I have observed that although a large portion of the Muslims of Bangladesh are as familiar with the Rashidun Caliphate, the Umayyad Caliphate, and the Abbasid Caliphate as they are, they are not equally familiar with the Ottoman Caliphate. Yet a major part of the glorious history of the Muslim ummah is occupied by the Ottoman Caliphate. For six hundred and thirty-six consecutive years, this caliphate served as a source of welfare for the people of vast regions of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Although not completely, the early Ottoman caliphs tried to implement many of the injunctions of the Qur’an in their personal and social lives. As a result, the highway of progress had opened before them. Sadly, the caliphs of later periods became indifferent to the teachings of the Qur’an. Consequently, they and their subjects soon fell prey to jahiliyyah. The path to their progress was blocked, and their downfall became inevitable.

In this booklet, I have presented a brief account of the rise and fall of the Ottoman Caliphate so that esteemed readers may become acquainted with a summary of a long history while spending little time.

A. K. M. Nazir Ahmad

The Ottoman Caliphate

The Ottoman Caliphate is a very important part of the history of the Muslim ummah. This caliphate was established after the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the very year that the Tatar military commander Hulagu Khan destroyed Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, Osman, the founder of the Ottoman Caliphate, was born. He ascended the throne in 1288 CE. From then until 1924 CE, a total of 37 caliphs governed the Ottoman Caliphate for 636 years.

The Ottoman caliphs were:

1. Osman (1288–1326)

2. Orhan (1326–1359)

3. Murad I (1359–1389)

4. Bayezid I (1389–1403)

5. Muhammad I (1403–1421)

6. Murad II (1421–1451)

7. Muhammad II (1451–1481)

8. Bayezid II (1481–1512)

9. Selim I (1512–1524)

10. Suleiman I (1524–1566)

11. Selim II (1566–1574)

12. Murad III (1574–1595)

13. Muhammad III (1595–1603)

14. Ahmad I (1603–1617)

15. Mustafa I (1617–three months)

16. Osman II (1617–1623)

17. Murad IV (1624–1640)

18. Ibrahim I (1640–1648)

19. Ibrahim IV (1648–1687)

20. Suleiman II (1687–1691)

21. Ahmad II (1691–1695)

22. Mustafa II (1695–1703)

23. Ahmad III (1703–1730)

24. Mahmud I (1730–1754)

25. Osman III (1754–1757)

26. Mustafa III (1757–1773)

27. Abdul Hamid I (1773–1789)

28. Selim III (1789–1807)

29. Mustafa IV (1807–1808)

30. Mahmud II (1808–1839)

31. Abdul Majid I (1839–1861)

32. Abdul Aziz (1861–1871)

33. Murad V (1871–1876)

34. Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909)

35. Muhammad V (1909–1918)

36. Muhammad VI (1918–1922)

37. Abdul Majid II (1922–1924)

1. Osman

1. Osman as Amir

Söğüt was a small fief in Anatolia. Its ruler was Ertugrul. A son was born to him, and he was named Osman. Ertugrul died in 1288 CE. Osman was then thirty years old. He ascended his father’s throne.

A renowned pious man of Söğüt was Abid Ali. Osman married his daughter, Mal Khatun.

In 1299 CE, Osman captured Yeni and expanded the borders of his state. He established the capital of his state in the city of Yeni. Osman assumed the title of Amir.

2. What Osman Was Like

Osman was the embodiment of Islamic morality. His life was extremely simple. He was a ruler of high caliber. Regardless of race or religion, he cared about the happiness and peace of all people. He appointed his pious father-in-law first as qadi and later as vizier. Osman built mosques throughout the state, established salah, and made excellent arrangements for the study of Islamic knowledge. He was highly prudent. He was also extraordinary as a soldier, and his military tactics were of an exceptionally high standard. He deposited one-fifth of the spoils of war in the state treasury and distributed the remaining four-fifths among the soldiers. He generally adopted gentleness. But when necessary, he became as hard as steel. He was a just ruler.

There was no luxury in his life. He was not attached to the world. He left no wealth or treasures for his heir. Before his death, he addressed his son Orhan, saying, “My instruction to you is never to resort to oppression or cruelty. Take the initiative to spread Islam in the conquered regions. Honor learned people. Follow the rules and regulations of the Shariah. Divine law is our greatest strength. Our prosperity lies only in the path of the Most Merciful. Protecting the subjects is your greatest duty. If you can fulfill this duty, you will attain the favor and protection of the Most Merciful.”

3. Osman on the Battlefield

In 1299 CE, under his command, his troops captured Yeni. This city of Yeni became the first capital of the Ottoman Caliphate.

In 1301 CE, Osman went to war with the neighboring Christian country of Greece. Greece was then the heartland of the Eastern Roman Empire. He defeated the Greek commander Muzalon at the Battle of Kuyun Hisar and captured part of the Greek Empire.

In 1302 CE, the king of Greece advanced against Amir Osman with a huge army. The king of Greece was defeated in the battle. The Asian territories of his kingdom fell under Osman’s control.

At one stage of this war, one of the Greek commanders, Evrenos, came to recognize the superiority of Islam. He was impressed by the Muslims’ conduct, moral purity, and discipline. Together with his loyal soldiers, he renounced Christianity and embraced Islam. Later, the swords of Evrenos and his companions continued to be used to ensure the victory of Islam.

In 1317 CE, Amir Osman’s capable son Orhan fought the Greeks and captured the famous city of Bursa. Thereafter, Bursa became the capital of the Ottoman Caliphate.

4. Osman’s Death

Osman governed for 38 years. In 1326 CE, he died at the age of 70.

2. Orhan

1. Orhan as Sultan

Orhan was the capable son of Amir Osman. In 1326 CE, he ascended the throne of Bursa. He assumed the title of Sultan. It should be noted that Osman himself appointed him as his successor.

2. What Orhan Was Like

Like Amir Osman, Orhan lived a simple life. He was a devoted follower of Islam. He established many mosques, Islamic educational institutions, and hospitals in various parts of the state. He transformed the capital, Bursa, into an ideal Muslim city. He built a beautiful mosque in Bursa.

Like his father, he tried to increase the happiness and prosperity of all people, regardless of race or religion.

He was a high-quality and just administrator. Like his father, he too was skilled in military tactics. During Osman’s reign, there was no regular army. A call was issued when war broke out. Interested people came forward. They were trained and taken to the battlefield. Foresighted Orhan realized the necessity of a regular army. Through his efforts, a paid regular army was formed. The infantry was called piyade, and the cavalry was called sipahi. He also formed a military unit called the Janissaries from among Christian youths captured in war who embraced Islam.

3. Orhan on the Battlefield

Orhan was a warrior as brave as Osman. In 1327 CE, the Greek king Andronikos III went to war against Orhan with a huge army. Orhan confronted him on the plain of Pelekanon. Defeated in battle, the Greek king fled under cover of night. Orhan entered Nicaea with his army. The inhabitants of Nicaea were impressed by the conduct of the Muslims. Most of the inhabitants of Nicaea voluntarily embraced Islam and joined the Muslim ummah.

In 1338 CE, when Orhan advanced with his army toward Nicomedia, its inhabitants surrendered without a fight. During Orhan’s reign, Ottoman troops first set foot on European soil. In 1356 CE, Orhan conquered Gallipoli. The local king gave Princess Theodora in marriage to Orhan.

4. Orhan’s Death

In 1359 CE, Orhan died at the age of 75. He governed for 33 years.

The Crusaders, or religious warriors, launched a fierce attack on his army. Bayezid I began a counterattack. Within only three hours, the combined Christian army was scattered. Ten thousand Christian Crusaders were killed. Sigismund, the king of Hungary, crossed the Danube River by boat and fled to his homeland. John of Nevers was captured. He was sentenced to death.

The Battle of Nicopolis was the final Crusade, or religious war, of the Christians.

In 1397 CE, the bishop of Greece called upon Bayezid I to invade Greece in order to liberate its people, who were oppressed by the corruption and tyranny of Queen Helena. When Bayezid I advanced with his army, the queen of Greece came forward to meet him and acknowledged his suzerainty.

3. Murad I

1. Murad I as Sultan

In 1359 CE, Orhan’s son Murad I ascended the throne of Bursa.

2. What Murad I Was Like

Murad I was an illiterate man. However, he possessed extraordinary talent. He was a farsighted statesman. He too was a devoted follower of Islam. He was also vigilant about the spread of Islamic thought and consciousness.

He was tolerant toward followers of other religions as well. During his reign, Christian subjects enjoyed complete religious freedom. He was a capable organizer. Through his efforts, the Ottoman army became even stronger.

3. Murad I on the Battlefield

In 1363 CE, Murad I defeated the Greek army and captured Adrianople.

In 1363 CE, he defeated the Christian army in a battle fought on the banks of the Maritsa River and captured Macedonia. Around the same time, Murad I captured Thrace (present-day Romania).

In 1366 CE, Murad I transferred the capital to Adrianople.

In 1372 CE, Bulgaria, supported by Serbia, went to war against the Ottoman Caliphate. The battle took place on the Samakov plain. The army commanded by Murad I won the battle. Bulgaria came under Ottoman rule.

In 1389 CE, on the Kosovo battlefield between Serbia and Bulgaria, the European Christian forces, led by Lazarus, king of Serbia, went to war and were soundly defeated by Murad I. Lazarus was captured. He was sentenced to death.

4. The Martyrdom of Murad I

After the victory on the Kosovo plain, a Slav soldier named Kobilovic skillfully approached Murad I and killed him.

Murad I was martyred in 1389 CE. He governed for 30 years.

