphate, Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA) would consult Hazrat Ali (RA) on every complicated and important matter. Hazrat Ali (RA), too, would advise him on every issue with the utmost devotion and sincerity. During the Nahawand expedition, he was offered the responsibility of serving as commander, but he declined to accept it. Later, when Umar (RA) went to Bayt al-Maqdis, he appointed Hazrat Ali (RA) as his acting successor in the capital and entrusted him with all the responsibilities of the caliphate. After Umar (RA), toward the end of Hazrat Uthman’s (RA) caliphate, when unrest and disorder spread throughout the country, Hazrat Ali (RA) offered special and effective advice to suppress it, identifying the root causes of the unrest and showing the means of correcting and removing them.

The Caliphate of Hazrat Ali (RA)

Election of the Caliph

After Hazrat Uthman (RA) was martyred, the seat of the caliphate remained vacant for three days. During this time, the people’s attention turned to Hazrat Ali (RA) as the next caliph. Many people requested him to accept this responsibility. Although at first he clearly refused, he ultimately agreed to undertake it after repeated requests from the Muhajir and Ansar Companions.

The account of Hazrat Ali’s (RA) election as caliph has been detailed extensively in the history of Islamic political thought. The people came before Hazrat Ali (RA) and said:

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We shall pledge allegiance to you; extend your hand. For it is now absolutely essential that an amir—a statesman—be appointed for us. And you are more qualified and entitled to this position.

Hazrat Ali (RA) replied:

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You have no right to say or do anything concerning this matter. This is a matter to be decided collectively by those qualified to offer counsel and by the early Muslims who participated in the Battle of Badr. Whoever they accept as caliph shall be the caliph. Therefore, come, let us all gather and deliberate on the matter.

Hearing this, the people departed from him. But after a short while they came back to him and began pressing him to accept their pledge of allegiance. Then Hazrat Ali (RA) said:

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If what you want is for me to become caliph and receive your pledge of allegiance, then come to the Prophet’s Mosque; there the final decision on this matter will be made.

Certainly, my election as caliph and the pledge of allegiance to me cannot take place secretly. It can take place only on the basis of the spontaneous satisfaction and approval of the Muslim people.

Thereafter, following the proposal, spontaneous support, and approval of all the Muslims gathered in the Prophet’s Mosque, Hazrat Ali (RA) was elected the next caliph. On Monday, the 21st of Dhu al-Hijjah, the general pledge of allegiance to the caliphate was taken at his hand in the Prophet’s Mosque, in the presence of a vast Islamic congregation. He was declared the fourth caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.

When Hazrat Ali (RA) took the responsibility of the caliphate upon his shoulders, the entire Muslim world had become a scene of extreme anarchy, rebellion, and revolution. The first caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA), had likewise faced unrest, rebellion, and revolution; yet there was a great difference between the two situations. The danger Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (RA) faced was a conflict between unbelief and apostasy on one side and Islam on the other. The entire Muslim community supported and backed the caliph in that conflict. His opponents followed falsehood, greed, and evil conduct. Their position had neither stability nor firmness. In contrast, those whose opposition Hazrat Ali (RA) faced were not merely Muslims; many Companions, and even the wife of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), Hazrat Aisha Siddiqah (RA), were among them. What else can this be called but the supreme irony of fate?

Yet despite all these dangers, disturbances, and rebellions, Hazrat Ali (RA) held the reins of the caliphate firmly and courageously. At this time he displayed the utmost patience, endurance, sound thought, and judgment. Despite observing signs of failure in various spheres, he was unwilling to tolerate the slightest deviation from absolute fidelity, steadfast idealism, and the fundamental principles of Islamic Shariah and statecraft. Had he been prepared to tolerate even the slightest departure from principle and idealism, he might have been considered successful from the standpoint of state policy; but there is no doubt that the great ideal of the religion of Islam would have been undermined, abandoned, and discarded. Yet protecting it is the foremost and most important duty of the rightly guided caliph and successor to the Noble Messenger (PBUH).