4. Bayezid I

1. Bayezid I as Sultan

After the martyrdom of Murad I in 1389, his son Bayezid I ascended the throne at Adrianople.

2. The character of Bayezid I

Bayezid I was a resolute man. He displayed extraordinary swiftness on the battlefield. For this reason, he was called Yildirim, or Lightning. Through his wars against the European Christians, he further consolidated the Ottoman Caliphate. However, he was cruel by nature. Moreover, under the influence of his Serbian wife, he fell into moral decline. As a result, the reputation of the Ottoman Caliphate suffered considerably.

3. Bayezid I on the battlefield

Stephen Bulkovich, son of Lazarus, the king of Serbia who was defeated and sentenced to death in the Battle of Kosovo, ascended the Serbian throne. Bayezid I declared war against him. Stephen acknowledged Bayezid I’s allegiance and concluded a peace treaty with him. Serbia gained autonomy under the Ottoman Caliphate. King Stephen gave his sister Olivera Despina in marriage to Bayezid I. This Serbian woman succeeded in gaining influence over Bayezid I. However, King Stephen of Serbia continued to observe the terms of the treaty properly.

In 1393, Bayezid I sent his eldest son, Suleiman, against Bulgaria. Suleiman invaded northern Bulgaria and captured its capital, Tarnovo.

In 1396, in response to an appeal from Sigismund, King of Hungary, Pope Boniface IX declared a crusade, or holy war, against the Ottoman Caliphate.

Through the efforts of Charles V, King of France, a large number of Frenchmen gathered under the leadership of John of Nevers, the prince of Burgundy. The nobility of England, Scotland, Lombardy, Savoy, Bavaria, Germany, Wallachia, Bohemia, Austria, and other countries, together with 60,000 Christian crusaders, assembled in Buda, Austria. Advancing along the banks of the Danube, they reached the vicinity of Nicopolis in Bulgaria and set up camp. Bayezid I advanced with his army. The Christian crusaders launched a fierce attack on the Ottoman forces. Bayezid I began a counterattack. Within only three hours, the combined Christian army was routed. Ten thousand Christian crusaders were killed. Sigismund, King of Hungary, crossed the Danube by boat and fled to his homeland. John of Nevers was captured. He was sentenced to death.

The Battle of Nicopolis was the Christians’ final crusade, or holy war.

In 1397, the bishop called upon Bayezid I to invade Greece in order to liberate the Greeks, who were suffering under the corruption and oppression of Queen Helena. When Bayezid I advanced with his army, the Queen of Greece came forward to meet him and acknowledged his suzerainty.

Thereafter, Bayezid I besieged Constantinople. At that time, he received news that the Tatar commander Timur Khan, having conquered Georgia and other regions, was advancing toward Asia Minor. Bayezid I lifted the siege of Constantinople and advanced to confront Timur.

In 1402, a fierce battle took place between the two sides on the plain of Ankara. Bayezid I was defeated in the battle. He and his son were captured.

4. The death of Bayezid I

Bayezid I died in captivity in 1402. He ruled for 14 years.

5. Muhammad I

1. Muhammad I as Sultan

After Bayezid I’s death in 1402, conflict continued among his sons for several years. Thereafter, Bayezid I’s son Muhammad ascended the throne at Adrianople.

2. The character of Muhammad I

Muhammad I was a knowledgeable and prudent sultan. He was a capable ruler and a wise statesman. He was a magnanimous man. As a just ruler, he stood far above others. He was deeply devoted to peace. Once, he said to the representatives of Serbia, Wallachia, and Albania, “Do not forget to tell your leaders that I have granted peace to everyone, and that I shall accept peace from everyone. Allah punishes those who violate peace.”

Muhammad I was also extremely kind to his Christian subjects. Rather than expanding the state’s borders, Muhammad I gave priority to consolidating the state.

3. The death of Muhammad I

Muhammad I died in 1421. He ruled for eight years.

6. Murad II

1. Murad II as Sultan

In 1421, Murad II, the son of Muhammad I, ascended the throne at Adrianople. He was only 18 years old at the time.

2. The character of Murad II

Murad II was a devout Muslim. He was extremely kind. His generosity, wisdom, and tolerance of differing views were well known to all. He was a friend to the poor and afflicted. Murad II was a capable ruler. Law and order prevailed throughout the state during his reign. He kept a watchful eye on the revival and preservation of Islamic values. Throughout the state, he established numerous mosques and Islamic educational institutions. He also established many hospitals to provide proper medical care for the people.

The historian Gibbon says, “Justice and restrained conduct were notable characteristics of Murad II. The Christians unanimously acknowledged this as well. Unless specifically compelled by provocation from the other side, he would never engage in war. Moreover, his word was sacred when it came to observing peace treaties.”

The Christian subjects lived happily in his kingdom. Christians of the Greek Orthodox Church, having been persecuted by Christians of other denominations, came to the territories under his rule and began living there in safety.

3. Murad II on the battlefield

Serbia was an autonomous kingdom under the Ottoman Caliphate. George Brankovic, the new king of Serbia, incited the kings of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Poland, Wallachia, Albania, and Hungary to wage war against the Ottoman Caliphate. In 1444, a vast Christian army under the leadership of Hunyadi, the famous Hungarian commander, engaged Murad II’s army in battle on the plain of Varna. Vladislaus, King of Hungary, and Cardinal Julian were killed in the battle. Commander Hunyadi fled and saved his life.

It should be noted that Hunyadi wanted to forcibly make the Christians of Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina followers of the Roman Catholic Church. They consequently became frightened and alarmed. Rather than becoming followers of the Roman Catholic Church, they considered it preferable to remain steadfast in their own faith and live under the rule of the Ottoman Caliphate. Although the kings and commanders of those countries fought against the Ottoman Caliphate, the people considered surrendering to the Ottoman Caliphate to be the right course.

4. The death of Murad II

Murad II died in 1451 at the age of 68.

7. Muhammad II

1. Muhammad II as Sultan

In 1451, Muhammad II ascended the throne at Adrianople. He was 21 years old at the time.

2. The character of Muhammad II

Muhammad II was a devout Muslim. He strongly patronized Islamic institutions. For this reason, he was called the “father of righteous deeds.” After conquering Constantinople, he built a royal palace there called Yeni Saray. In this city, he established many mosques, Islamic educational institutions, and hospitals.

Zakat, war booty, and jizya were the principal sources of revenue for the state treasury. A portion of the revenue from conquered regions was set aside as waqf property, and its proceeds covered the expenses of religious institutions. Ushr (zakat on crops) was collected from Muslim citizens.

Muhammad II formed a divan, or council, to administer civil affairs. The responsibility for running the divan rested with four officials: the vizier, the nishanji (secretary), the qadi, and the treasurer. In religious matters, he relied on the fatwas of the chief mufti.

Muhammad II regarded all citizens equally and administered justice to everyone. He kept a watchful eye on the judicial system to ensure its impartiality.

For the convenience of administration, he divided the Caliphate into several provinces and each province into several districts. He established a training center in the capital to train government employees.

He possessed boundless courage. His skill in military strategy was extraordinary. He built a highly capable army consisting of one hundred thousand men.

3. Muhammad II on the battlefield

In 330 CE, the Roman Emperor Constantine established the new capital of his empire at the ancient Greek city of Byzantium on the shores of the Bosporus and named it Nova Roma, or New Rome. In time, the city was named Constantinople after him.

In 395 CE, the Roman Emperor Theodosius divided the empire between his two sons. The two empires became known as the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire was also called the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Moreover, it became the center of the Greek Orthodox Church of the Christians.

During the time of Muhammad II, Constantine, the king of Greece, was seated on the throne of Constantinople. Learning that Muhammad II, like his predecessors, was undertaking an effort to capture Constantinople, King Constantine appealed to the Christian kings of Western Europe for assistance. For the sake of reconciliation, he then accepted many demands of the Roman Catholic Church. This enraged the leaders of the Greek Orthodox Church. Grand Duke Notaras, the head of the Greek Orthodox Church, said that he preferred to see the turban of the Ottoman sultan rather than the crown of the Roman emperor. For all these reasons, the king of Greece could not gather a large number of warriors.

On May 25, 1453, Sultan Muhammad II broke King Constantine’s resistance and entered Constantinople. The king of Greece was killed in the battle. The flag of Islam was raised in Constantinople. It was for this great victory that Muhammad II became known as Fatih Muhammad, or Muhammad the Conqueror.

After capturing Constantinople, Muhammad II granted a charter to the authorities of the Greek Orthodox Church. The Christians’ right to freely observe their religious rites was recognized.

The Christians who had fled the city during the war were invited by Muhammad II to return to their homes. In response to his invitation, many Christians returned to Constantinople.

Muhammad II transferred the capital of the Ottoman Caliphate from Adrianople to Constantinople.

At that time, Bosnia-Herzegovina was ruled by a fanatical Roman Catholic Christian. Most of its citizens were Bogomil Christians. They did not worship Jesus (peace be upon him) or Mary. There were no idols in their places of worship. They did not regard the cross as a religious symbol. They believed that Jesus (peace be upon him) had been crucified. They did not drink alcohol.

The religious beliefs of the Bogomils conflicted with those of the Pope’s religion propagated from Rome. Therefore, the Roman Catholic Church was fiercely hostile toward them. A campaign of persecution was unleashed against the Bogomils. Many Bogomils were killed. Others fled elsewhere.

Before long, the Bogomil Christians of Bosnia-Herzegovina became acquainted with the Muslims’ good conduct and justice. To escape the oppression of the Roman Catholics, they sought the Muslims’ help.

In 1463, Muhammad II reached Bosnia-Herzegovina with a group of soldiers and defeated the widely hated ruler in battle. Impressed by the beauty of Islam, thousands of Bogomil Christians became Muslims. In a single day, thirty-six thousand Christians became Muslims.

In 1466, Muhammad II sent a group of soldiers toward Albania. Albania came under the Ottoman Caliphate. Becoming acquainted with the superiority and beauty of Islam, countless Christians in Albania embraced Islam and turned Albania into a stronghold of Islam.

In 1467, one of Muhammad II’s principal commanders, Quduk Ahmad, conquered Crimea.

In 1477, Commander Umar Pasha defeated the king of Venice on the battlefield.

In 1480, Commander Quduk Ahmad captured Otranto, the gateway to Italy. In this way, part of Italy came under the Ottoman Caliphate. Muhammad II continued preparing to conquer all of Italy.

4. The death of Muhammad II

Muhammad II died in 1481.

8. Bayezid II

1. Bayezid II as Sultan

In 1481, Bayezid II, the eldest son of Muhammad II, ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was then thirty-five years old.

2. The Character of Bayezid II

He ruled for thirty-one years. During the first part of his reign, he was seen engaged in war with his brothers.

As a ruler, he was unable to demonstrate any notable ability.

3. Bayezid II on the Battlefield

A tragic episode occurred in the conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and the Mamluk rulers of Egypt. From 1484 to 1491, Bayezid II had to wage war against Egypt six times. The war ended through a treaty in 1491.

In 1491, Bayezid II went to war with the Venetian forces. In 1503, Venice signed a peace treaty with him.

Bayezid II also became embroiled in a conflict with Shah Ismail of Iran. Shah Ismail was a Shiite. Under his patronage, the Shiites began rebellious activities against the Ottoman Caliphate in Asia Minor.

In 1511, Bayezid II sent a force against the Shiites under the command of Grand Vizier Ali Pasha. The Shiites were defeated in a battle fought near Severs. However, Grand Vizier Ali Pasha on one side and the Shiite leader Shah Quli on the other were killed in this battle.

4. Bayezid II’s Abdication

In 1512, under pressure from the Janissaries and other soldiers, Bayezid II abdicated in favor of his younger son, Selim I.

9. Selim I

1. Selim I as Sultan

In 1512, Selim I ascended the throne of Constantinople. He had to suppress domestic disputes in order to consolidate his power.

2. The Character of Selim I

Selim I was an extremely devout man. He took pleasure in participating in religious discussions. He was also liberal toward followers of other religions. During his reign, Christians and Jews enjoyed complete religious freedom. He was very fond of learning. He studied until late at night. His administration attracted many learned and accomplished people. He was generally a compassionate man. However, he was very strict with dishonest people. On certain occasions, he also resorted to cruelty. He was highly attentive to increasing the prosperity and well-being of the people. He also paid attention to improving the facilities and benefits of the army.

3. Selim I on the Battlefield

In 1514, Selim I defeated Shah Ismail, the Shiite ruler of Iran, on the field of Chaldiran. The Shah of Iran managed to flee while wounded. His wife and family members were captured. Selim I entered Tabriz, the capital of Iran. After incorporating Diyarbakir and Kurdistan of Iran into the Ottoman Caliphate, he returned to the capital, Constantinople.

In 1516, Selim I seized Syria, Palestine, and a large part of Arabia from the Mamluk ruler of Egypt, Qansuh al-Ghuri.

In 1517, Selim I defeated Tuman Bay, the new ruler of Egypt, at the field of Ridaniya near Cairo and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Caliphate.

4. Assuming the Title of Caliph

The vast Abbasid Caliphate centered in Baghdad had been shattered by the Tatars’ invasion. In 1258, Baghdad fell to the Tatar military commander Hulagu Khan. The surviving members of the Abbasid family fled and reached Egypt. At that time, Egypt was ruled by the Mamluks.

The title of Caliph had then become nothing more than a symbolic title representing the spiritual unity of the Muslim world. When Selim I conquered Egypt, Ahmad al-Mutawakkil, who held the title of Caliph, was residing in Cairo. He was merely a puppet in the hands of the Mamluks. Selim I captured him and brought him to Constantinople. Ahmad al-Mutawakkil was relieved of his duties as Caliph. Selim I assumed the title of Caliph. From then on, the Ottoman rulers simultaneously held the titles of Sultan and Caliph.

5. The Death of Selim I

In 1520, Sultan and Caliph Selim I died.

10. Suleiman I

1. Suleiman I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1520, Suleiman I, the only son of Selim I, ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was then twenty-six years old.

2. The Character of Suleiman I

Suleiman I was extremely popular even while he was crown prince. His honesty and ability were already widely discussed at that time. After he became Caliph, a wave of joy swept across the country. Suleiman I was a devout Muslim. In his daily life, he faithfully observed the injunctions of Islam. He kept a watchful eye to ensure that all Muslim citizens regularly performed salah and observed sawm. Provisions were made for punishment for laxity in performing salah and observing sawm. Suleiman I personally copied eight volumes of the Holy Qur’an and arranged for their preservation in the Suleymaniye Mosque. He also renovated the Kaaba.

He also maintained a liberal attitude toward followers of other religions. During his reign, many Protestants and Catholic Christians, endangered by religious conflicts in Christian countries, came to live safely in the state he governed. The historian Lord Crazier says, “During the age of persecution and injustice between Roman Catholics and Protestants in the Christian world, no other contemporary monarch could earn praise equal to Suleiman’s.”

Courage, magnanimity, justice, and generosity adorned his character. He reduced the tax burden on the citizens.

The Suleymaniye Mosque is his immortal achievement. Throughout the state, he built many mosques, Islamic educational institutions, hospitals, bathhouses, bridges, and other structures.

He dismissed corrupt officials and appointed honest and capable people. In the interest of justice, he even removed his own son-in-law from the post of governor. For administrative convenience, he divided the entire Caliphate into 21 vilayets (provinces) and 250 sanjaks (districts). Each sanjak was again divided into several kadas. The governor of a province was called a wali. The governor of a sanjak was a pasha. Each kada had a qadi. However, Suleiman I liked an ostentatious lifestyle. His principal wife, Roxelana, exerted a special influence over him.

His renowned contemporaries included Charles V of Germany, Francis I of France, Queen Elizabeth of England, Tsar Ivanovich of Russia, Sigismund of Poland, Shah Ismail of Iran, and the Mughal emperor Akbar of India.

3. The Status of Religious Institutions

At first, the Ottoman rulers regarded themselves as representatives of Islamic laws and regulations. Religious jurists were divided into two groups, known as qadis and muftis. Later, the two divisions were placed under the chief mufti. The chief mufti became known as the Shaykh al-Islam. From the middle of the sixteenth century, the power and influence of the Shaykh al-Islam continued to increase. His rank was almost equal to that of the Grand Vizier. The principal duty of the Shaykh al-Islam was to give opinions on whether a law conformed to religious injunctions. All religious educational institutions were under his office.

4. Suleiman I on the Battlefield

King Louis II of Hungary killed the Caliph’s envoy. In 1521, Suleiman I advanced with an army and captured Belgrade, then the capital of Hungary.

In 1522, Suleiman I conquered the island of Rhodes.

In 1526, King Louis II of Hungary gathered strength and again began persecuting the Muslims. Suleiman I sent a force under the command of Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha. The two armies confronted each other on the field of Mohács. Louis II was defeated and killed in the battle. Buda-Pest, the capital of Hungary, came under Muslim control.

In 1553, Suleiman I wrested Iraq from Iran.

In 1556, he conquered Basra.

With the assistance of the chief naval commander Khayr al-Din Barbarossa and several naval commanders named Dragut Pasha, Uluj Ali, Piri Pasha, and Piyale Pasha, he built an efficient navy. This navy established supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea.

5. The Death of Suleiman I

When King Maximilian II of Hungary rebelled in 1566, Suleiman I set out on a campaign. On the way, he captured Croatia. Then he conquered the fortress of Sziget. That very night, after the fall of Sziget Fortress, Suleiman I died suddenly.

11. Selim II

1. Selim II as Sultan and Caliph

After Suleiman I died in 1566, his son Selim II ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The Character of Selim II

Selim II was an incompetent and pleasure-loving man. He was a lover of poetry. He was surrounded by poets, writers, and flatterers. Staying inside the palace in the company of women and drinking alcohol were his chief characteristics. Some historians call him “Selim the Drunkard.” He was immersed in luxury and indulgence. He neglected the affairs of government. Selim II was the first Caliph of the period of the Ottoman Caliphate’s decline.

3. Selim II on the Battlefield

Selim II was not a man suited to warfare. However, his Grand Vizier, Muhammad Sokollu, was a capable man. At his initiative and according to his plans, Ottoman troops embarked on several military campaigns. The conquest of Crete, the reconquest of Arabia and Yemen, and the conquest of Tunisia were notable events during Selim II’s reign.

In 1571, the commanders Lala Mustafa and Beylerbey defeated the Venetian commander Bragadino and conquered Cyprus.

In 1571, at Venice’s instigation, the King of Spain, the Pope of Rome, the Duke of Savoy, and the Knights of Malta joined together and attacked the navy of the Ottoman Caliphate in the Gulf of Lepanto under the leadership of Don Juan, the Austrian naval commander. When the naval commander Kapudan Pasha was killed, the Ottoman forces fell into disarray and suffered defeat.

Tunisia had previously been under the Ottoman Caliphate. After the disaster of the Battle of Lepanto, Don Juan, the Austrian naval commander, captured Tunisia with Spanish assistance. In 1574, the Muslims succeeded in reconquering Tunisia under the leadership of the Muslim naval commander Uluj Ali.