Hazrat Ali (RA) as Caliph

In administering the caliphate, Hazrat Ali (RA) was determined to follow in the footsteps of Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA), and he was not at all willing to make any fundamental change in the system established at that time. The Jews whom Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA) had exiled from the whole of the Hijaz and resettled at a place called Najran came before Hazrat Ali (RA) and, in deeply plaintive and humble voices, requested permission to return to their former homes. But Hazrat Ali (RA) clearly refused, saying: ‘Who could be more judicious, discerning, and correct in decision-making than Hazrat Umar (RA)?’

The most important task in the country’s internal administration is to control responsible officials and closely observe their activities and conduct. Hazrat Ali (RA) always kept this particular matter in view. Whenever appointing anyone to a responsible position, he gave highly valuable and beneficial advice. In addition, at various times he had the activities and conduct of these officials specially investigated. Once, he appointed Hazrat Kaab ibn Malik (RA) to this important task and instructed him in the following words:

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Set out with a group of your companions and travel through every district of Iraq, carefully observing the work, character, habits, and conduct of the officials. He firmly suppressed government officials’ wastefulness, extravagance, and irregularities concerning state funds. He strictly required officials to repay, on time, loans taken from the Bayt al-Mal. In this matter he was not prepared to show the slightest leniency or favoritism toward his close relatives.

Hazrat Ali (RA) introduced special reforms and developmental policies in the revenue department. Despite exercising complete strictness in collecting revenue, he constantly cared for the overall welfare of the general public and the improvement of their condition. He always adopted a compassionate policy toward the helpless and poor.

Indeed, Hazrat Ali (RA) was a living example and radiant symbol of Allah’s immeasurable mercy toward the people. During his caliphate, the state Bayt al-Mal remained always open to the poor, needy, and destitute of society. Whatever was deposited and collected in the Bayt al-Mal, he distributed without delay and with a generous hand among those in need and entitled to receive it. He treated the non-Muslim citizens of the country with great kindness and sympathy. Even the activities of those inclined toward rebellion and conspiracy were tolerated with extraordinary patience and forbearance. In the Persian region, a remarkable favorable response to this generous policy followed by the caliph was observed.

Hazrat Ali (RA) was himself a highly skilled and experienced military commander. His foresight and judgment in military affairs were unparalleled. For this reason, he was able to introduce many new arrangements into the military administration of the Islamic state.

The Intellect of Hazrat Ali (RA)

From childhood, Hazrat Ali (RA) had the opportunity to acquire knowledge and training directly in the school of Prophetic instruction. Because of his profound relationship and close association with the Noble Messenger (PBUH), he enjoyed greater opportunities than all others at this level. At home and abroad, and during journeys outside the country, he was able to remain in close proximity to the Noble Prophet (PBUH); therefore, it was very easy for him to acquire detailed knowledge of the various aspects of the religion of Islam. The Noble Prophet (PBUH) himself attached importance to imparting this special knowledge to him. He personally taught him the Noble Qur’an and explained the correct significance of its various verses. For this reason, compared with the other noble Companions, his intellect was exceptionally broad and profound. The Noble Messenger (PBUH), referring to this intellect of his, said:

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‘I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its special gate.’

Although, as a hadith, this statement may not be acceptable with regard to its chain of transmission and so forth, its factual truth must certainly be acknowledged. Hazrat Ali (RA) learned ordinary reading and writing in childhood, and his name was also included among the scribes of revelation. In accordance with the instruction of the Noble Messenger (PBUH), the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, along with many state decrees, was beautifully written by Hazrat Ali (RA) himself.

The fundamental source of Islamic knowledge and learning is the Noble Qur’an. Hazrat Ali (RA) had the good fortune to plumb the depths of this ocean of the Qur’an. Hazrat Ali (RA) was one of the few Companions who memorized the entire Noble Qur’an during the lifetime of the Noble Prophet (PBUH). He possessed special expertise concerning the circumstances and time of revelation of each surah and verse of the Qur’an. He himself claimed this. For this reason, he is counted among the highest-ranking Qur’anic exegetes. His explanatory narrations have been specially quoted in the major tafsir works written in later times. Arranging the Noble Qur’an according to the sequence of its revelation was one of his special contributions. Along with this, his extraordinary skill and talent in deriving necessary laws and regulations for practical life from the Noble Qur’an, and in exercising ijtihad to determine Islam’s guidance and rulings on various complex matters, are universally recognized. When the people of the Kharijite sect refused, in a purely literal sense, to accept any person as an arbiter to settle mutual disputes, and presented the Qur’anic verse ****(Arabic), ‘There is no arbiter except Allah alone,’ as their proof, he demonstrated the irrationality and irrelevance of such an argument and said: ‘What doubt is there that Allah is the ultimate Judge? But when Allah Himself has instructed that members of society be accepted as arbitrators to settle disputes between husband and wife, saying:

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When you fear a breach between husband and wife, appoint one arbiter from his family and one arbiter from her family.