4. The Death of Selim II

Selim II died soon after Tunisia was reconquered by Ottoman troops in 1574. He had been in power for eight years.

12. Murad III

1. Murad III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1574, Murad III, the son of Selim II, ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was then twenty-eight years old.

2. The Character of Murad III

Murad III was a pleasure-loving man. He had no ability whatsoever to govern the state. He remained intoxicated with women and wine inside the palace. He was an extremely cruel man by nature. By curtailing the authority of his capable viziers, he inflicted immense damage on the Caliphate. Murad III’s mother, Nurbanu, and his Venetian wife, Sophia, were engaged in a competition to exert influence over him. In the end, Sophia prevailed in this competition.

During Murad III’s reign, corrupt people entrenched themselves in the administration. Nepotism gained prominence. Irregularities became the rule everywhere.

3. Murad III on the Battlefield

Murad III had no military talent. He also lacked the moral strength to wage war.

Osman Pasha was making every effort to preserve the glory of the Ottoman Caliphate. In 1583, he went to war against the Iranians and emerged victorious.

In 1590, Iran signed a peace treaty. Under the terms of the treaty, Georgia, Tabriz, Azerbaijan, Shirvan, and other regions were recognized as parts of the Ottoman Caliphate.

4. The Death of Murad III

Murad III died in 1595. He had been in power for twenty-one years.

13. Muhammad III

1. Muhammad III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1595, Murad’s son, Muhammad III, ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was born to Queen Sophia.

2. What Muhammad III Was Like

Muhammad III was an incompetent sultan. To secure his hold on power, he had his nineteen brothers killed. Queen Sophia wielded influence over her son Muhammad III. Muhammad III’s wife also continued trying to exert influence over him. Women’s directives began to take effect in the administration. The incompetent sultan entrusted the viziers with all administrative affairs and himself became occupied with women and wine inside the palace.

3. Muhammad III on the Battlefield

Taking advantage of Muhammad III’s weakness, the Christian rulers of Eastern Europe began attacking the European provinces of the Ottoman Caliphate.

In 1596, the Christians advanced under the leadership of the Archduke of Austria. Compelled to do so, Muhammad III took the field with Hasan Sokololli Pasha, Ibrahim Pasha, and Sikala Pasha, accompanied by their troops. A battle was fought on the Keresztés plain. After heavy losses, the Muslim army ultimately emerged victorious.

4. The Death of Muhammad III

Muhammad III died in 1603. He had been in power for nine years.

14. Ahmed I

1. Ahmed I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1603, Muhammad III’s son Ahmed I ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was only fourteen years old at the time.

2. What Ahmed I Was Like

Ahmed I was not as incompetent as the two sultans who preceded him. Although young, he was a courageous man. He took steps to reduce women’s influence over the administration.

3. Ahmed I on the Battlefield

In 1605, in response to Hungary’s hostility, he sent the commander Lala Muhammad Pasha on a military expedition against Hungary and achieved success.

Afterward, he engaged in war with Austria. The war ended when the Treaty of Sitvatorok was signed in 1606. Under the terms of this treaty, Transylvania obtained autonomy from the Ottoman Caliphate. Until then, Austria had paid the Ottoman Caliphate an annual tax of thirty thousand coins. Under the treaty, Austria was released from this obligation. However, it was compelled to pay two hundred thousand coins as a one-time payment in compensation for the war.

Conflict was continuing between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iran. In 1611, Sultan Ahmed I signed a peace treaty with Shah Abbas of Iran. Under the terms of the treaty, he returned to Shah Abbas all Iranian territories except Diyarbekir and Kurdistan.

During Ahmed I’s reign, England, France, Venice, and the Netherlands concluded trade treaties with the Ottoman Caliphate.

4. The Death of Ahmed I

Ahmed I died in 1617. He was twenty-nine years old at the time of his death. He had been Caliph for sixteen years.

15. Mustafa I

1. Mustafa I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1617, Ahmed I’s brother Mustafa I ascended the throne of Constantinople. Because of mental illness, he was forced to abdicate within three months.

16. Osman II

1. Osman II as Sultan and Caliph

In February 1618, Mustafa I’s nephew Osman II ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was fourteen years old at the time.

2. What Osman II Was Like

Osman II showed some ability in governance. However, he was a selfish man. His capriciousness was harmful to the state. He took steps to curtail the power of the Janissary army. As a result, a rebellion broke out against him.

3. The Deposition of Osman II

In 1622, rebellious soldiers deposed and killed Osman II. The rebels once again placed Mustafa I on the throne of power. He again failed to govern. As a result, he was deposed a few months later.

17. Murad IV

1. Murad IV as Sultan and Caliph

In 1623, Osman II’s son Murad IV was placed on the throne. He was eleven years old at the time.

2. What Murad IV Was Like

In the history of the declining Ottoman Caliphate, Murad IV managed to introduce a somewhat exceptional character. Although young, he demonstrated considerable ability in governing the state. Under his strong leadership, the lost glory of the Ottoman Caliphate was restored. As Caliph, he saw that the people were suffering from bribery, corruption, plunder, highway robbery, division, discrimination, and abuse of power; the state treasury was empty because of the extravagance of the preceding pleasure-loving sultans; and the Janissary troops were disobedient and unruly. Murad IV secretly raised a new army. Six squadrons of cavalrymen voluntarily joined this force. With the new soldiers, he subdued the disobedient and unruly troops.

He took strict measures against corrupt officials. He confiscated wealth acquired through illegal means. The law-and-order situation soon improved. Good governance was established.

3. Murad IV on the Battlefield

In 1635, Murad IV conducted a military expedition against Iran and captured Tabriz. In the meantime, the Iranians conquered Baghdad. They conquered Baghdad. The conquest of Baghdad was the greatest event of Murad IV’s reign.

4. The Death of Murad IV

Murad IV died in 1640. He was only twenty-eight years old at the time.

18. Ibrahim I

1. Ibrahim I as Sultan and Caliph

Murad IV had no sons. In 1640, his brother Ibrahim I ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. What Ibrahim I Was Like

Ibrahim I was an incompetent sultan. However, the Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa was a capable ruler. But he lost his life because of palace intrigues. As a result, the state was once again plunged into the darkness of corruption and anarchy. Ibrahim I remained immersed in luxuries and women. Various taxes were imposed on the people to raise money for his extravagance.

3. The Killing of Ibrahim I

Rebellion broke out in the state because of the anti-popular activities of Ibrahim I and his new Grand Vizier. The rebels killed the Grand Vizier. In 1648, Ibrahim I lost his life at the hands of the rebels.

19. Muhammad IV

1. Muhammad IV as Sultan and Caliph

When Ibrahim I was killed in 1648, his son Muhammad IV ascended the throne of Constantinople. He was only seven years old at the time.

2. What Muhammad IV Was Like

The boy Muhammad IV was unable to conduct the affairs of state. The country became rife with corruption. Palace intrigues reached an extreme. The banners of rebellion were raised everywhere. Fortunately, Muhammad IV appointed Muhammad Köprülü as Grand Vizier. He was an honest and capable man. He took strict measures against corruption. He thwarted the conspiracies of the Christians who followed the Greek Orthodox Church of Constantinople. He restored discipline to the Janissary corps. After governing for five years, he died. Muhammad IV appointed Ahmad Köprülü, the capable son of his former Grand Vizier, Muhammad Köprülü, as Grand Vizier. Entrusting the responsibility of governing the state to Ahmad Köprülü, Muhammad IV immersed himself in playing chess inside the palace.

3. Muhammad IV on the Battlefield

Along with internal administration, Ahmad Köprülü also had to handle warfare. In 1664, he engaged the European Christian forces in battle at a place called Saint Gotthard. Ahmad Köprülü was defeated in the battle. The war ended through a treaty. Under the terms of the treaty, Austria regained many of the territories it had lost.

Poland repeatedly imposed war upon the Ottoman Caliphate.

Ahmad Köprülü died in 1676. Kara Mustafa was appointed Grand Vizier this time. He was extremely short-sighted. During his tenure, the Muslim army went to war with Russia and Vienna and was defeated.

In 1681, Kara Mustafa concluded a treaty, ceding several important areas to Russia.

In 1683, Kara Mustafa advanced with his army toward Vienna, the capital of Austria. He was defeated in the battle.

In the past, the Ottoman Caliphate had been the terror of Europe. The failure of the siege of Vienna led the Christian powers of Europe to realize that the Muslims no longer possessed their former strength. Austria, Hungary, and other countries united and repeatedly attacked the European provinces of the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman troops, too, continued to suffer repeated defeats.

In 1684, the Austrian forces drove the Muslim troops out of Croatia. Austria captured Budapest.

In 1685, Hungary seized Neuhäusel from the Ottoman Caliphate.

Venice seized Corinth, Morea, Athens, Navarino, and other areas.

In 1687, Poland defeated the Muslim army on the field of Mohács.

The Ottoman Caliphate, once regarded as an invincible power, now began to suffer defeat on almost every battlefield.

4. The Deposition of Muhammad IV

Muhammad IV was caliph for thirty-eight years. Because of his incompetence, difficult days descended upon the Caliphate. Great discontent arose in the country. Rebellion broke out. In 1687, Muhammad IV was deposed.

20. Suleiman II

1. Suleiman II as Sultan and Caliph

In 1687, Suleiman II ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The Character of Suleiman II

Suleiman II had been imprisoned for a long time before becoming sultan. As a result, he had no opportunity to receive political, administrative, or military training. Anarchy prevailed in the state at that time. Outside, the pressure from the enemies was intense. The Janissary soldiers carried out massacre after massacre in the capital. They also killed the Grand Vizier. Suleiman II confronted the situation with patience and prudence.

3. Suleiman II on the Battlefield

In 1688, Austria seized Belgrade from the Ottoman troops. The Austrian forces also achieved great success in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Transylvania. In 1689, Suleiman II went to war against Austria with his army and was defeated.

During this difficult period for the Caliphate, Suleiman II appointed Mustafa Köprülü, the second son of Muhammad Köprülü, as Grand Vizier. He was a capable and experienced statesman. He dismissed incompetent officials and reorganized the army.

Mustafa Köprülü was a devout Muslim. He was exceptionally just. He was also a military genius of the highest caliber.

In 1690, Mustafa Köprülü fought Austria and recovered several territories that had been seized. He also succeeded in retaking Belgrade. Transylvania returned to Muslim control. In this way, some of the disgrace of defeat on the battlefield was erased.

4. The Death of Suleiman II

Suleiman II died in 1691.

21. Ahmad II

1. Ahmad II as Sultan and Caliph

Ahmad II was an incompetent ruler. He was very fainthearted and suspicious. He proved extremely unsuccessful in conducting the affairs of state.

2. The Character of Ahmad II

Ahmad II was an incompetent ruler. He was very fainthearted and suspicious. He proved extremely unsuccessful in conducting the affairs of state.

3. Ahmad II on the Battlefield

Ahmad II had no military genius. He lacked the ability to play any meaningful role on the battlefield.

When Austria imposed war upon the Ottoman Caliphate in 1691, Grand Vizier Mustafa Köprülü was killed by enemy gunfire. As a result, the army lost its morale. The Ottoman troops suffered heavy losses.

4. The Death of Ahmad II

Famine and epidemic broke out in the country. In 1695, Ahmad II died brokenhearted, carrying the disgrace of defeat and failure.

22. Mustafa II

1. Mustafa II as Sultan and Caliph

In 1695, Mustafa II, the son of Muhammad IV, ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The Character of Mustafa II

Mustafa II was more capable and courageous than his predecessors.

3. Mustafa II on the Battlefield

In 1695, Mustafa II conducted a military campaign against Austria and succeeded in retaking several fortresses.

In 1697, he again set out on a military campaign against Austria. However, he was soundly defeated by the Austrian forces on the field of Zenta.

After the defeat at Zenta, Austria, Hungary, Venice, and Russia intensified their efforts, with redoubled enthusiasm, to establish their supremacy and authority over the European provinces of the Ottoman Caliphate. During this difficult period for the Caliphate, Mustafa II appointed Hüseyin Köprülü as Grand Vizier. Hüseyin Köprülü was a talented man. As a result of his tireless efforts, the country’s administration, economy, and military strength became consolidated within a short time. Hüseyin Köprülü followed a policy of avoiding confrontation with the European powers as far as possible.

In 1699, the Ottoman Caliphate signed a peace treaty with Austria, Russia, Poland, and Venice in the city of Karlowitz.

Under this treaty, the Ottoman Caliphate ceded all of Hungary, except Transylvania and Banat, to Austria. Poland also received several territories. Russia received the region of Azov. Venice relinquished Athens and took Dalmatia and Morea. As a result of this treaty, peace was established in Eastern Europe for some time. However, having recognized the weakness of the Ottoman Caliphate, the European powers became eager to replace the declining Muslim power.

Hüseyin Köprülü was dismissed as a result of palace intrigues. Some time later, he died.

4. The Abdication of Mustafa II

In the absence of a capable administrator like Hüseyin Köprülü, the country once again moved toward disorder. Discontent spread everywhere. Rebellion broke out. Failing to improve the situation, Mustafa II abdicated in 1703.

23. Ahmad III

1. Ahmad III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1703, Ahmad III, the brother of Mustafa II, ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The Character of Ahmad III

Ahmad III was a peace-loving sultan. However, he took firm measures to suppress internal rebellion. During the first six years of his reign, peace prevailed in the state.

3. Ahmad III on the Battlefield

Russia began various military activities after concluding the Treaty of Karlowitz. Meanwhile, King Charles XII of Sweden, having been defeated in battle by Russia’s Tsar Peter, took refuge in the Ottoman Caliphate. Russia continued to pressure Ahmad III to drive out the king of Sweden. Ahmad III refused to expel the dispossessed Swedish king who had sought refuge with him. As a result, Russia became aggressive.

In 1710, on the Sultan’s orders, the Muslim army, under the command of Grand Vizier Muhammad Pasha, surrounded the Russian army. In this situation, Empress Catherine subjugated Muhammad Pasha by presenting him with valuable jewelry. Thus, although the enemy was at his mercy, Muhammad Pasha returned in 1711 after signing the Treaty of Pruth instead of defeating and punishing them.

This incident caused great discontent among the people. Ahmad III dismissed Muhammad Pasha from the office of Grand Vizier.

In 1717, the new Grand Vizier, Damat Ali, engaged the Austrian forces in battle on the field of Petrovaradin. Damat Ali was killed by enemy fire. The Ottoman army suffered defeat.

In 1718, the Austrian forces captured Belgrade. In this battle, the Ottoman troops led by the newly appointed Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha were defeated.

In 1724, after defeating Shah Tahmasp, the Safavid ruler of Iran, Russia advanced from one side and the Ottoman troops from the other.

Later, a treaty was signed between Russia and the Ottoman Caliphate. Under its terms, the Ottoman Caliphate received Georgia, Erivan, Shirvan, and Azerbaijan. Russia received Derbent, Baku, and Gilan.

In 1725, the Ottoman troops captured Tabriz in Iran.

In 1729, Nader Shah came to power in Iran.

In 1730, Nader Shah drove out the Ottoman troops and recovered the lost territories. After the Caliphate’s defeat at the hands of Iran, discontent arose throughout the Caliphate against the administration. Taking advantage of this discontent, the commander of the Janissary troops, Patrona Halil, laid siege to the Sultan’s palace and killed many people, including Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha.

4. The Abdication of Ahmad III

In 1730, having failed to bring the situation under control, Ahmad III abdicated in favor of his nephew, Mahmud I.

24. Mahmud I

1. Mahmud I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1730, Mahmud I ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The character of Mahmud I

Mahmud I took strict measures against the Janissary commander Patrona Khalil and restored peace to the country.

Mahmud I was a peace-loving sultan. He had no interest in war. Fortunately, he received the help and cooperation of a trustworthy and capable man named Agha Bashir.

3. Mahmud I on the battlefield

In 1721, the Ottoman army invaded Iran and captured Hamadan, Kermanshah, and Tabriz. However, in the face of Nader Shah’s counterattack, it was unable to retain these places for long.

Meanwhile, after the death of Tsar Peter of Russia, Tsarina Anna ascended the Russian throne. She signed an alliance with Austria to seize Eastern Europe from the Ottoman Caliphate and divide it between themselves.

England and France saw the danger of their trade and commerce being ruined amid Russia’s expansion of its influence in this region. Therefore, these two countries sided with the Ottoman Caliphate to thwart Russia’s advance.

Against this background, in 1736 Russia seized Azov and Crimea from the Ottoman Caliphate through an undeclared war. In 1737, Russia’s ally Austria captured Nis from the Ottoman troops and attacked Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Ottoman troops succeeded in repelling this attack.

In 1738, Austria launched another attack. In the face of the Ottoman troops’ counterattack, the Austrian army retreated and sought refuge in Belgrade.

In 1739, through French mediation, Russia and Austria signed a peace treaty with the Ottoman Caliphate. This came to be known as the Treaty of Belgrade. It was the last honorable treaty for the Ottoman Caliphate.

4. The death of Mahmud I

Mahmud I died in 1754.

25. Osman III

1. Osman III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1754, Osman III ascended the throne of Constantinople.

He was Caliph for only three years. No important events occurred during this period. Peace and order prevailed in the state during his reign.

2. The death of Osman III

Osman III died in 1757.

26. Mustafa III

1. Mustafa III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1757, Mustafa III, the brother of Osman III, ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The character of Mustafa III

Mustafa III demonstrated considerable ability in the early part of his reign. His Grand Vizier, Raghib Pasha, was a very capable and farsighted man. Through his efforts, peace and order were established in the state.

3. Mustafa III on the battlefield

In 1763, Grand Vizier Raghib Pasha died. This left the sultan considerably weakened.

Russia’s Tsarina Catherine II decided to seize the Ottoman Caliphate’s eastern European territories. To this end, she formed an alliance with the King of Prussia. Austria’s Queen Maria Theresa also joined them.

In 1768, war broke out between the Ottoman Caliphate and Russia. In this war, France supported the Ottoman Caliphate, while England supported Russia.

Fighting continued on various battlefields. Both sides alternately experienced victory and defeat.

4. The death of Mustafa III

Mustafa III died in 1773.

27. Abdul Hamid I

1. Abdul Hamid I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1773, Abdul Hamid I, the son of Mustafa III, ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The character of Abdul Hamid I

Abdul Hamid I was a peace-loving man. He did not like warfare. But Russia did not let him live in peace.

3. Abdul Hamid I on the battlefield

The war between the Ottoman Caliphate and Russia had already been ongoing. In 1774, Abdul Hamid I concluded the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with Russia. Russia gained the right to free trade in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia gained the right to act as the guardian of the Christians within the Ottoman Caliphate. As a result, Russia gained an opportunity to interfere in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Caliphate. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca served as the first step in the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate.

In 1788, war broke out between Austria and the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman troops emerged victorious in this war.

4. The death of Abdul Hamid I

Abdul Hamid I died in 1789.