Then why would it be wrong or contrary to the Qur’an to appoint and accept someone from society to settle disputes among the Muslim community and people? Allah’s sovereignty and His ultimate authority over all things must necessarily be implemented and realized through one person or another. Is the matter of disputes and discord among the entire Muslim community less significant than that between one man and one woman? Indeed, so many valuable narrations of Hazrat Ali (RA) have been cited in explaining and analyzing the tafsir and significance of the verses of the Qur’an that, if compiled together, they could form a substantial book.

A group of deceitful proponents of tasawwuf go about propagating that, in addition to the fundamental knowledge and learning related to the religion of Islam, the Noble Messenger (PBUH) taught Hazrat Ali (RA) certain knowledge that is now called ‘tasawwuf.’ They also promote Hazrat Ali (RA) as the ‘founding father’ of the discipline of tasawwuf. But how false and baseless this slander is is conclusively proven by Hazrat Ali’s own statement quoted in an authentic hadith. People asked him: ‘Do you possess any knowledge besides the Qur’an?’ He replied: ‘By the oath of that Great Being who splits the seed and kernel and brings forth the tree, and who infuses life into the body, I possess nothing besides the Qur’an. However, Allah grants the power, capacity, ability, and talent to understand the Qur’an to whomever He wills. Besides this, I possess a few hadiths.’ (Bukhari, Musnad Ahmad)

The oath Hazrat Ali (RA) took at the beginning of his statement is especially significant. From this statement it is understood that the verses of the Qur’an are like kernels and bodies, while their meanings, significance, and realities are like a tree that emerges from those kernels and seeds. They are also like the life concealed within a body. In other words, just as a vast tree with branches and limbs can emerge from a tiny seed or kernel—although it was fundamentally hidden within that seed and kernel—and just as all human acts and achievements emerge from the life force concealed within the body, immense meanings and significance can likewise emerge from the words of the Qur’an, which are like a body.

In fact, that Hazrat Ali (RA) possessed special mastery of the Qur’an’s truths and philosophy is proved by this statement of his.

Hazrat Ali’s (RA) intellect and erudition in the field of hadith were likewise extraordinary, vast, and comparable to a deep ocean. From childhood, he spent a full thirty years in the company and close association of the Noble Prophet (PBUH). For this reason, after Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), he was the greatest authority on the complete laws of Islam and the sayings of the Messenger. Moreover, after the death of the Noble Prophet (PBUH), he lived to the greatest age among all the eminent Companions. For nearly thirty years after the Noble Messenger (PBUH), he remained constantly engaged in disseminating the Qur’an, hadith, religion, and Shariah. This responsibility also rested upon him during the time of the first three caliphs. Even during his own caliphate, despite various tribulations, disorders, and bloody wars, this stream of disseminating knowledge never stopped; rather, it continued to flow uninterruptedly. For this reason, compared with the first three caliphs, he had greater opportunity to narrate hadith. Yet despite all this, he was extremely cautious and strict in narrating hadith. Consequently, the number of hadiths narrated by him was not very large. Only 586 hadiths have been quoted in the books through his chain. Hazrat Ali (RA) was also one of the Companions accustomed to recording hadith during the Prophetic era. He referred to his written collection of hadith as the ‘Sahifah,’ and kept this ‘Sahifah’ inside the sheath of his sword. These hadiths provide knowledge of rulings on many important matters of practical life.

His competence and talent in fiqh and ijtihad were universally acknowledged. Eminent Companions—even his opponents—felt the need to learn the rulings of Shariah from him on various matters. A major reason for his special mastery in this field was that he himself would ask the Noble Messenger (PBUH) and learn from him about many matters.