28. Selim III

1. Selim III as Sultan and Caliph

In 1789, Selim III, the nephew of Abdul Hamid I, ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The character of Selim III

Selim III was a talented man. However, he was inspired by European ideas. He undertook various reforms. He reduced the power of the Grand Vizier and increased the power of the Council of Viziers.

Selim III tried to organize the Ottoman troops on the model of the French army. For this purpose, he employed many French military officers. He procured modern weapons from France. He made it compulsory for the soldiers to wear military uniforms and participate in regular parades. He also employed Umar Pasha, who had received training in Russia, in the reform of the army. He abolished the feudal system. He arranged for various subjects to be taught on the European model. He sent many young men to London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin to acquire knowledge of European politics, diplomacy, military strategy, and related subjects. However, in carrying out reforms in the European style, he became detached from Islamic power.

3. Selim III on the battlefield

In 1789, Austria attacked the eastern European provinces of the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman troops engaged in battle.

In 1791, the Treaty of Sistova was signed. Under this treaty, the Caliphate ceded certain areas, including Croatia, to Austria and managed to retain control over the remaining areas.

Russia’s Tsarina Catherine II dreamed of capturing Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Caliphate. She continued inciting the Greek subjects of the Caliphate to revolt.

The Russian army launched military operations toward Bulgaria and Bessarabia, territories belonging to the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman troops also advanced. Fighting continued on various battlefields. But the Ottoman troops continued to suffer defeats.

At this time, a revolution took place in France. Meanwhile, through English mediation, the Ottoman Caliphate and Russia signed the Treaty of Jassy.

In the meantime, Napoleon Bonaparte became the ruler of France. He set about capturing the Ottoman Caliphate’s provinces of Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. War broke out.

Seeing France’s influence growing, England now came forward in support of the Ottoman Caliphate. France was forced to retreat.

In 1802, France signed the Treaty of Amiens with the Ottoman Caliphate. Thereafter, relations between France and the Ottoman Caliphate improved. However, relations with England became strained.

In 1804, at Russia’s instigation, the Christians of Serbia began a revolt against the Ottoman Caliphate under the leadership of a man named Kara George.

In 1806, while the Ottoman soldiers were engaged in war with the Russian soldiers, Serbia declared independence.

3. The killing of Selim III

Internal disorder arose during Selim III’s reign. Revolts broke out everywhere. Seeing that the situation was becoming untenable, he abdicated and went into hiding in 1807. In 1808, he was killed by an assassin.

29. Mustafa IV

1. Mustafa IV as Sultan and Caliph

In 1807, Mustafa IV, the nephew of Selim III, ascended the throne of Constantinople. But he had to relinquish power just one year later.

30. Mahmud II

1. Mahmud II as Sultan and Caliph

In 1808, Mahmud II ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. The character of Mahmud II

Mahmud II was unable to demonstrate competence in governance. However, he continued along the path of reform initiated by Selim III.

At this time, people such as Mustafa Sami and Sadiq Rifat, inspired by the European philosophy of life, continued to sow the seeds of new ideas through their writings.

Previously, the Grand Vizier and the Shaykh al-Islam had possessed extensive powers.

Mahmud II reduced the power of the Grand Vizier and appointed deputy viziers to various departments. An advisory council was formed for each ministry. Previously, the Shaykh al-Islam had been a high-ranking figure in religious affairs and civil administration. Mahmud II restricted his authority solely to religious matters.

He formed a council to draft laws. Later, it assumed a somewhat representative form and was named the Shura-fi-Dawlat.

The first newspaper in the Turkish language was published under Mahmud II’s patronage, under the name Takvim-i Vekayi.

Mahmud II introduced the fez in place of the turban. For the soldiers, he made it compulsory to use trousers instead of pajamas and boots instead of heavy, ornate shoes.

3. Mahmud II on the Battlefield

With Russian support, Serbia continued its war against the Ottoman Caliphate. In 1817, Mahmud II was forced to recognize Serbia’s independence. Milos Obrenovic became the first king of independent Serbia.

In 1814, four Greek merchants formed a secret society in Odessa called the Hetairia Philike. By 1820, its membership had reached two hundred thousand. The society’s aim was to bring an end to the Ottoman Caliphate in Europe and establish a new Greek empire like the ancient Greek Empire. The historian Lane-Poole said, “These revolts were inspired more by Russian instigation than by the lofty ideal of freedom.”

With the help of the troops of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Mahmud II had nearly cornered the Greek rebels. At this time, Europeans developed sympathy for Greece, the cradle of ancient civilization.

In 1827, the combined forces of Russia, France, and England defeated the Ottoman navy in the naval battle of Navarino.

In 1828, the Ottoman forces were defeated once again after launching a new military campaign against Greece.

The Treaty of Adrianople was imposed upon the Ottoman Caliphate. Under this treaty, Moldavia and Wallachia came under Russian authority. Some parts of Asia also passed into Russian hands. Russia secured the right to free trade throughout the Caliphate.

In 1829, the Ottoman Caliphate was forced to recognize independence.

Meanwhile, relations between Mahmud II and Muhammad Ali, the ruler of Egypt, deteriorated.

In 1831, Muhammad Ali’s son Ibrahim advanced with troops to conquer Syria. In this critical situation, Mahmud II sought help from England and Russia. Russia did not let this opportunity pass. Like floodwaters, Russian troops poured into the interior of the Ottoman Caliphate.

England and France became alarmed as Russian influence over the Ottoman Caliphate increased. England and France put pressure on Muhammad Ali, the ruler of Egypt, and forced him to sign the Convention of Kütahya. Under this treaty, Mahmud II ceded Syria, Tripoli (Libya), and Adana to Muhammad Ali. Russian troops were then everywhere in the Caliphate.

In 1833, Russia imposed the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi on the Ottoman Caliphate. Under this treaty, Russia gained the right to freely navigate warships through the Dardanelles. The passage for warships of all countries except Russia was closed. Despite enjoying capitulations, or special economic privileges, the European merchants were not satisfied.

In 1838, Mahmud II signed an agreement with England called the Balta-Liman Convention. As a result of this agreement, a policy of free trade was adopted in the Caliphate.

4. The Death of Mahmud II

Mahmud II died in 1839.

The Eastern Question

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottoman Caliphate was a vast and powerful state extending far across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Balkan region, inhabited by Greeks, Serbs, Bulgars, Albanians, and other peoples, from the Danube River in Eastern Europe to the Aegean Sea, was also part of the Ottoman Caliphate.

By the eighteenth century, the Ottoman Caliphate had grown weak. During this period, various peoples under Ottoman rule began struggles for independence. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Ottoman Caliphate, Russia sought to establish dominance over the Black Sea, the Bosporus, and the Dardanelles. England and France became alarmed at the growth of Russian influence and tried to restrain Russia.

This multifaceted problem came to be called the “Eastern Question” in international politics. By the nineteenth century, the “Eastern Question” had assumed an acute form.

31. Abdul Majid I

1. Abdul Majid I as Sultan and Caliph

In 1839, Abdul Majid I, the son of Mahmud II, ascended the throne at Constantinople.

2. The Character of Abdul Majid I

Abdul Majid I was inspired by European thought. Rashid Pasha, Ali Fuad Pasha, and other politicians received their education in various European countries.

They were inspired by European ideas. They initiated Caliph Abdul Majid I into their way of thinking. By issuing royal decrees called the Khatt-i Sharif and the Khatt-i Humayun, he undertook the Tanzimat, or reform efforts. His aim was to develop the Ottoman Caliphate according to European methods.

Some provisions of the Tanzimat were commendable. Others conflicted with Islam. Therefore, they did not receive general acceptance. The religious scholars strongly opposed them.

3. Abdul Majid I on the Battlefield

The Crimean War took place in 1854. Queen Victoria of England once said, “This war took place because of the ambitions of Tsar Nicholas and his followers.”

In the nineteenth century, Russia’s Tsar Nicholas became active in seeking to seize the Ottoman Caliphate, regarding it as the sick man of Europe. Since this could not be done without England’s consent, he secretly sent England a proposal to divide up the Ottoman Caliphate. England saw that its interests would be harmed if Russia established control over the Black Sea, the Bosporus, and the Dardanelles. Thus, for its own interests, England adopted a policy of safeguarding the Ottoman Caliphate.

In 1848, Russia seized Moldavia and Wallachia from the Ottoman Caliphate. The Caliphate attempted to recover them through diplomatic efforts. Nothing came of it.

Therefore, in 1854, Abdul Majid I declared war against Russia. Thus began the Crimean War. In this war, England and France supported the Ottoman Caliphate. The Crimean War ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1856.

Under the Treaty of Paris, it was agreed that the Black Sea would remain open to the merchant ships of all nations, and that no nation’s warships would be permitted to navigate it. Russia and the Ottoman Caliphate would have no military bases on the Black Sea or along the Dardanelles. Russia would relinquish its authority over Moldavia and Wallachia. These two regions would receive autonomous rule under the Ottoman Caliphate. The Danube would be granted the status of an international river, on which ships of all countries could navigate. Russia would return Bessarabia to the Ottoman Caliphate. Russia would have no guardianship over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Caliphate. Serbia would receive autonomy.

The Treaty of Paris curbed Russian predominance. However, the influence of England and France over the Ottoman Caliphate increased.

4. The Death of Abdul Majid I

Abdul Majid I died in 1861.

32. Abdul Aziz

1. Abdul Aziz as Sultan and Caliph

In 1861, Abdul Aziz ascended the throne at Constantinople.

2. The Character of Abdul Aziz

Caliph Abdul Aziz did not like the people of the Young Turks movement.

He adopted a policy of repression toward them.

3. The Death of Abdul Aziz

Abdul Aziz died in 1871.

33. Murad V

1. Murad V as Sultan and Caliph

In 1871, Murad V ascended the throne at Constantinople.

2. The Character of Murad V

Sultan Murad V did not like the Young Turks movement. He too pursued a policy of repression against them.

3. The Death of Murad V

Murad V died in 1876.

34. Abdul Hamid II

1. Abdul Hamid II as Sultan and Caliph

In 1876, Abdul Hamid II ascended the throne at Constantinople.

The Young Turks

In the late nineteenth century, an organization called the Young Turks emerged under the leadership of Muhammad Bey and Namık Kemal, demanding constitutional reforms. These young men, educated in various European countries and inspired by European thought, continued trying to transform the Ottoman Caliphate’s Turkish heartland into a European-style country. Caliph Abdul Aziz did not tolerate their interference in government. He adopted a policy of repression toward them. As a result of his harsh policy, the Young Turks were forced to seek refuge abroad. After Abdul Aziz, Murad V became Caliph. He too did not look favorably upon the Young Turks. During his reign as well, they continued to remain abroad. During the reign of Caliph Abdul Hamid II, they returned to Constantinople. They succeeded in gaining the support of a significant number of influential figures in the capital.

At this time, the Young Turks grew powerful under the leadership of Midhat Pasha. Midhat Pasha was a capable organizer. He is regarded as the true founder of the Young Turks. Good relations developed between Abdul Hamid II and the Young Turks. He appointed Midhat Pasha Grand Vizier. After some time, relations between Midhat Pasha and the Caliph deteriorated. The Caliph dismissed Midhat Pasha from the office of Grand Vizier. The constitution was suspended. The Young Turks went into hiding. They went to various European countries and tried to shape public opinion in their favor.

2. Abdul Hamid II on the Battlefield

In 1876, Bulgaria, one of the regions of the Ottoman Caliphate, declared a revolt. Sultan Abdul Hamid II suppressed the revolt with a firm hand. Many Bulgars lost their lives in the process. In 1877, Russia used the events in Bulgaria as a pretext to declare war against the Ottoman Caliphate. In the face of Russia’s all-out attack, the Ottoman soldiers could not hold their ground. In 1878, the Ottoman Caliphate was forced to sign the Treaty of San Stefano with Russia. Under this treaty, Russia extracted substantial compensation, including the region of Dobruja. The Ottoman fortresses in the Danube region had to be demolished. Russia gained the Asian territories of Batum, Kars, Ardahan, Bayezid, and others. Bulgaria was granted the status of an autonomous tributary state. Bulgaria’s borders were expanded as far as Albania. Serbia’s independence was recognized once again. Serbia’s borders were extended to the frontier of Montenegro. Romania’s independence was recognized. Bosnia-Herzegovina was granted autonomy under a Christian governor-general. The Treaty of San Stefano increased Russian influence in Eastern Europe. The Ottoman Caliphate retained only Salonica, Thessaly, Epirus, Albania, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The other European powers became alarmed as Russian influence and authority were established in Eastern Europe. England was the most concerned. Austria was also displeased because its path to expansion in the region had been blocked. England and Austria claimed that since the Eastern Question was an interstate problem of Europe, Russia could not take any measures in the region on its own. Therefore, the Treaty of San Stefano had to be submitted for reconsideration to a conference of the European powers. England and Austria also threatened war. Consequently, Russia agreed to reconsider the Treaty of San Stefano. On June 16, 1878, a conference of the European powers began in Berlin, the capital of Germany, under Bismarck’s presidency. After much discussion, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised and the Treaty of Berlin was signed. Under this treaty, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro gained independence. Greater Bulgaria was divided into three parts: Macedonia was placed under the direct rule of the Ottoman Caliphate. The southern part received the status of a self-governing state called Eastern Rumelia. The remaining part became known as Bulgaria.

Through the Treaty of Paris, the European powers had pledged to preserve the integrity of the Ottoman Caliphate, but those same powers dismembered the Ottoman Caliphate through the Treaty of Berlin. The Treaty of Berlin is a vivid example of the selfishness of the European powers.

3. The Committee of Union and Progress

In 1906, the Committee of Union and Progress was formed in Salonica under the leadership of Enver Pasha. His principal associates were Talaat Pasha and Jamal Pasha. This committee continued working in cooperation with the Young Turks. Its program included shaping Turkey along European lines, constitutional reform, freedom of the press, a declaration of human rights, and cooperation with progressive states.

In 1908, Enver Pasha proclaimed a constitution in Macedonia on behalf of the Committee of Union and Progress. A large part of the army came forward in support of Enver Pasha. Sultan and Caliph Abdul Hamid II reached an understanding with the Committee of Union and Progress. He approved the constitution and became the constitutional head of state. A Council of Ministers was formed from persons nominated by the Committee of Union and Progress.

Islamic personalities could not accept the government of the Committee of Union and Progress. In the activities of this government, they saw the downfall of Islam. They began activities opposing the government. Even after the Committee of Union and Progress came to power, the Ottoman Caliphate’s distress continued. The army continued to suffer defeats on the battlefield. One region after another slipped from the Caliphate’s hands. Newspapers supported by the Committee of Union and Progress continued publishing various writings attacking the Caliph. Such writings against the Caliph wounded many people psychologically. At this time, several trusted associates of the Caliph lost their lives at the hands of assassins.

The Committee government began dismissing the old administrative officers and appointing its own people to the vacant posts. The same policy was followed in the army. The officers dismissed on a large scale became agitated. Many of the newly appointed officers began making disparaging remarks about Islam and tried to prevent ordinary soldiers from performing religious practices. The leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress were indifferent to following Islamic injunctions. This also created discontent in the minds of ordinary people.

In mid-April 1909, the soldiers of Constantinople locked the officers in their rooms and took control of the cantonment. They took control of the Hagia Sophia Mosque and the parliament. They advanced toward the Hagia Sophia Mosque and the parliament building. Countless people joined them along the way. They continued shouting slogans in support of the Sharia. The government of the Committee of Union and Progress was forced to resign. Many of its members were killed by ordinary soldiers. The committee’s leaders fled and saved themselves.

The Committee of Union and Progress had a strong base in Salonica. The army there was loyal to the committee. Upon hearing of the committee government’s downfall in Constantinople, a group of soldiers under the leadership of Mahmud Shawkat Pasha set out toward the capital. On April 24, 1909, they reached Constantinople and seized it. The government of the Committee of Union and Progress came to power again. Martial law was declared. The government of the Committee of Union and Progress came to power again. Martial law was declared. Political parties other than the committee were banned. An organization called the Ittihad-i-Muhammadi Society was also declared illegal. Many learned people were brought before military courts for trial. Badiuzzaman Said Nursi, one of the Ottoman Caliphate’s prominent Islamic stars, was also arrested and brought before a military court. By carrying out such persecution and oppression, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress created an intolerable situation in the country.

3. The Deposition of Abdul Hamid II

On April 27, 1909, the Committee of Union and Progress deposed Sultan and Caliph Abdul Hamid II.

35. Muhammad V

1. Muhammad V as Sultan and Caliph

In 1909, the Committee of Union and Progress placed Abdul Hamid II’s brother, Muhammad V, on the throne of Constantinople.

2. The Rule of the Committee of Union and Progress

The Committee of Union and Progress was composed of various kinds of people. It included Islamic personalities such as Badiuzzaman Said Nursi. However, most of its members believed in nationalism and secularism. A number of atheists were also members. Moreover, a significant number of its members were Christians and Jews. This committee gained power and formed a constitutional government. The Sultan and Caliph became the constitutional head. All governmental power was in the hands of the Council of Ministers.

A bicameral legislative council was formed in the country. The capitulations system was abolished. The use of the Turkish language was made compulsory at all levels. Many schools and colleges were established for commercial and technical education. Many young men were sent to various European countries for technical training. A famous businessman named David Bey reorganized the economic system with the assistance of Charles Laurent.

Enver Pasha devoted attention to reforming the army. He brought a group of German military experts and reorganized the army. Enver Pasha was commander of a German-style fleet. He himself received his education in Berlin. Count Rubilant, Admiral Gamble, and later Admiral Limpus were enlisted to assist in reorganizing the Ottoman navy.

Many young people were sent to various European countries for higher education. Numerous secular schools and colleges were established in the country. Many books on science, literature, and history were translated into Turkish. Coeducation was introduced. The independence of the Sharia courts was abolished.

3. The Government of the Committee of Union and Progress on the Battlefield

(a) The Balkan War

At Russia’s instigation, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro formed a military alliance called the Balkan League and continued exerting pressure on the Ottoman Caliphate. In 1912, the Balkan League imposed war on the Caliphate. This war is called the First Balkan War. The war was temporarily halted through the Treaty of London. Under this treaty, the Caliphate had to relinquish the island of Crete to Greece. Apart from the capital, Constantinople, no part of Europe remained in Ottoman hands.

In 1913, war broke out among the countries belonging to the Balkan League over the division of the territories seized from the Ottoman Caliphate. This war is called the Second Balkan War. The government of the Committee of Union and Progress became involved in the war hoping to gain something. The Second Balkan War ended through the Treaty of Bucharest. Bulgaria suffered the most in this war. Adrianople and parts of Thrace came under the Ottoman Caliphate.

As a result of the Balkan War, Christian powers expanded throughout the Balkan Peninsula. The supremacy and authority of the Ottoman Caliphate became even more restricted.