Hazrat Ali (RA) as Judge

Hazrat Ali (RA) spent most of his life in Medina, but he resided in Kufa throughout the entire period of his caliphate. For this reason, his views on fiqh and his ijtihad gained greater circulation in Iraq. After the views of Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masud (RA), the Hanafi madhhab was founded upon the views and decisions adopted by Hazrat Ali (RA). Because of this qualification, his skill in adjudicating cases and issuing decisions according to Shariah was also universally recognized. Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA) said:

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Among us, the most qualified as a judge is Hazrat Ali, and the greatest expert in the Qur’an is Hazrat Ubayy ibn Kaab.

Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masud (RA) said: ‘We used to say among ourselves that the person with the greatest judicial ability in Medina was Hazrat Ali (RA).

The Noble Prophet (PBUH) himself would often entrust Hazrat Ali (RA) with judicial responsibilities. When the Noble Prophet (PBUH) appointed him as a judge in Yemen, he sought to be excused from accepting the responsibility, citing his own inadequacy and inability. Then the Noble Prophet (PBUH) said:

Allah Most High will keep your face directed toward the right path and your heart firm and patient.

Hazrat Ali (RA) himself also said:

After that, I never experienced any doubt or hesitation in carrying out judicial duties.

The Noble Prophet (PBUH) taught him many principles and procedures concerning the administration of justice. Once he told him:

O Ali! When you sit to settle a dispute between two people, do not decide after hearing only one of them; suspend your decision until you have heard the statement of the second.

In adjudicating a case, questioning and cross-examining both parties and the witnesses, so as to attain firm conviction free from doubt, was established as an indispensable part of Hazrat Ali’s (RA) principles of justice. If a confessor did not remain steadfast in his confession even after repeated questioning and cross-examination, he would not punish him on the basis of that confession. If, after frightening and intimidating witnesses in various ways, he found them not steadfast in their testimony, he would not issue any judgment on the basis of that testimony. In trials concerning homicide, he distinguished between accident and the intention to kill (motive).¹ {1. Vigilance in establishing justice: Hazrat Ali (RA) was always vigilant with the aim of ensuring the establishment of justice in society. He considered the misuse of state power to influence the judicial system a heinous crime. In establishing justice, he allowed no discrimination between Muslims and non-Muslims. The following historical incident is noteworthy in this regard. Once, a Jew stole the iron armor of Amir al-Mu’minin, Hazrat Ali (RA). Despite holding the highest authority in the country, he did not directly take any police action in the matter; instead, according to established procedure, he went to court and filed a complaint. The judge ordered him to produce two witnesses in support of his complaint. Hazrat Ali (RA) presented his two sons, Imam Hasan and Imam Husayn (RA), as witnesses. But, on the grounds that they were close relatives of the complainant, the judge did not accept their testimony and instead dismissed the case. Shocked by this incident, the accused Jew himself confessed to his crime and, reciting the sacred kalimah, joined the caravan of Islam. —Editor}

Hazrat Ali’s (RA) judgments were regarded as examples of law. For this reason, scholars recorded them. But in later times, wicked people introduced various distortions into them. As a result, they became entirely unusable in the worlds of law and justice.

Austerity in Personal Life

Hazrat Ali (RA) lived his personal life amid extremely rigorous ascetic discipline. Despite being battered by the harsh blows of poverty, he never became unsettled for even a moment. He felt not the slightest embarrassment in earning his livelihood through labor and daily wage work whenever time and opportunity permitted. Even after ascending the caliph’s throne, there was no change whatsoever in this austerity. People would be stunned and astonished when they saw his meager food. He would tell them: ‘The caliph of the Muslims is entitled to receive only two vessels from the state Bayt al-Mal. From one, he and his family will eat. The other he will present before the people.’

There was no extra servant to perform the work of his household. The daughter of the Prophet-King performed all the work with her own hands. In terms of worldly wealth and possessions, Hazrat Ali (RA) was empty-handed. But in spiritual wealth, he possessed immense riches. No petitioner could leave his door empty-handed. Indeed, he would hand over even food prepared for himself to a hungry beggar without the slightest hesitation.

— The End —