(b) The First World War

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, while visiting Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, was killed along with his wife by assassins appointed by Serbia. As a result, Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia entered the war on Serbia’s side, followed by France, and later England. Finally, Japan, Italy, China, and the USA took Serbia’s side and entered the war. Germany entered the war on Austria’s side. At the beginning of this world war, the Ottoman Caliphate remained neutral. But under pressure from Enver Pasha, leader of the extremist group within the Committee of Union and Progress, the committee government joined the war on Germany’s side.

Austria, Germany, and the Ottoman Caliphate were defeated in this world war.

On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice.

On June 28, 1919, a humiliating treaty was imposed on Germany at the Palace of Versailles in Paris. This is called the Treaty of Versailles.

The Ottoman Caliphate was severely damaged in the First World War. Allied troops took up positions throughout the Caliphate, even in the capital, Constantinople. Caliph Muhammad V became a puppet in the hands of the occupying powers. He then dissolved the National Assembly. The government of the Committee of Union and Progress fell. The Caliph took power into his own hands and continued trying to establish his authority. Many people from the deposed government were imprisoned and exiled.

4. The Death of Muhammad V

Muhammad V died in 1918.

36. Muhammad VI

1. Muhammad VI as Sultan and Caliph

In 1918, Muhammad VI ascended the throne of Constantinople.

2. Muhammad VI on the Battlefield

In May 1919, Greece seized Smyrna, within the Ottoman Caliphate, and carried out widespread massacres and looting.

On August 10, 1920, the victorious Allied powers dealt a severe blow to the Ottoman Caliphate through the Treaty of Sèvres.

Under the Treaty of Sèvres, several islands in the Aegean Sea and Thrace were taken from the Ottoman Caliphate and given to Greece. Egypt, Sudan, Cyprus, Iraq, Palestine, and the Arabian Peninsula were placed under England’s authority. France received Lebanon, Syria, Morocco, Tunisia, and others. Ottoman naval ports such as Constantinople and Alexandria were placed under international control. The Ottoman Caliphate’s air fleet passed into the hands of the Allied powers.

Caliph Muhammad VI was left with only the capital, Constantinople, and mountainous Anatolia.

Having lost everything, the Ottoman Caliphate, once spread across vast areas of Asia, Africa, and Europe, became confined to Constantinople and Anatolia. In 1919, the Young Turks in Anatolia raised their voices against the European powers and strongly criticized Muhammad VI for failing to protect Smyrna from the Greek attack. They declared a revolt. The revolt was led by Rifat Rauf Bey and Ali Fuad Pasha.

Mustafa Kemal Pasha was then an officer in the armed forces. Caliph Muhammad VI sent him to Anatolia as Inspector General of the Military to suppress the revolt of the Young Turks. After arriving there, Mustafa Kemal Pasha joined the rebels.

In September 1919, the Young Turks formed an executive council in Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal Pasha became chairman of this council, and its members were Rifat Rauf Bey, Bekir Sami Bey, Rustam Bey, Mazhar Bey, and Haydar Bey. This executive council took charge of Anatolia’s administration and began its activities after establishing the capital at Ankara.

Realizing the gravity of the situation, Caliph Muhammad VI announced general elections in the country. The nationalists gained a majority in these elections. A Council of Ministers was formed under the leadership of Ali Riza.

On January 28, 1920, the Council of Ministers approved Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s National Pact. In reality, this was a declaration of Turkish national independence.

England and France could not accept this declaration. Allied troops under General Milne left the cantonments and seized the capital, Constantinople. Martial law was declared in Constantinople. Forty nationalist leaders were arrested and exiled to Malta.

In April 1920, Mustafa Kemal Pasha convened a session of the National Assembly in Ankara. This assembly was named the Grand National Assembly. Mustafa Kemal Pasha became the president of the assembly. Thus, a government parallel to that of Constantinople was established in Ankara. The Ankara government declared that the treaties concluded by Caliph Muhammad VI, who was held captive by foreign troops, were also unacceptable. Despite this, on August 10, 1920, Caliph Muhammad VI yielded to pressure from the Allied powers and signed the Treaty of Sèvres.

In 1920, the Ankara government’s troops, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, defeated the Greek forces in the Battle of İnönü and drove them out of Smyrna. In 1921, the Turkish forces under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha achieved another victory against the Greeks on the Sakarya plain.

These two military victories enhanced the image of the Ankara government. Communist Russia was the first to recognize the Ankara government. France recognized this government and withdrew its troops from Cilicia. Italy also recognized the Ankara government and relinquished Adalia.

In October 1922, Greece signed the Mudanya Agreement with the Ankara government and abandoned its claims to Smyrna and Eastern Thrace. In 1922, the Ankara government abolished the office of Sultan through a declaration.

3. The Abdication of Muhammad VI

After the Ankara government declared the office of Sultan abolished in 1922, Muhammad VI relinquished power and went to England.

37. Abdulmecid II

1. Abdulmecid II as Caliph

In 1922, the Ankara government declared Abdulmecid II Caliph. Rifat Pasha assumed responsibility for governing Constantinople on behalf of the Ankara government.

In July 1923, under pressure from the Ankara government, the Treaty of Sèvres was annulled and the Treaty of Lausanne was signed.

England accepted that Constantinople, Anatolia, and Eastern Thrace would remain part of Turkey. Thus, England and the European powers accepted the existence and independence of Turkey, the remnant of the Ottoman Caliphate.

In October 1923, Turkey was declared a republic. Mustafa Kemal Pasha became its president, and İsmet İnönü became its prime minister. The office of Caliph still remained as a symbolic position.

2. The Deposition of Abdulmecid II

Abdulmecid II was deposed in 1924.

The Abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate

In 1924, Mustafa Kemal Pasha abolished the Caliphate through an act of law. He transformed Turkey into a secular state. He moved Turkey’s capital from Constantinople to Ankara.

Mustafa Kemal Pasha was extremely hostile to Islam. Abandoning whatever Islamic laws were still in force, he introduced the Swiss Code.

He abolished the practice of veiling. He prohibited polygamy. Coeducation was introduced in educational institutions. Islamic educational institutions were closed. Secular schools and colleges were established throughout the country. The call to prayer in Arabic was prohibited. The Latin alphabet was introduced in place of the Arabic alphabet. Wearing a turban or fez was prohibited. Wearing a hat was made compulsory. The salam was abandoned.

The number of secular newspapers and periodicals increased in the country. Secular and socialist books were published on a large scale. The younger generation became unruly. Immodesty and nudity increased. The number of drunkards continued to grow. Islam became the subject of ridicule. The religious scholars became objects of hatred. Prominent Islamic personalities were harassed and persecuted in various ways. Mustafa Kemal Pasha formed the Republican People’s Party. For a long time, it was Turkey’s only political party.

For six hundred and thirty-six years, the Ottoman Caliphate was the center of power of the Muslim ummah. In 1924, this center of power fell. It is true that the Ottoman caliphs were not people formed by the hand of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), as the Rightly Guided Caliphs were. Nor were they elected caliphs like the Rightly Guided Caliphs. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that the early Ottoman caliphs were devoted Muslims. They followed Islam’s commandments in their personal lives. They built numerous mosques in various places so that prayer could be established throughout the Caliphate. They established Islamic educational institutions to impart knowledge about Islam to future generations. The qadis judged and settled cases according to Islamic Shariah. Responsibility was assigned to the Shaykh al-Islam to ensure that no law conflicting with Islam was enacted. Hospitals were established everywhere to ensure public health services. Bathhouses were built in various places. Numerous roads, bridges, and other facilities were constructed. Zakat and ushr were collected and distributed among the poor. Arrangements were made to protect the lives, property, and honor of all citizens, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Immodesty and obscenity were restrained.

They lived simple lives. They avoided luxury. On the one hand, they were honest; on the other, they were capable. They did not struggle to administer the state. They did not demonstrate incompetence in conducting its affairs. They valued talent. They appointed capable and honest people to government positions.

They attached the utmost importance to jihad in the path of Allah. They were themselves mujahids. They personally commanded their armies on the battlefield. For nearly three hundred years, the Ottoman Caliphate was blessed with sultans and caliphs of this kind. Impressed by their conduct and the sound policies they followed, large numbers of non-Muslims became Muslims. The Christian rulers of Eastern Europe fought against the caliphs, but a conciliatory attitude toward the caliphs could be observed among their subjects.

The Christian powers of Eastern Europe sought to halt the advance of the Ottoman Caliphate, but time and again the Ottoman Caliphate proved to be an invincible power. Those who became caliphs during the following three and a quarter centuries were not like the early caliphs. They lacked devotion in following Islam. They were luxurious. Many of them became intoxicated with women and wine. As rulers, they were incompetent. As warriors, they were inferior. They had forgotten the importance of jihad in the path of Allah. Many of them could not appreciate talented people. As a result, incompetent and corrupt individuals gained dominance in the administration.

Some of those who became caliphs in the later period had even forgotten the Islamic worldview and its laws. Europe’s secularism had engulfed their thoughts and consciousness. On the intellectual front on the one hand, and the military front on the other, they bowed to the Europeans.

Their indifference to spreading Islamic education, seeking answers to the questions of the age in the Qur’an and Hadith, and developing modern military technology ultimately turned them into subservient agents of the European powers. They opened the doors of the Caliphate to the entry of European ideas. Everything good and bad in Europe entered the Caliphate like floodwater. Enemies of Islam and of the Muslims began to emerge within Muslim homes. In the final stage, these very people brought about the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate and the eradication of Islam.

Sources

1. An Introduction to Modern Europe / K. Ali

2. The History of the Muslims and the Modern World / K. Ali

3. History of Modern Europe Since 1789 / V. D. Mahajan

4. Badiuzzaman Said Nursi / Sukran Bahide

5. First World War / A. J. P. Taylor

6. The History of Islam / Qazi Akram Hossain